Ethiopia

Ethiopia,[c] officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located
in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to
the northeast, Somalia to the east, Kenya to the south, South Sudan to the west, and Sudan to the
northwest. Ethiopia covers a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,400 sq mi).[15] As of
2024, it has around 132 million inhabitants, making it the tenth-most populous country in the
world, the second-most populous in Africa after Nigeria, and the most populated landlocked
country on Earth.[16][17] The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa, lies several kilometres
west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the African and Somali tectonic plates.[18]

Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia and set out for the Near East
and elsewhere in the Middle Paleolithic period.[19][20][21][22][23] In 980 BC, the Kingdom of D'mt
extended its realm over Eritrea and the northern region of Ethiopia, while the Kingdom of Aksum
maintained a unified civilization in the region for 900 years. Christianity was embraced by the
kingdom in 330,[24] and Islam arrived by the first Hijra in 615.[25] After the collapse of Aksum in
960, the Zagwe dynasty ruled the north-central parts of Ethiopia until being overthrown by
Yekuno Amlak in 1270, inaugurating the Ethiopian Empire and the Solomonic dynasty, claimed
descent from the biblical Solomon and Queen of Sheba under their son Menelik I. By the 14th
century, the empire had grown in prestige through territorial expansion and fighting against
adjacent territories; most notably, the Ethiopian–Adal War (1529–1543) contributed to
fragmentation of the empire, which ultimately fell under a decentralization known as Zemene
Mesafint in the mid-18th century. Emperor Tewodros II ended Zemene Mesafint at the beginning
of his reign in 1855, marking the reunification and modernization of Ethiopia.[26]

From 1878 onwards, Emperor Menelik II launched a series of conquests known as Menelik's
Expansions, which resulted in the formation of Ethiopia's current border. Externally, during the
late 19th century, Ethiopia defended itself against foreign invasions, including from Egypt and
Italy; as a result, Ethiopia preserved its sovereignty during the Scramble for Africa. In 1936,
Ethiopia was occupied by Fascist Italy and annexed with Italian-possessed Eritrea and
Somaliland, later forming Italian East Africa. In 1941, during World War II, it was occupied by the
British Army, and its full sovereignty was restored in 1944 after a period of military
administration. The Derg, a Soviet-backed military junta, took power in 1974 after deposing
Emperor Haile Selassie and the Solomonic dynasty, and ruled the country for nearly 17 years
amidst the Ethiopian Civil War. Following the dissolution of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian
People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) dominated the country with a new constitution
and ethnic-based federalism. Since then, Ethiopia has suffered from prolonged and unsolved
inter-ethnic clashes and political instability marked by democratic backsliding. From 2018,
regional and ethnically based factions carried
Federal Democratic Republic of
out armed attacks in multiple ongoing wars
Ethiopia
throughout Ethiopia.[27] in other official [show]
languages
Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic state with over 80
different ethnic groups. Christianity is the
most widely professed faith in the country,
with the largest denomination being the
Flag
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. After Emblem

Christianity, Ethiopia houses a significant Anthem:

minority of adherents to Islam and a small
ወደፊት ገስግሺ ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ
"Wedefīt Gesigishī Wid Inat ītiyop’iy"
percentage to traditional faiths. This sovereign (English: "March Forward, Dear Mother
Ethiopia")
state is a founding member of the UN, the
1:24
Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, the
Group of 77, and the Organisation of African
Unity. Addis Ababa is the headquarters of the
African Union, the Pan African Chamber of
Commerce and Industry, the United Nations
Economic Commission for Africa, the African
Standby Force and many of the global non-
governmental organizations focused on
Africa. Ethiopia became a full member of
BRICS in 2024.[28] Ethiopia is one of the least
developed countries but is sometimes Show globe
Show map of Africa
considered an emerging power,[29][30] having
Show all
the fastest economic growth in sub-Saharan
Capital Addis Ababa
African countries because of foreign direct
and largest city 9°1′N 38°45′E (http
investment in expansion of agricultural and s://[Link]
[Link]/[Link]?p
manufacturing industries; agriculture is the agename=Ethiopia&p
country's largest economic sector, accounting arams=9_1_N_38_45
_E_type:city)
for over 37% of the gross domestic product as
of 2022. However, in terms of per capita Official languages Amharic · Afar ·
Oromo · Somali ·
income and the Human Development Index, Tigrinya[1][2][3]
the Ethiopian economy has experienced
Regional Harari · Sidama ·
consistent growth, though the country remains languages[4] Languages of
Ethiopia
among the poorest in Africa.[31] Ethiopia faces
numerous challenges, including high rates of Ethnic groups 34.5% Oromo
[5][6] 26.9% Amhara
(2007 )
poverty, human rights violations, widespread 6.2% Somali
6.1% Tigrayan
4.0% Sidama
2.5% Gurage
ethnic discrimination, and a literacy rate of 2.3% Welayta
1.7% Hadiya
52%.[32][33][34] 1.7% Afar
1.5% Gamo
12.6% others
Etymology
Religion (2016[7]) 67.3% Christianity
43.8% Ethiopian
Tradition holds that the name Ethiopia Orthodoxy
22.8% P'ent'ay
(ኢትዮጵያ) comes from the name of the first King
0.7% other
of Ethiopia, Ethiop, or Ethiopis. Christian
31.3% Islam
0.6% traditional faiths
Ayele Berkerie explains:
0.8% others/none

Demonym(s) Ethiopian
According to an Ethiopian
Government Federal parliamentary
tradition, the term Ethiopia is republic[8] under an
derived from the word Ethiopis, authoritarian
government[9][10]
a name of the Ethiopian king, the
seventh in the ancestral lines.
• President Taye Atske Selassie
Metshafe Aksum or the Ethiopian
• Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed
Book of Aksum identifies Itiopis
as the twelfth king of Ethiopia • Deputy Prime Temesgen Tiruneh
Minister
and the father of Aksumawi. The
• Chief Justice of the Tewodros Mihret
Ethiopians pronounce Ethiopia Federal Supreme
እትዮጵያ with a Sades or the sixth Court
sound እ as in incorporate and the Legislature Federal
graph ጰ has no equivalent in Parliamentary
Assembly
English or Latin graphs. Ethiopis
• Upper house House of Federation
is believed to be the twelfth
direct descendant of Adam. His • Lower house House of Peoples'
Representatives
father is identified as Kush, while
his grandfather is known as Formation

Kam.[35]
• Dʿmt 980 BC

• Kingdom of Aksum 400 BC

In the 15th-century Ge'ez Book of Axum, the
name is ascribed to a legendary individual • Ethiopian Empire 1270

called Ityopp'is. He was an extra-biblical son of • Zemene Mesafint 7 May 1769

Cush, son of Ham, said to have founded the • Reunification 11 February 1855
[36]
city of Axum.
• Centralisation 1904

The Greek name Αἰθιοπία (from Αἰθίοψ, "an • Occupied and 9 May 1936
annexed into
Ethiopian") is a compound word, later
explained as derived from the Greek words Italian East Africa

αἴθω and ὤψ (eithō "I burn" + ōps "face"). • Anglo-Ethiopian 31 January 1942
Agreement
According to the Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-
English Lexicon, the designation properly • Derg 12 September 1974

translates as burnt-face in noun form and red- • People's 22 February 1987

brown in adjectival form. [37]
The historian Democratic
Republic
Herodotus used the appellation to denote
• Transitional 28 May 1991
those parts of Africa south of the Sahara that government
were then known within the Ecumene
• Current 21 August 1995
(habitable world).[38] The earliest mention of constitution
the term is found in the works of Homer, where
Area
it is used to refer to two people groups, one in
• Total 1,104,300 km2
Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey
(426,400 sq mi)
to India.[39] This Greek name was borrowed (26th)
into Amharic as ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyōṗṗyā. • Water (%) 0.7

In Greco-Roman epigraphs, Aethiopia was a Population

specific toponym for ancient Nubia.[40] At least • 2024 estimate 132,900,000[11]

as early as c. 850,[41] the name Aethiopia also (10th)

occurs in many translations of the Old • 2007 census 73,750,932[6]

Testament in allusion to Nubia. The ancient • Density 92.7/km2
Hebrew texts identify Nubia instead as (240.1/sq mi) (123rd)

Kush.[42] However, in the New Testament, the GDP (PPP) 2024 estimate
Greek term Aithiops does occur, referring to a
• Total $434.44 billion[12]
[43]
servant of the Kandake, the queen of Kush. (55th)

• Per capita $4,050[12] (159th)

Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions,
the Monumentum Adulitanum, a 3rd-century GDP (nominal) 2024 estimate

inscription belonging to the Aksumite Empire, • Total $145.03 billion[12]

indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area (59th)

that was flanked to the west by the territory of • Per capita $1,350[12] (159th)
Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite King Ezana Gini (2015) 35.0[13]
eventually conquered Nubia the following medium inequality
century, and the Aksumites thereafter HDI (2022) 0.492[14]
appropriated the designation "Ethiopians" for low (176th)

their own kingdom. In the Ge'ez version of the Currency Birr (ETB)
Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with
Time zone UTC+3 (EAT)
the unvocalized Ḥbšt and Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat),
Date format dd/mm/yyyy
and denotes for the first time the highland
inhabitants of Aksum. This new demonym was Calling code +251
subsequently rendered as ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) in ISO 3166 code ET
[40]
Sabaic and as Ḥabasha in Arabic. Internet TLD .et
Derivatives of this are used in some languages
that use loanwords from Arabic, for example in Malay Habsyah.

In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known as Abyssinia.
This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of the ancient Habash.[44]

History

Prehistory

This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question
marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters.

A Homo sapiens idaltu hominid skull

Several important finds have propelled Ethiopia and the surrounding region to the forefront
of palaeontology. The oldest hominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million-year-old
Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) found by Tim D. White in 1994.[45] The most well-known hominid
discovery is Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy). Known locally as Dinkinesh, the specimen was
found in the Awash Valley of Afar Region in 1974 by Donald Johanson, and is one of the most
complete and best-preserved adult Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucy's taxonomic
name refers to the region where the discovery was made. This hominid is estimated to have lived
3.2 million years ago.[46][47][48]

Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence of anatomically modern
humans, Homo sapiens. The oldest of these local fossil finds, the Omo remains, were excavated
in the southwestern Omo Kibish area and have been dated to the Middle Paleolithic, around
200,000 years ago.[49] Additionally, skeletons of Homo sapiens idaltu were found at a site in the
Middle Awash valley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct
subspecies of Homo sapiens, or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans.[50]
Archaic Homo sapiens fossils excavated at the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco have since been
dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago,[51] while Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern
Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5
kya).[52]

According to some anthropologists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the

region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original
homeland") in the Nile Valley,[53] or the Near East.[54] The majority of scholars today propose that
the Afroasiatic family developed in northeast Africa because of the higher diversity of lineages in
that region, a telltale sign of linguistic origin.[55][56][57]

In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-old Middle Stone Age rock shelter at the Fincha
Habera site in Bale Mountains at an elevation of 3,469 metres (11,381 feet) above sea level. At
this high altitude, humans are susceptible both to hypoxia and to extreme weather. According to
a study published in the journal Science, this dwelling is proof of the earliest permanent human
occupation at high altitude yet discovered. Thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools,
and ancient fireplaces were discovered, revealing a diet that featured giant mole
rats.[58][59][60][61][62][63][64]

Evidence of some of the earliest known stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of
Homo sapiens), the stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the
Ethiopian site of Gademotta, which date to around 279,000 years ago.[65] In 2019, additional
Middle Stone Age projectile weapons were found at Aduma, dated 100,000–80,000 years ago, in
the form of points considered likely to belong to darts delivered by spear throwers.[66]

Antiquity

Aksumite currency of the Aksumite

king Endubis, 227–35, at the British
Museum[d]

In 980 BC, Dʿmt was established in present-day Eritrea and the northern part of Ethiopia in the
Tigray region, and is widely believed to be the successor state to Punt. This polity's capital was
located at Yeha in what is now northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this
civilization to be a native Ethiopian one, although in earlier times many suggested it was
Sabaean-influenced because of the latter's hegemony of the Red Sea.[67]

Other scholars regard Dʿmt as the result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures of the
Cushitic and Semitic branches; namely, local Agaw peoples and Sabaeans from Southern Arabia.
However, Ge'ez, the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed
independently from the Sabaean language. As early as 2000 BC, other Semitic speakers were
living in Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez developed.[68][69] Sabaean influence is now thought to
have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It
may have been a trading or military colony in alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or
some other proto-Axumite state.[67]

The Empire of Axum at its peak in the

6th century

After the fall of Dʿmt during the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by
smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged in what is
now Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medieval Book of Axum, the kingdom's first
capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[36] Aksum would later at times extend its rule
into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea.[70] The Persian prophet Mani listed Axum with
Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century.[71] It is
also believed that there was a connection between Egyptian and Ethiopian churches. There is
diminutive evidence that the Aksumites were associated with the Queen of Sheba, via their royal
inscription.[72]

Around 316 AD, Frumentius and his brother Edesius from Tyre accompanied their uncle on a
voyage to Ethiopia. When the vessel stopped at a Red Sea port, the natives killed all the travellers
except the two brothers, who were taken to the court as slaves. They were given positions of
trust by the monarch, and they converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius
became the first bishop of Aksum.[73] A coin dated to 324 shows that Ethiopia was the second
country to officially adopt Christianity (after Armenia did so in 301), although the religion may
have been at first confined to court circles; it was the first major power to do so. The Aksumites
were accustomed to the Greco-Roman sphere of influence, but embarked on significant cultural
ties and trade connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire via the Silk
Road, primarily exporting ivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and
spices.[72][74] The country's gold production in 2015 is 9 metric tons.[75]
Middle Ages

The kingdom adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign of Ezana in the 4th century. After the
conquest of Kingdom of Kush in 330, the Aksumite territory reached its peak between the 5th
and 6th centuries.[67] This period was interrupted by several incursions into the South Arabian
protectorate, including Jewish Dhu Nuwas of the Himyarite Kingdom and the Aksumite–Persian
wars. In 575, the Aksumites besieged and retook Sana'a following the assassination of its
governor Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan. The Red Sea was left to the Rashidun Caliphate in 646, and the port
city of Adulis was plundered by Arab Muslims in the 8th century; along with irrevocable land
degradation, claimed climate change and sporadic rainfall precipitation from 730 to 760,[76]
these factors likely caused the kingdom to decline in power as part of an important trade
route.[67][77] Aksum came to an end in 960 when Queen Gudit defeated the last king of Aksum.[78]
In response, the remnant of the Aksumite population to shift into the southern region and
establish the Zagwe dynasty, changing its capital to Lalibela.[79] Zagwe's rule ended when an
Amhara noble man Yekuno Amlak revolted against King Yetbarak and established the Ethiopian
Empire (known by exonym "Abyssinia").

Biete Medhane Alem, built during

Zagwe dynasty in the Middle Ages

The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under the leadership of Amda Seyon I. He
launched campaigns against his Muslim adversaries to the east, resulting in a significant shift in
the balance of power in favor of the Christians for the next two centuries. After Amda Seyon's
successful eastern campaigns, most of the Muslim principalities in the Horn of Africa came
under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Empire. Stretching from Gojjam to the Somali Coast in
Zelia.[80] Among these Muslim entities was the Sultanate of Ifat. During the reign of Emperor
Zara Yaqob, the Ethiopian Empire reached its pinnacle. His rule was marked by the consolidation
of territorial acquisitions from earlier rulers, the oversight of the construction of numerous
churches and monasteries, the active promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of
central imperial authority.[81][82][83] Ifat's successor, the Adal Sultanate,[84] tried to conquer
Ethiopia during the Ethiopian–Adal War, but was ultimately defeated at the 1543 Battle of Wayna
Daga.[85]

By the 16th century, an influx of migration by ethnic Oromo into northern parts of the region
fragmented the empire's power. Embarking from present-day Guji and Borena Zone, the Oromos
were largely motivated by several folkloric conceptions—beginning with Moggaasaa[86] and
Liqimssa—many of whom related to their raids. This persisted until gada of Meslé.[87][88]
According to Abba Bahrey, the earliest expansion occurred under Emperor Dawit II (luba Melbah),
when they encroached to Bale before invading Adal Sultanate.[89]

Ethiopia saw major diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, mainly related to
religion. Beginning in 1555,[90] Portuguese Jesuits attempted to develop Roman Catholicism as
the state religion. After several failures, they sent several missionaries in 1603, including the
most influential, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez.[91] Under Emperor Susenyos I, Roman Catholicism
became the state religion of the Ethiopian Empire in 1622.[92] This decision caused an uprising by
the Orthodox populace.[93]

Early Modern Period (1632–1855)

Fasil Ghebbi, one of the key castles of

the Gondarine period

In 1632, Emperor Fasilides halted Roman Catholic state administration, restoring Orthodox
Tewahedo as the state religion.[92] Fasilides' reign solidified imperial power, relocating the capital
to Gondar in 1636, marking the beginning of the "Gondarine period".[94] He expelled Jesuits,
reclaimed lands, and relocated them to Fremona. During his rule, Fasilides constructed the iconic
royal fortress, Fasil Ghebbi, built forty-four churches,[95] and revived Ethiopian art. He is also
credited with building seven stone bridges over the Blue Nile River.[96]

Gondar's power declined after the death of Iyasu I in 1706. Following Iyasu II's death in 1755,
Empress Mentewab brought her brother, Ras Wolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded.
This led to regnal conflict between Mentewab's Quaregnoch and the Wollo group led by Wubit. In
1767, Ras Mikael Sehul, a regent in Tigray Province, seized Gondar, killing the child Iyoas I in
1769, the reigning emperor, and installed 70-year-old Yohannes II.[97]

Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia witnessed the Zemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes," a period of
isolation. Emperors became figureheads, controlled by regional lords and noblemen like Ras
Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, and by the Yejju Oromo dynasty of the Wara Sheh,
including Ras Gugsa of Yejju. Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the
Oromo language (Afaan Oromo) at court, replacing Amharic.[98][99]
Age of Imperialism (1855–1916)

Emperor Tewodros II (r. Emperor Menelik II defended

1855–1868) brought an Ethiopia's sovereignty during
end to Zemene the age of imperialism.
Mesafint.

Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded with an alliance between
the two nations, but it was not until 1855 that the Amhara kingdoms of northern Ethiopia
(Gondar, Gojjam, and Shewa) were briefly united after the power of the emperor was restored
beginning with the reign of Tewodros II.[100][101] Tewodros II began a process of consolidation,
centralisation, and state-building that would be continued by succeeding emperors. This process
reduced the power of regional rulers, restructured the empire's administration, and created a
professional army. These changes created the basis for establishing the effective sovereignty
and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state.[102] In 1875 and 1876, Ottoman and Egyptian
forces, accompanied by many European and American advisors, twice invaded Abyssinia but
were initially defeated.[103] From 1885 to 1889 (under Yohannes IV), Ethiopia joined the Mahdist
War allied to Britain, Turkey, and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. In 1887, Menelik II,
king of Shewa, invaded the Emirate of Harar after his victory at the Battle of Chelenqo.[104] On 10
March 1889, Yohannes IV was killed by the Sudanese Khalifah Abdullah's army whilst leading his
army in the Battle of Gallabat.[105]

Ethiopia, in roughly its current form, began under the reign of Menelik II, who was Emperor from
1889 until his death in 1913. From his base in the central province of Shewa, Menelik set out to
annex territories to the south, east, and west[106] — areas inhabited by the Oromo, Sidama,
Gurage, Welayta, and other peoples.[107] He achieved this with the help of Ras Gobana Dacche's
Shewan Oromo militia, which occupied lands that had not been held since Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-
Ghazi's war, as well as other areas that had never been under Ethiopian rule.[108]

For his leadership, despite opposition from more traditional elements of society, Menelik II was
heralded as a national hero. He had signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy in May 1889, by
which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control an area north of
Ethiopia (now part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with weapons and
support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its
ratification by the Italian government to expand their territorial claims. This First Italo-Ethiopian
War culminated in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were
defeated by the Ethiopians.[107][109] During this time, about a third of the population died in the
Great Ethiopian Famine (1888 to 1892),[110][111] and the rinderpest swept through the area,
destroying much of the herd economy. On 11 October 1897, Ethiopia adopted the colours of the
pan-African flag with green, yellow and red stripes in representation of pan-Africanist ideology.

Haile Selassie I era (1916–1974)

Ethiopian troops sent by the

government under the Emperor Haile
Selassie I during the Korean War
fighting for South Korean
independence

Emperor Haile Selassie I with U.S.

president Roosevelt during the end of
World War II

The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari). He came
to power after Lij Iyasu was deposed, and undertook a nationwide modernization campaign from
1916 when he was made a Ras and Regent (Inderase) for the Empress Regnant Zewditu, and
became the de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death, on 2 November
1930, he succeeded her as emperor.[112] In 1931, Haile Selassie endowed Ethiopia with its first
constitution in emulation of Imperial Japan's 1890 Constitution.[113] The independence of
Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, beginning when it was invaded by
Fascist Italy in early October 1935, and by subsequent Italian rule of the country (1936–1941)
after Italian victory in the war.[114] Italy, however, never managed to secure the country in its
totality, due to resistance from the Arbegnoch, this made Ethiopia, along with Liberia, the only
African countries to never be colonized.[115][116] Following the entry of Italy into World War II,
British Empire forces, together with the Arbegnoch, liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East
African campaign in 1941. The country was placed under British military administration, and then
Ethiopia's full sovereignty was restored with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in
December 1944.[117]

On 24 October 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations. In 1952, Haile
Selassie orchestrated a federation with Eritrea. He dissolved this in 1962 and annexed Eritrea,
resulting in the Eritrean War of Independence. Haile Selassie also played a leading role in the
formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).[118] Opinion within Ethiopia turned against
Haile Selassie, owing to the worldwide 1973 oil crisis causing a sharp increase in gasoline prices
starting on 13 February 1974, leading to student and worker protests.[119] The feudal oligarchical
cabinet of Aklilu Habte-Wold was toppled, and a new government was formed with Endelkachew
Makonnen serving as Prime Minister.[120]

Derg era (1974–1991)

Mengistu Haile
Mariam was
sentenced to death in
absentia for
committing crimes
during his rule.

Haile Selassie's rule ended on 12 September 1974, when he was deposed by the Derg, a
committee made up of military and police officers.[121] After the execution of 60 former
government and military officials,[122] the new Provisional Military Administrative Council
abolished the monarchy in March 1975 and established Ethiopia as a Marxist-Leninist state.[123]
The abolition of feudalism, increased literacy, nationalization, and sweeping land reform
including the resettlement and villagization from the Ethiopian Highlands became priorities.[124]

After a power struggle in 1977, Mengistu Haile Mariam gained undisputed leadership of the
Derg.[125] In 1977, Somalia, which had previously been receiving assistance and arms from the
USSR, invaded Ethiopia in the Ogaden War, capturing part of the Ogaden region. Ethiopia
recovered it after it began receiving massive military aid from the Soviet bloc
countries.[126][127][128] By the end of the seventies, Mengistu presided over the second-largest
army in all of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as a formidable air force and navy.

In 1976–78, up to 500,000 were killed as a result of the Red Terror,[129] a violent political
repression campaign by the Derg against various opposition groups.[130][131][132] In 1987, the Derg
dissolved itself and established the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) upon the
adoption of the 1987 Constitution of Ethiopia.[133] A 1983–85 famine affected around 8 million
people, resulting in 1 million dead. Insurrections against authoritarian rule sprang up, particularly
in the northern regions of Eritrea and Tigray. The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) merged
with other ethnically based opposition movements in 1989, to form the Ethiopian People's
Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF).[134]

The collapse of Marxism–Leninism during the revolutions of 1989 coincided with the Soviet
Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990.[135][136][137] EPRDF forces advanced on Addis
Ababa in May 1991, and Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe.[138][139]

Federal Democratic Republic (1991–present)

Ethiopian civil conflict: territorial

control as of September 2023[e]

In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish the Transitional
Government of Ethiopia composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a
national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.[140] In 1994, a new constitution
was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and a judicial
system.[141]

In April 1993, Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia after a national referendum.[142] In May
1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, which lasted until June
2000 and cost both countries an estimated $1 million a day.[143] This had a negative effect on
Ethiopia's economy, and a border conflict between the two countries would continue until
2018.[144][145] As of 2018, further civil war in Ethiopia continues, mainly due to destabilization of
the country.
Ethnic violence rose during the late 2010s and early 2020s,[146][147] with various clashes and
conflicts leading to millions of Ethiopians being displaced.[148][149][150]

The federal government decided that elections for 2020 (later being rescheduled to 2021) be
cancelled, due to health and safety concerns about COVID-19.[151] The Tigray Region's TPLF
opposed this, and proceeded to hold elections anyway on 9 September 2020.[152][153] Relations
between the federal government and Tigray deteriorated rapidly,[154] and in November 2020,
Ethiopia began a military offensive in Tigray in response to attacks on army units stationed there,
marking the beginning of the Tigray war.[155][156] By March 2022, as many as 500,000 people had
died as a result of violence and famine.[157][158][159] After a number of peace and mediation
proposals in the intervening years, Ethiopia and the Tigrayan rebel forces agreed to a cessation
of hostilities on 2 November 2022.[160] Coupled with OLA insurgency, the federal government
relations with Fano militias, who previously allied to the government in the Tigray War,
deteriorated in mid-2023, resulting in a war in the Amhara Region. According to reports
conducted by the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC), mass human rights violations
carried out by ENDF troops including door-to-door searches, extrajudicial killings, massacres and
detentions. Notable incident includes the Merawi massacre in early 2024, which left 50 to 100
residents deaths in Merawi town in Amhara.[161][162]

Geography

Relief map of Ethiopia

At 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,372.61 sq mi),[163] Ethiopia is the world's 26th-largest

country, comparable in size to Bolivia. It lies between the 3rd parallel north and the 15th parallel
north and longitudes 33rd meridian east and 48th meridian east.

The major portion of Ethiopia lies in the Horn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the
African landmass. The territories that have frontiers with Ethiopia are Eritrea to the north and
then, moving in a clockwise direction, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan and Sudan. Within
Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great
Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands, steppes,
or semi-desert. There is a great diversity of terrain with wide variations in climate, soils, natural
vegetation and settlement patterns.
Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to
the tropical forests in the south to extensive Afromontane in the northern and southwestern
parts. Lake Tana in the north is the source of the Blue Nile. It also has many endemic species,
notably the gelada, the walia ibex and the Ethiopian wolf ("Simien fox"). The wide range of
altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, and this has helped to
encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation.

The nation is a land of geographical contrasts, ranging from the vast fertile west, with its forests
and numerous rivers, to the world's hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian
Highlands are the largest continuous mountain ranges in Africa, and the Sof Omar Caves
contains the largest cave on the continent. Ethiopia also has the second-largest number of
UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa.[164]

Climate

Köppen climate classification of

Ethiopia

The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. The
Ethiopian Highlands cover most of the country and have a climate which is generally
considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's
major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level,
including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital, Addis Ababa, is
situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto at an elevation of around 2,400 metres (7,900 ft). It
experiences a mild climate year round. With temperatures fairly uniform year round, the seasons
in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season from October to February, a light rainy
season from March to May, and a heavy rainy season from June to September. The average
annual rainfall is approximately 1,200 millimetres (47 in).

There are on average seven hours of sunshine per day. The dry season is the sunniest time of the
year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually
several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is
16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout
the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F).

Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at a similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a
comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lying Ethiopian xeric
grasslands and shrublands in the east of Ethiopia, the climate can be significantly hotter and
drier. Dallol, in the Danakil Depression in this eastern zone, has the world's highest average
annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F).

The Blue Nile falls during winter

provides over 86 percent of the Nile
river's water coming from melted
snow in the Simien mountains below
0.[165][166]

Ethiopia is vulnerable to many of the effects of climate change. These include increases in
temperature and changes in precipitation.[167] Climate change in these forms threatens food
security and the economy, which is agriculture based.[168] Many Ethiopians have been forced to
leave their homes and travel as far as the Gulf, Southern Africa and Europe.[169]

Since April 2019, the Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed has promoted Beautifying Sheger, a
development project that aims to reduce the negative effects of climate change – among other
things – in the capital city Addis Ababa.[170] In the following May, the government held "Dine for
Sheger", a fundraising event in order to cover some of the $1 billion needed through the
public.[171] $25 million was raised through the expensive event, both through the cost of
attending and donations.[172] Two Chinese railway companies under the Belt and Road Initiative
between China and Ethiopia had supplied funds to develop 12 of the total 56 kilometres.[173]
Biodiversity

A Walia Ibex in Simien Mountains

National Park, one of the national
symbols of Ethiopia, found only in the
north of the country

Ethiopia is a global centre of avian diversity. To date more than 856 bird species have been
recorded in Ethiopia, twenty of which are endemic to the country.[174] Sixteen species are
endangered or critically endangered. Many of these birds feed on butterflies, like the Bicyclus
anynana.[175]

Historically, throughout the African continent, wildlife populations have been rapidly declining
due to logging, civil wars, pollution, poaching, and other human factors.[176] A 17-year-long civil
war, along with severe drought, negatively affected Ethiopia's environmental conditions, leading
to even greater habitat degradation.[177] Habitat destruction is a factor that leads to
endangerment. When changes to a habitat occur rapidly, animals do not have time to adjust.
Human impact threatens many species, with greater threats expected as a result of climate
change induced by greenhouse gases.[178] With carbon dioxide emissions in 2010 of 6,494,000
tonnes, Ethiopia contributes just 0.02% to the annual human-caused release of greenhouse
gases.[179]

Ethiopia has 31 endemic species of mammals.[180] Ethiopia has many species listed as critically
endangered and vulnerable to global extinction. The threatened species in Ethiopia can be
broken down into three categories (based on IUCN ratings): critically endangered, endangered,
and vulnerable.[180]

Ethiopia is one of the eight fundamental and independent centres of origin for cultivated plants
in the world.[181] However, deforestation is a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss
of forest contributes to soil erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil, loss of animal habitats, and
reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km2 (or 35%) of
Ethiopia's land was covered by trees, but recent research indicates that forest cover is now
approximately 11.9% of the area.[182] The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index
mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 50th globally out of 172 countries.[183]
Ethiopia loses an estimated 1,410 km2 of natural forests each year due to firewood collection,
conversion to farmland, overgrazing, and use of forest wood for building material. Between 1990
and 2005 the country lost approximately 21,000 km2 of forests.[184] Current government
programs to control deforestation consist of education, promoting reforestation programs, and
providing raw materials which are alternatives to timber. In rural areas the government also
provides non-timber fuel sources and access to non-forested land to promote agriculture without
destroying forest habitat.[185]

Organizations such as SOS and Farm Africa are working with the federal government and local
governments to create a system of forest management.[186]

Government and politics

Government

House of Peoples' Representatives is

the lower house of the Ethiopian
Federal Parliamentary Assembly.

Ethiopia is a federal parliamentary republic, wherein the Prime Minister is the head of
government, and the President is the head of state but with largely ceremonial powers. Executive
power is exercised by the government and federal legislative power vested in both the
government and the two chambers of parliament. The House of Federation is the upper chamber
of the bicameral legislature with 108 seats, and the lower chamber is the House of Peoples'
Representatives (HoPR) with 547 seats. The House of Federation is chosen by the regional
councils whereas MPs of the HoPR are elected directly, in turn, they elect the president for a six-
year term and the prime minister for a 5-year term.
 The Federal Supreme Court is the
highest court determining
constitutionality of ordeals in the
nation.

The Ethiopian judiciary consists of dual system with two court structures: the federal and state
courts. The FDRE Constitution vested federal judicial authority to the Federal Supreme Court
which can overturn and review decisions of subordinate federal courts; itself has regular division
assigned for fundamental errors of law. In addition, the Supreme Court can perform circuit
hearings in established five states at any states of federal levels or "area designated for its
jurisdiction" if deemed "necessary for the efficient rendering of justice".[187][188]

The Federal Supreme Proclamation granted three subject matter principles: laws, parties and
place to federal court jurisdiction, first "cases arising under the Constitution, federal laws and
international treaties", second over "parties specified by federal laws".[189]

On the basis of Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution, the judiciary is completely
independent of the executive and the legislature.[190] To ensure this, the President and Vice
President of the Supreme Court are appointed by Parliament on the nomination of Prime
Minister. Once elected, the executive power has no authority to remove them from office. Other
judges are nominated by the Federal Judicial Administration Council (FJAC) on the basis of
transparent criteria and the Prime Minister's recommendation for appointment in the HoPR. In all
cases, judges cannot be removed from their duty unless they retired, violated disciplinary rules,
gross incompatibility, or inefficiency to unfit due to ill health. Contrary, the majority vote of HoPR
have the right to sanction removal in federal judiciary level or state council in cases of state
judges.[191] In 2015, the realities of this provision were questioned in a report prepared by
Freedom House.[192]

Politics

Post-1995, Ethiopia's politics has been liberalized which promotes all-encompassing reforms to
the country. Today, its economy is based on mixed, market-oriented principles.[191] Ethiopia has
eleven semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their
own revenues.
The first multiparty election took place in May
1995, which was won by the EPRDF.[193] The
president of the transitional government, EPRDF
leader Meles Zenawi, became the first Prime
Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia, and Negasso Gidada was elected its
president.[194] Meles' government was
consistently re-elected; however, these results
were heavily criticized by international Taye Atske Selassie Abiy Ahmed
President Prime Minister
observers, and denounced by the opposition as
(representative head of state) (head of government)
fraudulent.[195]

Meles died on 20 August 2012 in Brussels, where he was being treated for an unspecified
illness.[196] Deputy Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn was appointed as a new prime minister
until the 2015 elections,[197] and remained so afterwards with his party in control of every
parliamentary seat.[198] On 15 February 2018, Hailemariam resigned as Prime Minister, following
years of protests and a state of emergency.[199][200][201] Abiy Ahmed became prime minister
following Hailemariam's resignation. He made a historic visit to Eritrea in 2018, ending the state
of conflict between the two countries,[145] and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2019.[202]

According to the Democracy Index published by the United Kingdom-based Economist

Intelligence Unit in late 2010, Ethiopia was an "authoritarian regime", ranking as the 118th-most
democratic out of 167 countries.[203] Ethiopia had dropped 13 places on the list since 2008, and
the 2010 report attributed the drop to the government's crackdown on opposition activities,
media, and civil society before the 2010 parliamentary election, which the report argued had
made Ethiopia a de facto one-party state.[204]

Accompanied by pervasive internal and intercommunal conflicts in the 21st century, the
Ethiopian government resorted to authoritarian structure, severing democratic and human
rights.[205] Freedom House, who has worked on Ethiopia since 2008, indicates that Ethiopia is
"Not Free" state due to very poor fundamental rights (political and civil liberties) recorded in both
EPRDF and Prosperity Party regimes.[206][207] Under Abiy Ahmed, Ethiopia is experiencing
democratic backsliding since 2019 marked by turbulent period of internal conflict, jailing
opposition group members and limit media freedom.[208][209][210]

Administrative divisions

Ethiopia is administratively divided into four levels: regions, zones, woredas (districts) and kebele
(wards).[211][212] The country comprises 12 regions and two city administrations under these
regions, plenty of zones, woredas and neighbourhood administration: kebeles. The two federal-
level city administrations are Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.[213]

Map of regions and zones of Ethiopia

Foreign relations

Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles

Zenawi (bottom row, fourth from left)
in G8 Group meeting in 2007

Ethiopia was historically a trading nation that exported goods such as gold, ivory, exotic animals,
and incense.[214] Modern Ethiopian foreign relations began under Emperor Tewodros II, who
during his reign sought to re-establish a cohesive Ethiopian state, but was thwarted by the British
expedition of 1868.[215] Since then, the country was seen redundant by world powers until the
opening of Suez Canal due to an influence of Mahdist War.[216]
 The African Union Headquarters
located in Addis Ababa. Since its
conception, Ethiopia is a founding
member to the AU.

Today, Ethiopia maintains strong relations with China, Israel, Mexico, Turkey and India as well as
neighboring countries. Ethiopia is a strategic partner of Global War on Terrorism and African
Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).[217] US. Former U.S. President Barack Obama was the first
incumbent U.S. president to visit Ethiopia in July 2015; the speech he gave in African Union
during this trip focused on combatting Islamic terrorism.[218][219] Emigration from Ethiopia is
primarily directed towards Europe, including Italy, the United Kingdom and Sweden, as well as
Canada and Australia, while emigration to the Middle East is primarily to Saudi Arabia and Israel.
Ethiopia is founding member of the Group of 24 (G-24), the Non-Aligned Movement and the G77.
In 1963, the Organization of African Unity, which later renamed itself the African Union, was
founded in Addis Ababa, which today hosts the secretariat of the African Union, the African
Union Commission. In addition, Ethiopia is also a member of the Pan African Chamber of
Commerce and Industry, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, the African
Standby Force[220] and many of global NGOs focused on Africa.

Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed with

Russian President Vladimir Putin in
2023

Ethiopia's foreign relations with both Sudan and Egypt are somewhat fraught owing to the effects
the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project, which was escalated in 2020, would have on
water rights in the region.[221][222] Despite six upstream countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) signing the Nile Basin Initiative in 2010, Egypt and Sudan
rejected a water sharing treaty, citing the reduction of amount of water to the Nile Basin and the
challenge it would pose to their historic connection of water rights.[223][224] In 2020, Prime
Minister Abiy Ahmed warned that "No force can stop Ethiopia from building a dam. If there is
need to go to war, we could get millions readied."[225]
Ethiopia is one of the African countries that was a founding member of League of Nations, which
served as the predecessor for the United Nations, since 1923. UN taskforces in Ethiopia deal
primarily with humanitarian issues and development. Some of its agencies maintain regional ties
with United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the African Union. The UN prioritizes
sustainable development in Ethiopia, including fighting poverty, sustainable economic growth,
climate change policy, educational and healthcare provisions, increasing employment, and
environmental protection.[226]

Military

Ethiopian National Defense Force

(ENDF) training under AMISOM, 2021

The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia.
Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of
Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasions. In 1579, the Ottoman
Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa during the Ottoman conquest of
Habesh was defeated.[227] The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the
Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV.[228] Ethiopia only has 3
branches inside the military, consisting of the Army, Airforce, and a Navy although it is
landlocked. With an annual budget of over $1 billion dollars, it is the largest armed force in East
Africa, and one of the largest in Africa.[229][230]

Law enforcement

Ethiopia has two main federal law enforcement agencies at the federal level, to which being the
Ethiopian Federal Police, and the National Intelligence Security Service. The NISS serving both as
a spy agency and domestic law enforcement agency has national jurisdiction for
counterterrorism, and foreign related counter espionage activities and protecting national
security. It also has authority related to international economic crimes related of which to
Ethiopia as a whole.[231][232] It alongside the EFP (Ethiopian Federal Police) who both enforce
federal laws domestically and for the National Intelligence Security Service cooperate
internationally and enforce border regulations and peoples and products coming in and out in
Ethiopia.[233] The EFP mostly enforcing non-international, and non-espionage crimes, enforcing
civil rights related subjects of matter and domestic financial crimes. At the regional level Ethiopia
has 12 regionals statewide police departments, and 2 federally chartered police forces, those
being the Addis Ababa Police, and Dire Dawa Police forces.[234][235]

Economy

Development of GDP per capita

Ethiopia registered the fastest economic growth under Meles Zenawi's administration.[236]
According to the IMF, Ethiopia was one of the fastest growing economies in the world, registering
over 10% economic growth from 2004 through 2009.[237] It was the fastest-growing non-oil-
dependent African economy in the years 2007 and 2008.[238] In 2015, the World Bank highlighted
that Ethiopia had witnessed rapid economic growth with real domestic product (GDP) growth
averaging 10.9% between 2004 and 2014.[239]

In 2008 and 2011, Ethiopia's growth performance and considerable development gains were
challenged by high inflation and a difficult balance of payments situation. Inflation surged to 40%
in August 2011 because of loose monetary policy, large civil service wage increase in early 2011,
and high food prices.[240]

In spite of fast growth in recent years, GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and the
economy faces a number of serious structural problems. Based on the most recent data from
2019, 68.7% of the population is affected by multidimensional poverty and an additional 18.4%
vulnerable to it.[34]

With a focused investment in public infrastructure and industrial parks, Ethiopia is attempting to
address its structural problems by becoming a hub for light manufacturing in Africa.[241] In 2019
a law was passed allowing expatriate Ethiopians to invest in Ethiopia's financial service
industry.[242]
 An Ethiopian logistics shipping cargo
docked at the Red Sea

The Ethiopian constitution specifies that rights to own land belong only to "the state and the
people", but citizens may lease land for up to 99 years, but are unable to mortgage or sell.
Renting out land for a maximum of twenty years is allowed and this is expected to ensure that
land goes to the most productive user. Land distribution and administration is considered an
area where corruption is institutionalized, and facilitation payments as well as bribes are often
demanded when dealing with land-related issues.[243] As there is no land ownership,
infrastructural projects are most often simply done without asking the land users, which then end
up being displaced and without a home or land. A lot of anger and distrust sometimes results in
public protests. In addition, agricultural productivity remains low, and frequent droughts still
beset the country, also leading to internal displacement.[244]

Energy and hydropower

Ethiopia has 14 major rivers flowing from its highlands, including the Nile. It has the largest water
reserves in Africa. As of 2012, hydroelectric plants represented around 88.2% of the total
installed electricity generating capacity.

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

constructed between 2011 and 2023, set
to be the largest dam in Africa

The remaining electrical power was generated from fossil fuels (8.3%) and renewable sources
(3.6%).

The electrification rate for the total population in 2016 was 42%, with 85% coverage in urban
areas and 26% coverage in rural areas. As of 2016, total electricity production was 11.15 TW⋅h
and consumption was 9.062 TW⋅h. There were 0.166 TW⋅h of electricity exported, 0 kW⋅h
imported, and 2.784 GW of installed generating capacity.[18] Ethiopia delivers roughly 81% of
water volume to the Nile through the river basins of the Blue Nile, Sobat River and Atbara. In
1959, Egypt and Sudan signed a bilateral treaty, the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement, which gave
both countries exclusive maritime rights over the Nile waters. Ever since, Egypt has discouraged
almost all projects in Ethiopia that sought to use the local Nile tributaries. This had the effect of
discouraging external financing of hydropower and irrigation projects in western Ethiopia,
thereby impeding water resource-based economic development projects. However, Ethiopia is in
the process of constructing a large 6,450 MW hydroelectric dam on the Blue Nile river.
Completed in 2023, this Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is slated to be the largest
hydroelectric power station in Africa.[245] The Gibe III hydroelectric project is so far the largest in
the country with an installed capacity of 1,870 MW. For the year 2017–18 (2010 E.C) this
hydroelectric dam generated 4,900 GW⋅h.[246]

Agriculture

Agriculture constitutes around 85% of the labour force. However, the service sector represents
the largest portion of the GDP.[18] Many other economic activities depend on agriculture,
including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is
overwhelmingly by small-scale farmers and enterprises, and a large part of commodity exports
are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops include coffee, legumes,
oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables. Ethiopia is also a Vavilov centre of
diversity for domesticated crops, including enset,[247] coffee Okra and teff.

Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities (with the exception of gold exports), and
coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggest maize
producer.[248] According to UN estimations, the per capita GDP of Ethiopia has reached $357 as
of 2011.[249]

Exports

Light rail train in Addis Ababa, which

hosts over 50,000 passengers a
day.[250]
 Ethiopia's biggest company
Ethiopian Airlines, which has an
annual revenue of 6.1 billion dollars
and making it the 14th biggest
airlines in revenue, contributes to the
country's export business.[251]

Ethio Telecom is one of the country's

biggest companies which generates
over a billion dollars annually.[252]

Ethiopia is often considered as the birthplace of coffee since cultivation began in the 9th
century.[253] Exports from Ethiopia in the 2009–2010 financial year totalled US$1.4 billion.[254]
Ethiopia produces more coffee than any other nation on the continent.[255] "Coffee provides a
livelihood for close to 15 million Ethiopians, 16% of the population. Farmers in the eastern part of
the country, where a warming climate is already impacting production, have struggled in recent
years, and many are currently reporting largely failed harvests as a result of a prolonged
drought".[256]

Ethiopia also has the fifth largest inventory of cattle.[257] Other main export commodities are
khat, gold, leather products, and oilseeds. Recent development of the floriculture sector means
Ethiopia is poised to become one of the top flower and plant exporters in the world.[258]

Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation. In
East Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels. The unofficial trade of
live cattle, camels, sheep, and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia, Djibouti, and Kenya generates
an estimated total value of US$250–300 million annually (100 times more than the official
figure).[259]

This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions, and promote
regional integration.[259] However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs
risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, the
government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange
revenues.[259] Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade.[259]
With the private sector growing slowly, designer fashion and leather products like bags are
becoming a big export business, with Taytu becoming the first luxury designer label in the
country.[260] Additional small-scale export products include cereals, pulses, cotton, sugarcane,
potatoes, and hides. With the construction of various new dams and growing hydroelectric power
projects around the country, Ethiopia also plans to export electric power to its
neighbours.[261][262]

Most regard Ethiopia's large water resources and potential as its "white oil" and its coffee
resources as "black gold".[263][264]

Transport

Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Ethiopia: the Cairo-Cape Town Highway and
the N'Djamena-Djibouti Highway. Ethiopia has 926 km of electrified 1,435 mm (4 ft 81⁄2 in)
standard gauge railways, 656 km for the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway between Addis Ababa
and the Port of Djibouti (via Awash)[265] and 270 km for the Awash–Hara Gebeya Railway
between Addis Ababa and the twin cities of Dessie/Kombolcha.[266]

Ethiopia had 58 airports as of 2012,[18] and 61 as of 2016.[267] Among these, the Bole
International Airport in Addis Ababa and the Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport in
Dire Dawa accommodate international flights.

Science and technology

Pathobiologist Aklilu Paleoanthropologist

Lemma. In 1964, he Zeresenay
discovered an Alemseged in 2013.
alternative treatment He was best known
for schistosomiasis, for discovering
known as snail fossilized hominin
fever.[268] called Selam or
"Lucy's baby" in
December 2000.[269]
Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized
institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves in competitive
programming in order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house
arenas. The Ethiopian Space Science and Technology is responsible for conducting multifaceted
tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70 kg ET-RSS1 multi-
spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior
in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and
weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture,
forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite
manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility
built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory
Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes.
The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services
Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.[270] Numerous profound
scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some are Kitaw Ejigu, Mulugeta
Bekele, Aklilu Lemma, Gebisa Ejeta and Melaku Worede. Computer scientist Timnit Gebru, named
one of Time's most influential people in 2022, was born in Ethiopia.[271]

Ethiopia is known for use of traditional medicine since millennia. The first epidemic occurred in
Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to
"God's punishment for misdeeds". The first traditional medicine was claimed to be derived from
this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though differ from ethnic groups, traditional
medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures
in treating disease.[272]

Ethiopia was ranked 130th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[273]

Demographics

Ethnic groups in Ethiopia

Ethnic group Population
Oromo 25.4 (34.4%)
Amhara 19.9 (27.0%)
Somali 4.59 (6.2%)
Tigrayans 4.49 (6.1%)
Sidama 2.95 (4.0%)
Gurage 1.86 (2.5%)
Welayta 1.68 (2.3%)
Afar 1.28 (1.7%)
Hadiya 1.27 (1.7%)
Gamo 1.10 (1.5%)
Others 9.30 (12.6%)

Population in millions according to 2007

Census[6]

Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world.[274] Its total population has grown
from 38.1 million in 1983 to 109.5 million in 2018.[275] According to UN estimations in 2013, life
expectancy had improved substantially over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56
years and for women 60 years.[249]

Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest
of which are the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans. According to the Ethiopian national
census of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation's
population. The Amhara represent 27.0% of the country's inhabitants, while Somalis and
Tigrayans represent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively.[6]

Afroasiatic-speaking communities make up the majority of the population. Among these, Semitic
speakers often collectively refer to themselves as the Habesha people. The Arabic form of this
term (al-Ḥabasha) is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia", the former name of Ethiopia in English
and other European languages.[276]

In 2009, Ethiopia hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately
135,200. The majority of this population came from Somalia (approximately 64,300 persons),
Eritrea (41,700) and Sudan (25,900). The Ethiopian government required nearly all refugees to
live in refugee camps.[277]
Urbanization

Sheger Park is the largest park in the

country, hosting hundreds of
thousands of visitors a year since its
opening.

Population growth, migration, and urbanization are all straining both governments' and
ecosystems' capacity to provide people with basic services.[278] Urbanization has steadily been
increasing in Ethiopia, with two periods of significantly rapid growth. First, in 1936–1941 during
the Italian occupation under Mussolini's fascist government, and then from 1967 to 1975 when
the populations of urban areas tripled.[279]

In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia, building infrastructure to connect major cities, and a dam
providing power and water.[280] This, along with the influx of Italians and labourers, was the major
cause of rapid growth during this period. The second period of growth was from 1967 to 1975,
when rural populations migrated to towns seeking work and better living conditions.[279]

This pattern slowed due to the 1975 Land Reform program instituted by the government, which
provided incentives for people to stay in rural areas. As people moved from rural areas to the
cities, there were fewer people to grow food for the population. The Land Reform Act was meant
to increase agriculture since food production was not keeping up with population growth over
the period of 1970–1983. This program encouraged the formation of peasant associations, large
villages based on agriculture. The legislation did lead to an increase in food production, although
there is debate over the cause; it may be related to weather conditions more than the reform.[281]
Urban populations have continued to grow with an 8.1% increase from 1975 to 2000.[282]

As of at least 2024, Ethiopia is one of the most rapidly urbanizing countries in the world, although
its population is still largely rural.[284]
Rural and urban life

Addis Ababa seen from the air, 2024

Migration to urban areas is usually motivated by the hope of better lives. In peasant associations,
daily life is a struggle to survive. About 16% of the population in Ethiopia lives on less than one
dollar per day (2008). Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consume the World Health
Organization's (WHO's) minimum standard of food per day (2,200 kilocalories), with 42% of
children under five years old being underweight.[285]

Addis Ababa seen at nighttime, the

financial epicenter of the country

Most poor families (75%) share their sleeping quarters with livestock, and 40% of children sleep
on the floor, where nighttime temperatures average 5 degrees Celsius in the cold season.[285] The
average family size is six or seven, living in a 30 square metre mud and thatch hut, with less than
two hectares of land to cultivate.[285]

The peasant associations face a cycle of poverty. Since the landholdings are so small, farmers
cannot allow the land to lie fallow, which reduces soil fertility.[285] This land degradation reduces
the production of fodder for livestock, which causes low milk yields.[285] Since the community
burns livestock manure as fuel, rather than plowing the nutrients back into the land, the crop
production is reduced.[285] The low productivity of agriculture leads to inadequate incomes for
farmers, hunger, malnutrition and disease. These unhealthy farmers have difficulty working the
land and the productivity drops further.[285]

Although conditions are drastically better in cities, all of Ethiopia suffers from poverty and poor
sanitation. However, poverty in Ethiopia fell from 44% to 29.6% during 2000–2011, according to
the World Bank.[286] In the capital city of Addis Ababa, 55% of the population used to live in
slums.[280] Now, however, a construction boom in both the private and the public sector has led
to a dramatic improvement in living standards in major cities, particularly in Addis Ababa.
Notably, government-built condominium housing complexes have sprung up throughout the city,
benefiting close to 600,000 individuals.[287] Sanitation is the most pressing need in the city, with
most of the population lacking access to waste treatment facilities. This contributes to the
spread of illness through unhealthy water.[280]

Over 6 million residents live in Addis

Ababa, the epicenter of the nation's
economy.

Despite the urban living conditions, residents of Addis Ababa are more financially secure than
those living in peasant associations, owing to their increased educational and economic
opportunities. Unlike rural children, 69% of urban children are enrolled in primary school, and 35%
are eligible to attend secondary school.[280] Addis Ababa has its own university as well as its own
secondary schools. The literacy rate in Addis Ababa is 82% as of 2008.[280]

Many NGOs (non-governmental organizations) are working to solve this problem; however, most
are far apart, uncoordinated, and working in isolation.[282] The Sub-Saharan Africa NGO
Consortium is attempting to coordinate efforts.[282]
Languages

Languages of Ethiopia as of 2007 Census[6]

Oromo (33.8%)
Amharic (29.3%)
Somali (6.2%)
Tigrinya (5.9%)
Sidamo (4%)
Wolaytta (2.2%)
Gurage (2%)
Afar (1.7%)
Hadiyya (1.7%)
Gamo (1.5%)
Other languages (11.7%)

According to Glottolog, there are 109 languages spoken in Ethiopia, while Ethnologue lists 90
individual languages spoken in the country.[288][289] Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic
languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches. The former includes the Oromo language, spoken
by the Oromo, and Somali, spoken by the Somalis; the latter includes Amharic, spoken by the
Amhara, and Tigrinya, spoken by the Tigrayans. Together, these four groups make up about three-
quarters of Ethiopia's population. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of
speakers include the Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic
Gurage languages, Harari, Silt'e, and Argobba languages.[6] Arabic, which also belongs to the
Afroasiatic family, is likewise spoken in some areas.[290]

English is the most widely spoken foreign language, the medium of instruction in secondary
schools and all tertiary education; federal laws are also published in British English in the Federal
Negarit Gazeta including the 1995 constitution.[291]

Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but has been replaced in many areas by
regional languages such as Oromo, Somali or Tigrinya.[292] All languages enjoy equal state
recognition in the 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia.[141]
Script

Ethiopia's principal orthography is the Ge'ez script. Employed as an abugida for several of the
country's languages, it first came into usage in the 6th and 5th centuries BC as an abjad to
transcribe the Semitic Ge'ez language.[293] Ge'ez now serves as the liturgical language of both the
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches. During the 1980s, the
Ethiopic character set was computerized. It is today part of the Unicode standard as Ethiopic,
Ethiopic Extended, Ethiopic Supplement and Ethiopic Extended-A.

Other writing systems have also been used over the years by different Ethiopian communities.
The latter include Bakri Sapalo's script for Oromo.[294]

Religion

The Church of Saint George, Lalibela,

a pilgrimage site for Ethiopian
Orthodox Tewahedo Church; the site
is part of the UNESCO World Heritage
Site "Rock-Hewn Churches,
Lalibela".[295]

According to the 2007 National Census, Christians make up 62.8% of the country's population,
Muslims 33.9%, practitioners of traditional faiths 2.6%, and other religions 0.6%.[6] The ratio of
the Christian to Muslim population has largely remained stable when compared to previous
censuses conducted decades ago.[296] Sunnis form the majority of Muslims with non-
denominational Muslims being the second largest group of Muslims, and the Shia are a minority.
Sunnis are largely Shafi'is or Salafis; there are also many Sufis there.[297]
Ethiopia has close historical ties with all three of the world's major Abrahamic religions. In the
4th century, the Ethiopian empire was one of the first in the world to officially adopt Christianity
as the state religion. As a result of the resolutions of the Council of Chalcedon, in 451 the
Miaphysites, which included the vast majority of Christians in Egypt and Ethiopia, were accused
of monophysitism and designated as heretics under the common name of Coptic Christianity
(see Oriental Orthodoxy).[298]

The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy. It is by far the largest
Christian denomination, although a number of P'ent'ay (Protestant) churches have recently
gained ground. Since 1930, a relatively small Ethiopian Catholic Church has existed in full
communion with Rome, with adherents making up less than 1% of the total population.[296][299]

Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the founding of the religion in 622 when a group of Muslims were
counselled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca. The disciples subsequently migrated
to Abyssinia via modern-day Eritrea, which was at the time ruled by Ashama ibn-Abjar, a pious
Christian emperor.[300]

Health

Declining child mortality in Sub-

Saharan Africa and Ethiopia since
1950

Only a minority of Ethiopians are born in hospitals, while most are born in rural households.
Those who are expected to give birth at home have elderly women serve as midwives who assist
with the delivery.[301] The "WHO estimates that a majority of maternal fatalities and disabilities
could be prevented if deliveries were to take place at well-equipped health centres, with
adequately trained staff".[302] Birth rates, infant mortality rates, and death rates are lower in cities
than in rural areas due to better access to education, medicines, and hospitals.[280] Life
expectancy is better in cities compared to rural areas, but there have been significant
improvements witnessed throughout the country as of 2016, the average Ethiopian living to be
62.2 years old, according to a UNDP report.[303] Despite sanitation being a problem, use of
improved water sources is also on the rise; 81% in cities compared to 11% in rural areas.[282]
Ethiopia's main health problems are said to be communicable (contagious) diseases worsened
by poor sanitation and malnutrition. Over 58 million people (nearly half the population) do not
have access to clean water as of 2023.[304] These problems are exacerbated by the shortage of
trained doctors and nurses and health facilities.[305] The World Health Organization's 2006 World
Health Report gives a figure of 1,936 physicians (for 2003), which comes to about 2.6 per
100,000.[306]

The National Mental Health Strategy, published in 2012, introduced the development of policy
designed to improve mental health care in Ethiopia. This strategy mandated that mental health
be integrated into the primary health care system.[307] However, the success of the National
Mental Health Strategy has been limited. For example, the burden of depression is estimated to
have increased 34.2% from 2007 to 2017.[308] Furthermore, the prevalence of stigmatizing
attitudes, inadequate leadership and co-ordination of efforts, as well as a lack of mental health
awareness in the general population, all remain as obstacles to successful mental health
care.[309]

In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Ethiopia ranks 102nd out of 127 countries and has a
score of 26.2, which indicates a serious level of hunger.[310]

Education

Entrance of Addis Ababa University

The current system follows school expansion schemes which are very similar to the system in
the rural areas during the 1980s, with an addition of deeper regionalization, providing rural
education in students' own languages starting at the elementary level, and with more budgetary
financing allocated to the education sector. Public education is free at primary levels and usually
offers between age 7 and 12. The sequence of general education in Ethiopia is six years of
primary school, then four years of lower secondary school followed by two years of higher
secondary school.[311]

The Ethiopian education is governed by the Ministry of Education and its cycle consists of a
4+4+2+2 system; elementary education consists of eight years, divided into two cycles of four
years, and four years of secondary education, divided into two stages of two years.[312] National
exams are conducted by the National Education Assessment and Examination Agency (NEAEA).
Since 2018, there are two national exams: the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate
Examination (EGSECE), also known as Grade 10 national exam and Grade 12 national exam.[313]

The Addis Ababa Science Museum of

Art and Science serves as the
country's biggest hub which
showcases the country's newest
innovations.

As of 2022, there are 83 universities, 42 public universities, and more than 35 higher education
institutions. Foreign students constitute 16,305 in higher education level. The overall number of
tertiary students in both public and private institutions exploded by more than 2,000 percent,
from 34,000 in 1991 to 757,000 in 2014, per UIS data.[314][315] Access to education in Ethiopia has
improved significantly. Approximately three million people were in primary school in 1994–95 but
by 2008–09, primary enrolment had risen to 15.5 million – an increase of over 500%.[316] In
2013–14, Ethiopia had witnessed a significant boost in gross enrolment across all regions.[317]
The national GER was 104.8% for boys, 97.8% for girls and 101.3% across both sexes.[318]

The literacy rate has increased in recent years: according to the 1994 census, the literacy rate in
Ethiopia was 23.4%.[289] In 2007 it was estimated to be 39% (male 49.1% and female 28.9%).[319]
A report by UNDP in 2011 showed that the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 46.7%. The same report
also indicated that the female literacy rate had increased from 27 to 39 per cent from 2004 to
2011, and the male literacy rate had increased from 49 to 59 per cent over the same period for
persons 10 years and older.[320] By 2015, the literacy rate had further increased, to 49.1% (57.2%
male and 41.1% female).[321]

Culture

Cultural performance in Addis Ababa

Ethiopia's culture heavily influenced by the local population, an interaction of Semitic, Cushitic
and less populous Nilo-Saharan speaking people, which evolved from first millennium BC.
Semitic Tigrayans and Amharas, who dominated the politics in the past, distinguished from other
population by hierarchical structure and agrarian life derived partly from South Arabia as a result
of back migration, while the southern Cushitic (Oromo and Somali) are strong adherents to
egalitarianism and pastoral life. Others including Kaffa, Sidamo, and Afar tradition derived from
the latter people.[322]

Holidays

The Ethiopian New Year or

Enkutatash is celebrated with the
adey abeba flower symbolising a new
beginning, each year across the
country.

Ethiopia has 6 patriotic and public holidays and 9 major religious holidays given government
recognition. The year (Gregorian calendar) starts with Ethiopian Christmas on January 7, it also
has Epiphany or Timkat on January 19 or 20 depending on if the year is a leap, which celebrate
the baptism of Jesus Christ by John the Baptist. Timkat is recognized by the United Nation's as
part of its "Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists" which are designated for important cultural and
religious holidays.[323][324] Three holidays are movable like Ramadan, Good Friday and Easter of
which two are in spring and Ramadan in Islamic celebrations. Other holidays include Mawlid
which begins on the 12th or 17th on the Islamic calendar depending on which Muslim
denomination is the celebrator, nonetheless due to the fact the majority of Ethiopian Muslims are
Sunni it is thus celebrated on the 12th day on the third month on the Islamic calendar which is in
September. Other include Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha for other Islamic holidays whilst for
Christians, the finding of the true cross or otherwise called Meskel.[325][326][327]

For public holidays the first of which falls on the calendar is Adwa Victory Day on 2 March,
commemorating Emperor Menelik II's victory over the attempted but failed colonization efforts of
Italy in 1896. Other's following such as the International Workers' Day on the 1st of May, the
Ethiopian Patriots' Victory Day for celebrating the return of Emperor Haile Selassie I and thus the
liberation of fascist Italian occupation on the 5th of May and the Downfall of the Derg on the 28th
of May, a recent holiday promoted to a public status by the ruling government after 1991. And the
most prominent of public holidays is Enkutatash which is the largest, celebrating the Ethiopian
new year on September 11 or 12, which is approximately 7–8 years behind the rest of the world,
depending on if the year is a leap, and thus behind ultimately the Georgian calendar by several
years. Defense Day also exists for celebrating service men on the 26th of October the last
holiday in the Gregorian calendar.[328]

Nonetheless other festivals and holidays like the honoring of Saint Yohannes and others are
celebrated across the country including Irrecha celebrated by the Oromo community.[329][330]

Art and architecture

Afewerk Tekle's "The Last Judgment"

at St. George's Capel

Arts of Ethiopia were largely influenced by Christian iconography throughout much of its history.
This consisted of illuminated manuscripts, painting, crosses, icons and other metalwork such as
crowns. Most historical arts were commissioned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church,
the state religion for a millennium. The earlier Aksumite period arts were stone carvings as
evidenced in their stelae, though there is no surviving Christian art from this era. As Christianity
was introduced, its iconography was partly influenced by Byzantine art. Most remaining arts
beyond the early modern period were ruined as a result of invasion of the Adal Sultanate in the
Ethiopian Highlands, but were revived by Catholic emissaries. The Western intervention in
Ethiopian art began in the 20th century, while also maintaining traditional Ethiopian character.
Some notable contemporary Ethiopian artists include Afewerk Tekle, Lemma Guya, Martha
Nasibù, Ale Felege Selam and others.[331][332]

The Aksumite Steles served as an

official maker for the Emperors of
Ethiopia during the time of the
Aksumite Empire.
Ethiopian architecture like the "Bete Medhane Alem" or "House of our Saviour" is one of the 12
churches in Lalibela built under Emperor Lalibela I. Emperor Lalibela I commissioned large
portions of the Lalibela church complex promptly named after him. This was largely attested to
the inspiration for Ethiopia during the medieval times due to blockage from Jerusalem by Muslim
conquests to replicate its own form of a "new Jerusalem" at a national level. Perhaps one of the
most notable architectures in antiquity was founded during the Dʿmt period. Ashlar masonry was
an archetype of South Arabian architecture with most architectural structure similarity.[333][334]

The Aksumite continued to flourish its architecture around the 4th century CE. Aksumite stelae
commonly used single block and rocks. The Tomb of the False Door built for Aksumite emperors
used monolithic style.[335] The Lalibela civilization was largely of Aksumite influence, but the
layer of stones or wood is quite different for some dwellings.[336]

In the Gondarine period, the architecture of Ethiopia was influenced by Baroque, Arab, Turkish
and Gujarati Indian styles independently taught by Portuguese emissaries in the 16th and 17th
centuries. Examples include the imperial fortress Fasil Ghebbi, which is influenced by a mix of
these styles. The medieval architecture also affected the later 19th- and 20th-century era.[337]

Literature

Baalu Girma (1939– Haddis Alemayehu

1984) is regarded as (1910–2003), foreign
one of the greatest minister and novelist,
novelists and critiques including author of Love
in Ethiopia, with one of to the Grave, considered
his six works such as the greatest novel in
The End.[338] Ethiopian literature[339]

Ethiopian literature traces back to the Aksumite period in the 4th century, mostly religious motifs.
In royal inscription, it employed both Ge'ez and Greek language, but the latter was discontinued in
350. Unlike most Sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia has ancient distinct language, the
Ge'ez, which dominated political and educational aspects. In spite of the current political
instability in the country endangering cultural heritage of these works, preservation has improved
in recent years.[340]
During and the approximate time of the Middle Ages composers such as Abba Gorgoryos and
Giyorgis of Segla have influenced Ethiopian languages such as writing one of the earliest
instances of Amharic and dictionaries of Ge'ez and such. Also encompassing religious hymns
and doctrine justifications regarding issues in the Ethiopian Orthodox church and
practices.[341][342]

The Ethiopian literary works mostly consisted of handwritten codex (branna, or ብራና in Amharic).
It is prepared by gathering parchment leaves and sewing to stick together. The codex size varies
considerably depending on volumes and preparation. For example, pocket size codex lengthens
45 cm, which is heavier in weight. Historians speculated that archaic codex existed in Ethiopia.
Today manuscripts resembling primitive codex are still evident for existence where parchment
leaves are convenient for writing.[340]

Another notable writing book is protective (or magic) scroll, serving as written amulet. Some of
these were intended for magical purpose, for example ketab is used for magical defence. Scrolls
were typically produced by debtera, non-ordained clergy expertise on exorcism and healings.
About 30 cm scroll is portable whereas 2 cm is often unrolled and hanged to the walls of houses.
Scrolls emulating original medium of Ethiopia literature is highly disputed, where there is
overwhelming evidence that Ge'ez language books were written in codex. In lesser, Ethiopia used
accordion books (called sensul) which were dated to late 15th or 16th century, made up of folded
parchment paper, with or without cover. Those books usually contain pictorial representation of
life and death of religious figures, or significant texts have also juxtaposed.[340]

Baalu Girma and Haddis Alemayehu have been noted as the most influential novelist in Ethiopian
history. Girma giving a critique of the communist government in the 80s in Ethiopia in his works.
Haddis Alemayehu giving rise to one of the first examinations of realism and a romance tragedy
in his works of novel and having influenced the sphere of Ethiopian intellectual
community.[343][344]

Ethiopia is highly popularized in poetry. Most poets recount past events, social unrests, poverty
and famine. Qene is the most used element of Ethiopian poetry – regarded as a form of Amharic
poetry, though the term generally refers to any poems. True qene requires advanced ingenious
mindset. By providing two metaphorical words, i.e. one with obvious clues and the other is too
convoluted conundrum, one must answer parallel meanings. Thus, this is called sem ena work
(gold and wax).[345] The most notable poets are Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin, Kebede Michael and
Mengistu Lemma.

Ethiopian philosophy has been superlatively prolific since ancient times in Africa, though offset
of Greek and Patristic philosophy. The best known philosophical revival was in the early modern
period figures such as Zera Yacob (1599–1692) and his student Walda Heywat, who wrote
Hatata (Inquiry) in 1667 as an argument for the existence of God.
Music

Yared in a piece of 15th century

Ethiopian sacred art holding a
mequamia (prayer stick)

The music of Ethiopia is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being
associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct modal system that is pentatonic,
with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of
Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in
neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.[346][347] Traditional singing in Ethiopia
presents diverse styles of polyphony (heterophony, drone, imitation, and counterpoint).
Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or
national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known as tizita.

Saint Yared, a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional
music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox
Tewahedo Church.[348]

Modern music is traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans
called Arba Lijoch arrived from Jerusalem to Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost
established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial
Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.[349]

In the 1960s and 1970s, traditional infused modern Ethiopian music was revived in what is
known as the "Golden Age". Several notable musical artists emerged thereafter, for example,
Tilahun Gessesse, Alemayehu Eshete, Bizunesh Bekele, Muluken Melesse and Mahmoud Ahmed.
It also employed tradition style called tizita. During the Derg regime, these artists were prohibited
to perform in the country and often forced into exile in North America and Europe, mixing with
jazz and funk influences. For example, Roha Band, Walias Band, and Ethio Stars. By this time,
Neway Debebe was critical of the Derg government.[345]

Modern music became developed shortly in the 1990s and 2000s. In this period, the most
popular artists were Aster Aweke, Gigi and Teddy Afro. Ethiopian music further modernized in the
next decade, employing electronic type and more popular. DJ Rophnan was renowned for
pioneering EDM after releasing his debut album Reflection in 2018.[345]
Calendar

Ethiopia has several local calendars. The most widely known is the Ethiopian calendar, also
known as the Ge'ez calendar, and written with the ancient Ge'ez script, one of the oldest
alphabets still in use in the world.[350] It is based on the older Alexandrian or Coptic calendar,
which in turn derives from the Egyptian calendar. Like the Coptic calendar, the Ethiopian calendar
has twelve months of exactly 30 days each plus five or six epagomenal days, which form a
thirteenth month. The Ethiopian months begin on the same days as those of the Coptic calendar,
but their names are in Ge'ez.[351]

Like the Julian calendar, the sixth epagomenal day—which in essence is a leap day—is added
every four years without exception on 29 August of the Julian calendar, six months before the
Julian leap day. Thus, the first day of the Ethiopian year, 1 Mäskäräm, for years between 1901
and 2099 (inclusive), is usually 11 September (Gregorian), but falls on 12 September in years
before the Gregorian leap year. It is approximately seven years and three months behind the
Gregorian calendar because of an alternate calculation in determining the date of the
Annunciation of Jesus.[352]

Another calendrical system was developed around 300 BC by the Oromo people. A lunar-stellar
calendar, this Oromo calendar relies on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction
with seven particular stars or constellations. Oromo months (stars/lunar phases) are Bittottessa
(Iangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebarran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central
Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (full moon), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter
moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent).[353]

Media

The Ethiopian Broadcasting

Corporation, former headquarters in
Addis Ababa
The Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation (EBC), formerly known as ETV, is the state media. Radio
broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with
assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.[3] Since 2015, EBC has upgraded
its studios with modernized transmission.

Kana TV is the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.[354] It is mainly known for dubbing foreign
content into Amharic. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass
media until in the late 2000s, when EBS TV launched as the first private television channel.
Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of
privately owned media companies in the country. As an example, Fana TV has been the largest
TV network since its launch in 2017.

The most widely circulated newspapers in Ethiopia are Addis Fortune, Capital Ethiopia, Ethiopian
Reporter, Addis Zemen (Amharic) and Ethiopian Herald.[355]

The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firm Ethio telecom. A large
portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.[356] As of July 2016,
there are around 4.29 million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a
quarter of a million users a decade before that.[357] The Ethiopian government has at times
intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social
media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and
demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two
days.[358] In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during
a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the
reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,[356] the move was similar to a
measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.[359][360]

Cinema

Ruth Negga is an
Ethiopian-born actress.
The first cinema was introduced in 1898, three years after the first world film was projected.
Cinematic artifacts ascribed by Italian minister Federico Ciccodicola which then offered to
Emperor Menelik II. The early 20th century appearance with spectacle was around 1909 and
embraced by documentary or biographical films. Au de Menilek was the first film directed by
Charles Martel. The first 16mm black-and-white film dedicated to coronation of Emperor
Zewditu, then coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie was filmed. The 1990s saw international
booming of Ethiopian films. The most influential people in this era were Haile Gerima, Salem
Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, and Teshome Gabriel. Films began modernized in the 2000s and
implemented Amharic language. The most internationally grossed films are Selanchi, Difret,
Lamb, Prince of Love and Lambadina. The modern era saw several reoccurring actors including
Selam Tesfaye, Fryat Yemane, Hanan Tarik, Mahder Assefa, Amleset Muchie and Ruth Negga.

One of the most prestigious film award is Gumma Film Awards held in Addis Ababa. The award,
which was started in 2014, broadcast on live television in some stations.[361] Festivals including
Addis International Film Festival and the Ethiopian International Film Festival showcase amateur
and professional filmmakers works; the latter being voted by judges. They were established in
2007[362] and 2005 respectively.[363]

Cuisine

This meal consisting of injera and

several kinds of wat (stew) is typical
of Ethiopian cuisine.

The best-known Ethiopian cuisine consists of various types of thick meat stews, known as wat in
Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top of injera, a large sourdough flatbread
made of teff flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the
entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish
in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others
within a group or own hands—a tradition referred to as "gursha".[364] Traditional Ethiopian cuisine
employs no pork, as it is forbidden in Ethiopian Orthodox Christian and Islamic faiths; Ethiopian
Orthodox Christians also fast from meat on Wednesdays, Fridays, and leading up to Easter and
Christmas.[365]

Chechebsa, Marqa, Chukko, Michirra and Dhanga are the most popular dishes from the Oromo.
Kitfo, which originated among the Gurage, is one of the country's most popular delicacies. In
addition, Doro Wot (ዶሮ ወጥ in Amharic) and Tsebehi Derho (ጽብሒ ድርሆ in Tigrinya), are other
popular dishes, originating from northwestern Ethiopia. Tihlo (ጥሕሎ)—which is a type of
dumpling—is prepared from roasted barley flour and originated in the Tigray Region. Tihlo is now
very popular in Amhara and spreading further south.[366]

Sport

Abebe Bikila, Ethiopia's first

Olympic gold medalist

The main sports in Ethiopia are track and field (particularly long distance running) and football.
Ethiopian athletes have won many Olympic gold medals in track and field, most of them in long
distance running.[367] Abebe Bikila became the first athlete from a Sub-Saharan country to win an
Olympic gold medal when he won the Marathon at the 1960 Rome Olympic Games in a world
record time of [Link].[368][369]

The Ethiopia national football team was one of four founding members of the Confederation of
African Football and won the Africa Cup of Nations in 1962.[370] Ethiopia has Sub-Saharan
Africa's longest basketball tradition as it established a national basketball team in 1949.

See also

Ethiopia portal

Africa portal

Index of Ethiopia-related articles

 Outline of Ethiopia

Notes

a. Romanized: Ye'Ītyop'iya Fēdēralawī Dēmokrasīyawī Rīpeblīk

b. Romanized: Nayəʾitəyop̣ əya Federalawi Demokərasiyawi Ripsäbəlikə

c. Amharic: ኢትዮጵያ, romanized: Ītyōṗṗyā pronounced [[Link].p'ja]

Oromo: Itiyoophiyaa

Somali: Itoobiya

Tigrinya: ኢትዮጵያ, romanized: Ítiyop'iya

Afar: Itiyoppiya

d. The inscriptions in Ancient Greek read "ΑΧΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King of Axum") and
"ΕΝΔΥΒΙΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King Endubis"); Greek was the lingua franca by that time, so its use in
coins simplified foreign trade.

e. Pro-federal government troops

Ethiopian federal government and regional allies

Eritrean Defence Forces

Ethiopian federal government and Eritrean Defence Forces

Anti-federal government rebels

Oromo Liberation Army

Fano (Amhara militia)

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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies
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External links

Scholia has a topic profile for Ethiopia.

Ethiopia ([Link] . The World Factbook.

Central Intelligence Agency.

BBC Ethiopia Profile ([Link]

World Bank Ethiopia Summary Trade Statistics ([Link]

try/ETH/Year/2012/Summary)

Key Development Forecasts for Ethiopia ([Link]

ountry=ET) from International Futures.

Ethiopia pages – U.S. Dept. of State ([Link] (which

includes current State Dept. press releases and reports on Ethiopia)