Education

CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics

Chapter 1
Tools of Quantum
Mechanics

4. Operators and Matrices

An operator  is the mathematical rule that when applied to a ket  will transformed into

another  of the same space and when it acts on a any bra  it transforms it into another bra

 . that means     and    

Similar definition is also applied on function as Â  r     r 

Basic example of operators Example of Operator:

Identity operator I |   |  

Parity operator  | (r )   (r )

Gradient operator r )


Linear momentum operator P(  i r )

Linear Operator: Â is linear operator if

Aˆ       Aˆ   Aˆ 

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
1
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
Aˆ  c    cAˆ 
 Aˆ  Bˆ    Aˆ   Bˆ 

Aˆ (a1 |  1   a2 |  2   a1 Aˆ |  1   a2 Aˆ |  2 

 1 a1   2 a2  Aˆ   1 Aa
ˆ   Aa
1 2
ˆ
2

ˆ ˆ is product of operator. Product of two linear operator Â

If two operators are  and B̂ then AB
ˆ ˆ which is defined ( AB ) |    A( B |   )
and B̂ written AB
ˆ ˆ  BA
In general, AB ˆˆ

Matrix representation of operator Any operator  can be represented in square matrix of order

N  N in a basis of 1 , 2 .... i ....  j ...... N with matrix element Ai , j  i A  j

Hermitian Adjoint of Operator

If operator  is defined as     then  †   where † is identified as Hermitian

conjugate of operator † . Hermitian conjugate A† of matrix A can be find in two step.

Step I: Find transpose of  i.e. Convert row into column ie Aˆ T

 .
*
Step II: Then take complex conjugate to each element of Aˆ T i.e. Aˆ †  Aˆ T

Properties of Hermitian adjoint operator †

 ( Aˆ † )†  Aˆ

 
n
 ( Aˆ n )†  Aˆ †

 ( aAˆ )†  a * Aˆ †

 ( Aˆ  Bˆ )†  Aˆ †  Bˆ †

 ˆ ˆ )†  Bˆ † Aˆ †
( AB
ˆ ˆ )†  Bˆ † Aˆ †
Proof of ( AB

 
†
Let us assume AB ˆˆ
ˆ ˆ      AB  

In this process B̂      B̂ †  

 
†
ˆ ˆ   Aˆ      Aˆ †     Bˆ † Aˆ †   so we can conclude AB
AB ˆˆ  Bˆ † Aˆ †

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
2
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
Eigen value of operator:

If A operator is defined such that      then

 is said to be eigen value and  is said to be eigen vector corresponding to operator.

 Aˆ   Iˆ    0 ,   0 so Aˆ   Iˆ  0 identify as characteristic equation

The values of  satisfying the characteristic equation are known as eigen value if  is non
repeated then it is non degenerate eigen value and if  is repeated then it is degenerate eigen
value.
If the N  N matrix  N value of 

For the given value of   n if any column vector n will satisfy A n  n n then n is

identified as eigen vector corresponds is eigen value n . In Quantum Mechanics one should

always find orthonormal set of eigen vectors such that it can make complete basis. For non-
degenerate eigen values one can make unique set of orthonormal eigen state but for degenerate
eigen values there may be more than one set of orthonormal vectors.
Hermitian Operators

An operator is said to be Hermitian if Hermitian adjoint is same operators which means Aˆ †  Aˆ

i.e., Matrix element i | Aˆ |  j   ( j | Aˆ | i  )* which can be also written as

 

 
*

   x  Aˆ  x  dx     x  Aˆ  x  dx
*

 

 The eigen values of Hermitian matrix is real

Aˆ n  n n  n Aˆ †  n* n

Now n Aˆ n  n n n  n Aˆ † n  n* n n hence  is Hermitian then Aˆ  Aˆ †

then n Aˆ n  n n n  n Aˆ n  n* n n equating both side we will get

n  n* which means eigen values are real

 The eigen vectors corresponding to different eigen values are orthogonal.

Aˆ n  n n  m Aˆ n  n m n

Aˆ m  m m  m Aˆ †  m* m where m  n  m Aˆ † n  m* m n hence  is

Hermitian then Aˆ  Aˆ †  m Aˆ n  m* m n

m Aˆ n  m Aˆ n   n  m*  m n   n  m*  m n  0 m  n

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
3
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
so  n  m*  i.e. m n  0 which means eigen vectors corresponds to different eigen values

are orthogonal
Some important operator and its property

 
Position Operator X̂ : Mathematically position operator is defined as X̂  x   x  x 

 
Momentum Operators P̂ : It is Mathematically define as P̂  i the eigen value of

Momentum operator is momentum

2 2
Hamiltonian Operator  
Ĥ : It is defined as Hˆ  
2m
  V  x, y , z  The eigen value of

Hamiltonian operator is Energy.

Parity Operator ˆ  : A Parity Operator (also called parity inversion) is the flip in the sign

of spatial coordinate In three dimensions, it can also refer to the simultaneous flip in the sign of
all three spatial coordinates (a Point reflection).
ˆ  x, y , z      x,  y ,  z  .
Mathematically it is defined as 

ˆ  x, y, z      x,  y,  z     x, y, z  then wave function is said to be symmetric or even

If 

symmetry, so even parity have eigen value 1

ˆ  x, y, z      x,  y,  z     x, y, z  then wave function is said to be Antisymmetric
If 

symmetric or odd symmetry ,so even parity have eigen value 1

So eigen value of parity is either 1 or 1 .

Translation Operator T̂  a  : The translation operator moves particles and fields by the

amount a Therefore, if a particle is in an eigen state of the Position operator (i.e.,   x 

precisely located at the position x then after operating Tˆ  a  on it, the particle is at the

position x  a . Tˆ  x     x  a  . Momentum operator is generator of translation operator. It

 iPˆ a  
is defined as T  exp  x  , where Pˆx 
   x

 iPˆx a     N
1   
N

T  x   exp    x   exp  a   x     a    x
    x  N 0 N  x 

 1 2  2
Tˆ  x     x   a  a ....    x  a 
x 2 x 2

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
4
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
Projection operator and completeness relation
If we want to project any vector  in direction of i then we need projection operator which

is define as pˆ i  i i . In general, i  j   i , j

pˆ i   i i   ci i where ci is complex number.

hence i i  1 pˆ i2  pˆ i . pˆ i  i i  pˆ i  pˆ i2  pˆ i  pˆ i  O null operator or pi  I identity

operator . so eigen value of projection operator is 0 or 1

N N
if we have i  j   i , j and p
i 1
i  I   i i  I is identify as completeness relation in
i 1

quantum mechanics. The completeness relation can be use to write any ket vector  in a
N N
orthonormal basis of 1 , 2 ... i ...  j .... N as   I    i i      ci i
i 1 i 1

where i   ci

In quantum mechanics orthonormal set of eigen values of Hermitian operators will make
complete basis.
d
Example: If  is an operator Aˆ  Dˆ x  Xˆ , where Dˆ x  x   and X̂  x   x  x  find
dx

equivalent of Â2 .

    Dˆ  Dˆ  Xˆ 
2
Solution: Aˆ 2  Dˆ x  Xˆ x  Xˆ x

 d  d  d 2  x  ˆ d  x  ˆ   x
Xd
A   x     X   X   x  
2 ˆ ˆ X   x    Xˆ 2  x 
 dx  dx  dx dx dx

d 2 d
A2  x   2
 2x  x 2  x     x 
dx dx
d2 d
 A2  2
 2 x  x 2  1  Aˆ 2  Dˆ x2  2 XD
ˆ ˆ  Xˆ 2  I
x
dx dx

 nx
Example: If Dˆ x is defined as and  ( x)  A sin
x a
(a) operate D̂x and  ( x )

(b) operate Dˆ x2 on  ( x)

(c) which one of the above given eigen value problem.

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
5
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
 nx n nx
Solution: (a) Dˆ x  ( x)  A sin  A cos
x a a a

2 nx  n 2 2  nx
(b) Dˆ x2 ( x)  2 A sin  A   2  sin
x a  a  a
2
n
2
nx
Dˆ x2  ( x )   2 A sin
a a

n 2 2
(c) when Dˆ x2 operate on Dˆ x2 ( x)   2  ( x)
a
nx
So operation of Dˆ x2 ( x ) on  ( x )  A sin give eigen value problem with eigen value
a
n 2 2
 2
a


Example: The momentum operator in one dimension is defined as Pˆx  i .
x
(a) If p is eigen value of momentum operator find corresponding the eigen function.
l l
(b) If particle is confine between   x  then write down Normalized eigen state.
2 2
Solution: (a) Let us assume   x  is eigen function of momentum operator with eigen value p .
   ipx 
Pˆx  x   p  i  p  i   p  dx    A exp   where A is normalized
x    
constant.
l l
2 2
ipx ipx 1
   x   x dx   exp
2
(b) *
A .exp dx  1  A 
l l   l
 
2 2

1 ipx l l
 exp ,  x 
The normalized wave function is given as   x    l  2 2
 0, otherwise


1 0 0   0 i 3i 
   
Example: Two operators are given as Aˆ   0 7 3i  and Bˆ   i 0 i  , which of following
 0 3i 5   3i i 0 
   
have real eigen values.

1 0 0  1 0 0 
ˆ   ˆ†  
Solution: A   0 7 3i  A   0 7 3i 
 0 3i 5   0 3i 5 
   

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
6
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics

Aˆ †  Aˆ so A is Hermitian so it has real eigen value

 0 i 3i   0 i 3i 
   
Bˆ   i 0 i  Bˆ   i
†
0 i 
 3i i 0   3i i 0 
  

Bˆ †   Bˆ So, it is not Hermitian rather it is Anti-Hermitian so its eigen values are not real.

Example: If Ŝ operator is defined as Sˆ | u1  | u3  , Sˆ | u2  | u2  , Sˆ | u3  | u1  . It is given

ui | u j   ij represent operator Ŝ in basis of u1 , u2 and u3 .

 S11 S12 S13 

ˆ  
Solution: The Matrix S   S 21 S 22 S 23 
S 
 31 S32 S33 
Where matrix element Sij  ui | Sˆ | u j 

S11  u1 | Sˆ | u1   u1 | u3   0 S12  u1 | Sˆ | u2   u1 | u2   0

S13  u1 | Sˆ | u3   u1 | u3   1 S21  u2 | Sˆ | u1   u2 | u3   0

S22  u2 | Sˆ | u2   u2 | u2   1 S23  u2 | Sˆ | u3   u2 | u1   0

S31  u3 | Sˆ | u1   u3 | u3   1 S32  u3 | Sˆ | u2   u3 | u2   0

S33  u3 | Sˆ | u3   u3 | u1   0

0 0 1
ˆ  
S  0 1 0
1 0 0
 

0 1
Example: If  operator is given by Aˆ   
1 0
(a) Find eigen value and eigen vector of  .
(b) Normalized there eigen vector.
(c) Prove both eigen vector are orthogonal.

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
7
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
0 1
Solution: (a) A    for eigen value
1 0
| A  I | 0

0 1 1 0  1
  0   0    1, and   1,
1 0 0 1 1 

The eigen vector corresponding to   1,

A | u1    | u1 

 0 1  a   a 
       a  b
 1 0  b   b 

a
So eigen vector corresponds to   1, | u1    
a
eigen vector corresponds to   1
A | u 2    | u2 

0 1a a a 
     1   a  b | u2    
1 0b  b   a 
(b) For normalised eigen vector.
u1 | u1   1 u 2 | u 2   1
a
| u1     u1 |  a a 
a
1 1 1
u1 | u1   a 2  a 2  1  a  | u1    
2 2 1
a 
Similarly, | u2     and u2 |  (a,  a )
 a 
a  1 1 1 
u 2 | u2   ( a ,  a )    1  a 2  a 2  1  a  | u2    
 a  2 2  1
(c) For orthogonality u1 | u2   u2 | u1   0

1 1 1  1 1  1
(1 1)  0 (1  1)  0
2 2  1 2 2  1

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
8
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics

 2 0 0
ˆ  
Example: (a) Find the eigen value and orthonormal eigen vectors of operator A   0 0 1 
 0 1 0
 
(b) Prove that eigen vectors of  are satisfying completeness relation
2 0 0
Aˆ   Iˆ  0  0  1  0   2      2  1  0
0 1 
Solution: Eigen values are 1  2, 2  1, 3  1 hence they are non-repeated they are

nondegenerate eigen values

 a1 
 
Now let us find Eigen vector for eigen value 1  2, which is 1   b1 
c 
 1
 2 0 0   a1   a1 
     
Aˆ 1  1 1   0 0 1   b1   2  b1 
 0 1 0  c  c 
  1   1

2a1  2a1 , c1  2b1 , b1  2c1 the solutions are b1  c1  0 and a1 can be any arbitrary value so
 a1 
1   0  we can find value of a1 with normalization condition 1 1  1 Normalization to get
0
 
one specific vector
 a1* 
 a1* 0 0   0   1  a1 2  1  a1  1
0 
 
 a2 
 
Now let us find Eigen vector for eigen value 2  1, which is 2   b2 
c 
 2
 2 0 0   a2   a2 
    
Aˆ 2  2 2   0 0 1   b2   1 b2 
 0 1 0c  c 
  2   2 
 2 0 0   a2   a2 
    
 0 0 1   b2    b2   2a2  a2  a2  0 c2  b2 , b2  c2  b2  c2
 0 1 0  c   c 
  2   2 

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
9
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
0 
2   b2  the value of b2 can be found with normalization condition
b 
 2
0   0
  1 1  
2 2   0 b2 b2   b2   2 b2  1  b2 
2
2  1
b  2 2  
 2 1 
 a3 
 
Now we will find eigen vector for eigen value 3  1 which is 3   b3 
c 
 3
 2 0 0   a3   a3 
     
Aˆ 3  3 3   0 0 1   b3   1 b3 
 0 1 0  c  c 
  3   3
0 
 
2a3  a3  a3  0 , c3  b3 , b3  c3 3   b3 
 b 
 3
The value of b3 can be found from normalization condition
0  0 
  1  
3 3   0 b  b   b3   1  b3  1 3 
* *
1
2  
3 3
 b 
 3  1
1 , 2 and 3 are orthogonal set.

1 1  2 2  3 3  I
   
 0   0 
1    
   1  1 1   1  1 1 
 0  1 0 0   
2 
0
2

2   2   0
2
 
2
0 
 
 1   1 
   
 2  2
   
0 0 0  0 0 0 
1 0 0     1 0 0
  1 1  1 1  
0 0 0   0  0    0 1 0
0 0  2 2   2 2 
0   0 0 1
 1 1  1 1   
 0   0  
 2 2  2 2 
If Eigen value is non-degenerate, then one can find unique set of orthonormal basis vector.

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
10
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
1 0 0
Example: Find the eigen values of operator Aˆ  0 0 1
0 1 0
Find two set of orthonormal eigen vectors.
1  0 0
Solution:  Aˆ   I   0  0  1  0  1      2  1  0  1  1, 2  1,  3  1
0 1 

Hence 2  3  1 so eigen value 1 is doubly degenerate.

 a1 
 
Eigen vectors for 1  1 is 1   b1 
c 
 1
 1 0 0   a1   a1 
ˆA       0 0 1   b   1 b   a   a  a  0 , c  b or b  c
1 1 1   1   1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0c  c 
  1   1
0  0 
  1 1  
1   b1  using normalization condition 1 1  1  b1  so 1  1 
 b  2 2  1
 1  
Hence 1  1 is non degenerate Eigen value it has unique normalized vector.

Now we well find eigen vector for eigen value   1 .which is doubly degenerate so there may be
infinite set of normalized eigen vectors but it is not necessary that they are orthogonal .so for
2  1 we need to choose two normal vectors which are orthogonal in nature

 1 0 0   a2   a2 
    
Aˆ 2  2 2   0 0 1   b2   1 b2   a2  a2 , c2  b2 b2  c2
 0 1 0  c   c 
  2   2 
 a2 
 
2   b2  where a2 and b2 has arbitrary number so there is possibility of infinite normalized
b 
 2
vector.
Similarly, for 3  1
 1 0 0   a3   a3 
ˆA       0 0 1   b   1 b   a  a , c  b b  c
3 3 3   3   3  3 3 3 3 3 3
0 1 0 c  c 
  3   3 

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
11
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
 a3 
 
3   b3  where a3 and b3 has arbitrary number, so there is possibility of infinite normalized
b 
 3
vector
We can easily conclude 2 and 3 are vectors in same plane with is surely orthogonal to 1 .

Now we need to choose two set of orthonormal vectors which are in same plane where 1 is

uniquely defined for all set.

1 
 
Set I: We can choose a2  1 , 2   b2 
b 
 2
1 
 
from normalization condition we can find b2  0 so 2   0 
0
 
 a3  1 
   
Now we can not choose 3   b3  it must be orthogonal to 2   0 
b  0
 3  
 a2  0 
   
2 3  0 1 0 0   b2   0  a2  0 so 3 must be in form of 3   b3 
b  b 
 2  3
 0
1  
from normalization condition we can get 3  1
2  
1 
So, first set of orthonormal vectors are corresponds to eigen value 1,1,1 is

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
12
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
0  1  0
1     1  
1  1 , 2   0  , 3  1 . Again we can easily check these vectors make
2     2  
 1 0 1 
complete basis.
0 
1  
Set II: Again eigen value of nondegenerate eigen vector is 1  1 which is uniquely
2  
 1 
defined but we can choose another set of orthonormal eigen vectors for degenerate eigen value
 a2   a3 
   
2  3  1 2   b2  and 3   b3 
b  b 
 2  3
 a2  1/ 2 
  1  
We can choose arbitrary 2   b2  by putting a2  , 2   b2 
b  2 b 
 2  2 
 1/ 2 
1 3  
From normalization condition 2 2   2b2  1 b2  so 2   3 / 8 
4 8  
 3/8 

 a3   1/ 2 
   
Now 3   b3  cannot be chosen arbitrary it must be orthogonal to 2   3 / 8 
b   
 3  3/8 
a 
 1 3 3  3  1 3 3
2 3  0     b3   0  a3  2 b3  0  a3  b3 4
 2 8 8 b  2 8 8
 3
 3
 b3 4 
 8

3  b3  the value of b3 can be found with normalization condition
 
 b3 
 
 
 3/ 2 
3 2 1  
3 3  1  16  b3  2b32  1  8b32  1  b3   3   1/ 8 
8 8  
 1/ 8 
 
So second set of orthonormal vectors corresponding to eigen values are 1  1, 2  1 and 2  1

0   1/ 2   3/ 2 
1      
are 1  1    3 / 8 
 3   1/ 8  which will also make complete basis.
2  
2
   
 1  3/8   1/ 8 
 

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
13
 Education
CSIR NET-JRF, GATE, IIT-JAM, JEST, TIFR and GRE for Physics
Example: Operate Parity operator  on functions  1  sin x  2  cos x and  3  sin x  cos x ,

also discuss parity symmetry of each function.

Solution:  1   sin x  sin   x    sin x   1 which is antisymmetric so eigen value is 1 .

 2   cos x  cos   x   cos x   2 which is symmetric so eigen value is 1.

 3   sin x   cos x  sin   x   cos   x    sin x  cos x   3 so  3 is not eigen function of

parity operator.

H.N. 28 A/1, Jia Sarai, Near IIT-Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi-110016
#: +91-89207-59559
Website: [Link] | Email: pravegaaeducation@[Link]
14