Soil Structure & Aggregation

Soil may be a loose assemblage of individual and random particles, or consist of distinctly structured aggregates of distinctive size and shape; the particular arrangement of which is called soil structure.
Most methods of measurement are indirect, and measure various properties that are dependent or at the least influenced by specific structural properties; e.g., total porosity, pore size distribution, liquid retention/transmission, and infiltration.

Soils may be non-structured (e.g., single grain or massive) or consist of naturally formed units known as peds or aggregates. The initial stage in the formation of soil structure is the process of flocculation.

Individual colloids typically exhibit a net negative charge which results in an electrostatic repulsion.

Reduction of the forces of electrostatic repulsion allows the particles to come closer together.

Flocculation This process allows other forces of attraction to become more dominant. The formation of these flocs in suspension represents the early stages of aggregation.

As this process continues, the flocs become larger and larger forming the more refined structural units.

On their own, these units are pretty fragile and the process is easily reversed. But in the presence of natural or artificial binding become more strongly cemented together forming stable soil aggregates. These binding agents may be:
Inorganic Fe & Al oxides, carbonates, amorphous gels and sols; or

Organic polysaccharides, hemicellulose, and other natural or manufactured organic polymers.

The arrangement or organization of individual soil particles (soil separates) into a specific configuration is called soil structure. Soil structure is developed over a geologic time frame, is (or can be) naturally fragile, and is affected by changes in climate, vegetation, biological activity, and anthropogenic manipulation. Soil structure influences the mechanical properties of soil such as stability, porosity and compaction, as well as plant growth, hydrologic function, and erosion.

There are three broad categories of soil structure; single grained, massive, and aggregated. When particles are entirely unattached the structure is completely loose and such soils are labeled single grained. When packed into large cohesive blocks the structure is called massive. Neither have any visible structural characteristics. Between these two extremes particles are present as aggregates or peds.

The observable shapes of soil structure in the field are classified as:
Platy: Horizontally layered, thin, flat aggregates similar to wafers. Spherical: Rounded aggregates generally < 2.0 cm in diameter that are often found in loose condition called granules or crumbs. Blocky: Cube-like blocks, sometimes angular with well-defined sharp faces or sub-angular with rounded faces up to 10cm in size. Columnar or Prismatic: Vertically oriented pillars up to 15cm in diameter.

Platy and spherical soil structure is common to the surface soil horizons, blocky and columnar/prismatic are associated with the deeper subsurface soil horizons

 Non-Structured

Structured

Single Grain Platy: horizontal & flat Spherical (Grannular): rounded and <2.0 cm Blocky: cubes up to 10 cm that are angular (sharp edges) or subangular (rounded) Prismatic (Columnar): longer than wide, often 6 sided, sharp or rounded, < 15 cm

Massive

Aggregate size distribution also influences the pore size distribution.

Macropores: Inter-aggregate cavities that influence infiltration, drainage, and aeration.

Micropores: Intra-aggregate capillaries important to water and solute retention.

Mesopore: Inbetween.

Aggregate Size Distribution

Similar to particle size distribution, the aggregate size distribution also is determined by sieving.
An index known as the Mean Weight Diameter (X) based on the size and weight distribution of aggregates is derived by weighing the mass of aggregates within the respective size classes, and characterizing the overall size distribution. (MWD) X = xiwi xi = mean diameter wi = dry mass fraction

Since aggregation and stability is time dependent, another useful characterization is that of aggregate stability. Aggregate stability expresses the resistance of individual soil aggregates to disruptive forces such as mechanical, wind, and water erosion; freezing/thawing; wetting/drying; and air entrapment.

The level of stability is assessed by determining the fraction of the original aggregate mass which has withstood disruptive forces. The laboratory approach uses wetting (misting and/or from bottom up with de-aired water) followed by sieving.

The consequences of aggregate destruction are manifest in soil crusting, surface seal, dust generation, etc. Aggregate stability can be enhanced through the use of synthetic polymers, but they are typically quite expensive.

Reno/Carson Dust Case(s) Swingle Bench, Fernley Walker Basin, Lyon Co.

Reno Dust Case

Key Ingredients:
Commercial Development Land Clearing for Construction

Barren Landscape
Wind Event(s) Property Damage Class Action Law Suit

Reno Dust Case Example

YOU: As a Soils Consultant

Why was there a problem?

Exactly what was it that took place? Why did the soils erode?

What soil components caused the damage?

Was this a natural process, or could it have been avoided?

Were there available mitigation strategies?

HOW WIND ERODES SOIL

In order to be transported by wind, the soil must first be loosened from its position on the surface of the land, then lifted airborne, or slid and bounced along the surface of the ground. Differences in soil erodibility indicate that the presence of inherent soil properties and those brought about by land use play an important part in the wind erosion process.

Although wind erosion is a natural process, it has often become more substantive due to anthropogenic (caused or produced by humans) activities. Such accelerated erosion is most often caused by improper land management, or the use of land for purposes to which it is not adapted without the application of proper mitigation techniques.

Process: The process of wind erosion generally consists of three phases: a) detachment initiation of movement; b) transport; and c) deposition. A sorting effect is often observed where organic matter, fine silts, and clays are removed leaving sands and gravel behind. If winds are strong enough, even some of the sand size fractions can be depleted.

Initiation of Soil Movement: The minimum wind velocity required to initiate soil movement is known as the threshold velocity, and is largely influenced by the size of the soil grains (soil separates). The static threshold velocity (~8-9 mph 6 inches above ground surface) is lowest for grain size particles of 0.1mm to 0.15mm (fine sand), and increases with either an increase or decrease in particle diameters above or below this range.

Types of Soil Movement: Wind erosion consists of three types of soil movement; saltation, suspension, and surface creep. Much of the soil carried by wind is by saltation, which is caused by the direct pressure of wind on the soil particles making them become airborne and the collision with other particles when they again hit the ground.

Fine soil particles (<0.1 mm) consisting of the very fine sands, silts, and clays can move in true suspension. Entering the air stream when bombarded by saltation movement, once entrained they remain suspended by the wind turbulence and are completely governed by the character of the wind movement.

Sand sized particles of about 0.5 mm and greater are generally too heavy to be moved by saltation (except at extreme wind velocities), and are instead pushed along the surface by what is known as surface creep as a result of particle impact from saltation.

It is important to note that the threshold velocity depends on the maximum momentary velocity of turbulent flow, and not on the average forward velocity. The presence of eddies and currents are thus more important in the lifting and transporting of soil than is the average velocity of the wind.
Having been lifted from the surface, the soil particles eventually come to rest when either the wind subsides or when surface obstructions alter the velocity distribution and turbulence or cause a physical barrier to further transport.

IMPORTANT INHERENT SOIL PROPERTIES

Soil Profile
Particle Sized Delineations & the Soil Separates Soil Textural Class Naturally Developed (Geologic Time) Soil Structure

Soils of the Swingle Bench Area and Related Cause/Effect Interactions

Native Desert Ecosystem

Surface Crusts
Shrub and Grass Vegetation Reasonably Stable System

Development Construction
Clearing Detachment, Exposure Cut/Fill Exposure of Diatomaceous Earth Layer (fine) Wind Event Transport & Deposition Mitigation Options Well Published BMP Options

Swingle Bench Water Right Transfers

Native Desert Ecosystem Shrubs, grasses Surface crusts and copice mounds Soil texture ls, sl Newlands Irrigation Project Water availability

Leveling (disturbance)
Reclamation Production agriculture

Agricultural Ecosystem Rapid ecosystem conversion Alfalfa and grain Water dependent Related Environmental Impacts Decline of adjacent aquatic ecosystems Competing water interests Beneficial use Water Reallocation Ecosystem conversion Environmental impacts Mitigation