States Of

Matter II:

Liquid Properties & Phase Changes

 Liquid Properties
• Cohesive Forces – the intermolecular
attraction between like molecules
• Adhesive Forces – the attraction
between unlike molecules

• Water (red) has

stronger adhesive
forces.
• Mercury has
stronger cohesive
forces.
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 H2O vs Hg
Adhesion

Cohesion

3
 Properties of Liquids

1.Surface Tension
2.Capillary Action
3.Viscosity
4.Vapor Pressure

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 Surface Tension
Surface tension is the amount of energy required to
stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit
area.
- tendency to minimize
surface area

Strong intermolecular forces

= High surface tension

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Surface Tension Fun

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In Orbit (Space Shuttle), water
droplets are spherical

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http://spaceflightsystems.grc.nasa.gov/WaterBalloon/#AIRPLANE
 Water Boiling in Zero
Gravity

http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/images/boiling/bubble0g.mpg
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 Water Balloon in Zero Gravity
http://www.unoriginal.co.uk/nuvideos1234/balloon%20-
%20UNORIGINAL.CO.UK.wmv

next
 Capillary Action
• The ability of a liquid to flow against gravity up a narrow
tube.

Attraction of water to glass walls draws water up tubes 10

 Viscosity
• measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

• If a liquid has strong intermolecular

interactions then particles will not flow past
each other easily and viscosity will be high.

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Viscosity of Several Hydrocarbons

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Viscosity of Some Common Liquids

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14
Phase Changes
Least Order

Endothermic

Exothermic
Greatest Order 15
 Vaporization
Some Molecules in an open
beaker have enough
kinetic energy to vaporize
from the surface of the
liquid.

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A system at equilibrium is dynamic (changing) but
has no net macroscopic changes 17
18
 Vapor Pressure
The pressure exerted by a vapor in
equilibrium with its liquid phase.

As IMF strength decreases, vapor pressure increases

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 Volatile Liquids
• Liquids with high vapor pressures
• They evaporate rapidly in an open dish
• They have weak intermolecular forces
- more of its molecules can break free and
vaporize

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 Vapor Pressure & Temperature
• As temperature increases, vapor
pressure increases
- More molecules will have enough
KE to break away from
intermolecular forces

T 1 < T2 21
Vapor Pressure Vs Temperature for Three Liquids

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 Molar Enthalpy of Vaporization
(∆ Hvap )
∆ Hvap = energy required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid
at its boiling point (in kJ/mol)

Determined by the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

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 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

= (equilibrium) vapor pressure

= temperature (K)
= gas constant (8.314 J/K•mol) 24
or

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Alternate Forms of the Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

At two temperatures:

or

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 Example Problem

Dry ice sublimes at –78oC and

has a ∆ Hsub of 25.2 kJ/mol.
Calculate the vapor pressure
of CO2 at –100oC.

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  Pvap 2  ∆H vap  T2 − T1 
log =  
 Pvap1  2.303R  T1T2 
 
 1.00atm  25200 J / mol  195K − 173K 
log   =  
 Pvap1  (2.303)(8.31J / molK )  (195 K )(173K ) 
 
 1.00atm 
log  = 0.859
 Pvap1 
 
1.00atm
= 100.859 = 7.23
Pvap1
Pvap1 = 0.138atm

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A liquid boils when thermal energy is high enough to cause
molecules in the interior of the liquid to become gaseous,
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forming bubbles that rise to the surface.
The boiling point is the temperature at which the
(equilibrium) vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to
the external pressure. (Pvap = Patm )
The normal boiling point is the temperature at
which a liquid boils when the external pressure is 1
atm.

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31
 Solid-Liquid
Equilibrium

H2O (s) H2O (l)

The melting point of a

solid or the freezing point
of a liquid is the
temperature at which the
solid and liquid phases
coexist in equilibrium

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 Molar Enthalpy of Fusion (∆ Hfus )
∆ Hfus = is the energy (in kJ/mol) required to melt 1
mole of a solid substance at its freezing point.

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Heating
Curve Slope decreases as specific heat capacity of a phase increases

Length of plateau depends

on ∆ Hvap
Length of plateau depends
on ∆ Hfus

Energy input increases  34

AP Exam Diagrams

35
 Solid-Gas
Equilibrium

H2O (s) H2O (g)

Molar heat of
sublimation (∆ Hsub )
is the energy required
to sublime 1 mole of a
solid.
∆ Hsub= ∆ Hfus + ∆ Hvap
( Hess’s Law)
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 A phase diagram summarizes the conditions at
which a substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.

Phase Diagram
of Water

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Effect of Increase in Pressure on the Melting Point
of Ice and the Boiling Point of Water

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Phase diagram for CO2

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 Triple point
• A three-way intersection representing the
unique temp, pressure where all three
phases exist simultaneously in equilibrium.

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 Critical Point (Tc)
• The temperature (critical temperature) where a gas
cannot be liquefied no matter what the pressure.
 The Critical Phenomenon of SF6

T < Tc T > Tc T ~ Tc T < Tc

42
 The critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature above which the gas
cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how great the applied pressure.

The critical pressure

(Pc) is the minimum
pressure that must be
applied to bring about
liquefaction at the critical
temperature.

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 Supercritical fluid
• Neither a liquid nor a gas. The liquid
and gas forms become
indistinguishable at this point.
• http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/supercritical/scintro.
html
Phase diagram for H2O
 Density of Phases
+ slope: dsolid > dliquid ─ slope: dsolid < dliquid

most substances H2O

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47
AP Exam Diagram

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3-D Structure of Water
Water is a Unique Substance

Maximum
Density
40C
Density of Water

Ice is less dense than water

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 Water
• colorless, odorless, tasteless, liquid at ordinary
temperatures
• only inorganic compound occurring naturally as
a liquid
• Composes ~65% of mass of living organisms
• excellent solvent for many things
• abnormally high boiling and melting point
• ice is less dense than water (it floats)

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 Water purification
• Hard water -- Contains Ca+2 , Mg+2 , Fe+3
and other minerals.
• Soft water -- Doesn’t contain Ca+2 , Mg+2 ,
Fe+3 ions.
• Softened water -- metal cations in hard
water are replaced by Na+.
• Deionized water -- cations are replaced
by H+ and anions are replaced by OH-

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Chemistry In Action: Ice Skating

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 Homework

p. 501 # 40c-f, 41, 42

p. 504 # 81, 82 (use 250.0 g of substance X)
p. 505 # 86 - 89
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