Summary of Electrodynamics

i = Electric Current (A)

Δq = amount of electric charge in the moving wire (C = coulomb)
millicoulomb
microcoulomb
nanocoulomb

n = number of electrons

e = elementary charge of an electron = 1.6 10-19C

This formula is used for the

i = current intensity average electric current or
electric (A = ampere) when the electric current is
constant:

Δt = time (s = seconds)

Calculation of electric charge when the graph is provided

current intensity over time:

Area of the rectangle =

Área do triângulo =

Area of the trapezoid =

In the case of this example 1: N= numerically: the electric charge nothing

it has to do with an area. What happens is that
the formula for the area is equivalent to the formula
Area of the trapezoid =
to calculate the average electric charge.

Example 2: Note that the unit of measurement for electric current

it is in mA = 10-3A common "prank" in these graphs.
Stay alert.

This figure is also a trapezium.

Area of the trapezoid =

Average current intensity =

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 U = DDP = potential difference or electric tension or voltage (V)
U = difference between the potentials of two points (V = volt) UAB= VAVB

Example 3 - sockets:

Example 4–wiring connection in a house:

2
 R = Electrical resistance of a wire ( )
Resistor symbols:
R = value of the electrical resistance of a resistor = ohm)
you
A resistor is a 'thin wire' that serves to limit the
amount of electric current that passes through a wire. In addition Devices that use resistors:
From that it can generate heat if the thin wire or filament remains.
In the embers, it will generate light.

It's not just the "thin wire" that functions as a resistor. Everything
conductive material can perform this function of
resist the passage of electrons. The human body and water
Salgado is a good example of other conductors.

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 Ohm's First Law
U = DDP (potential difference) or electric voltage or voltage (V = volts)

R = electrical resistance of a resistor ( ohm) 1kV = 1000V

1k = 1000
i = electric current intensity (A = ampere) 1mA = 0.001A

Resistor chart Resistance graph

ohmic: the value of ohmic: the value of
resistance is constant. resistance is variable.
Example 5: Example 6:
U=R·i 5 = R·0.05 U=R·i 2 = R·10
(cte) (variable)

2nd Law of Ohm

R = electrical resistance of a resistor = ohm)

resistivity = depends on the type of material ( ·m; cm/mm2; etc)

L = length of the wire (m; cm; mm; etc)

A = cross-sectional area of the wire (m2; cm2; mm2; etc)

d = diameter of the cross-section

r = radius of the cross-section

Variation of resistance with temperature

R = final electric resistance of a resistor ( = ohm)

Roinitial electrical resistance of a resistor ( ohm)

temperature coefficient of the material (ºC-1)

For metals 0 (positive)
For the special leagues = 0 (does not change the value of the resistance)
For graphite and electrolyte solutions < 0 (negative)

Δ temperature variation final- initial

=resistivity ( ·m; cm/mm2; etc)

oinitial resistivity (} ·m; cm/mm2; etc)

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 Pot = Electrical Power (W)
Pot = electrical power (W = watt) From the 1st Law of Ohm, , we arrived
U = DDP or electric tension (V = volt) in the auxiliary formulas:
i = electric current intensity (A = ampere) e
Main formula:

Eel = Energia Elétrica (J ou kWh)

Eel = energia elétrica
(J = joule = for the S.I. International System of Units)
Units of Measurement J W s S.I.
(kWh = kilowatt-hour = for calculating the value kWh kWh electricity bill
of the electricity bill

1 kW = 1000 W
Δt = time
(s = seconds = for S.I.) 1 h = 60 min = 3600 s
(h = hours = for electricity bill)

Eel = Q = Energia Elétrica transformada em térmica (J ou cal)

Eel = energia elétrica (J ou cal)

Q = amount of heat = thermal energy

(J or cal) When the temperature varies:

QSamount of sensible heat, used when

it varies the temperature but without changing the physical state.
When the physical state changes:

QLamount of latent heat, used when

it changes the physical state, but without varying the temperature. 1 cal 4.2 J

1 kg = 1,000 g
m = mass (g or kg)
cwater1 cal/g·ºC or 4.200 J/kg·ºC
c = specific heat (cal/g·ºC or J/kg·ºC)
cice= cvapor0.5 cal/g·ºC or 2,100 J/kg·ºC
L = latent heat (cal/g or J/kg)
Lmelting of ice= 80 cal/g or 336,000 J/kg
Δ temperature variation final- initial(°C)
Lboiling of water 540 cal/g or 2,268,000 J/kg

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 Resistor association
SÉRIE PARALLEL

Features: Características:
The electric current does not divide. The electric current divides.
- There are no knots (splicing of 3 or more wires). There are knots (splices of 3 or more wires).
The value of the total electrical resistance increases. The value of the total electrical resistance decreases.

Req = RTRABequivalent resistance or

total resistance ( )

iTtotal electric current intensity (A)

UT= UABDDP or total voltage (V)

RT= R1+ R2+ R3+···+RN

iT i1= i2i3=···=iN iT= i1+ i2+ i3+···+iN

UT= U1+ U2+ U3plus.plusUN UT= U1= U2= U3=···=UN

Tip: Notice that in this type of association Tip: Note that in this type of association
"parallel....." the value of "U" is always the same.
"seeeeeeeeeee..." the value of the "i" is always the same.

Practical calculation rules for two particular cases of parallel association

Paradise resistors (and only two) in parallel: For equal resistors in parallel:

(product by sum)

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 Examples of resistor association exercises:
Example 7 - In the circuit below, after closing the Example 8 - In the circuit below, after closing the
key S, calculate: key S, calculate:

a) The value of the total resistance. a) The value of the total resistance.
b) The intensity of electric current in each b) The electric current intensity in each
resistor. resistor.
c) The ddp of each lamp. c) The ddp of each lamp.
d) The power of each resistor and the total power. d) The power of each resistor and the total power.

Example 9 - In the circuit below, calculate: Example 10 - In the circuit below, calculate:

a) The value of the total resistance.

b) The ddp of each resistor.
c) The total electric current intensity and in
a) The value of the total resistance.
each resistor.
b) The total ddp of each resistor. d) The power of each resistor and the total power.
c) The intensity of electric current in each
resistor. Given: 1 k = 1.000
d) The power of each resistor and the total power.

Example 11 - In the circuit below UAB= 120V, Example 12 - In the circuit below UAB= 70V,
calculate: calculate:

a) The value of the total resistance. a) The value of the total resistance.
b) The ddp of each resistor. b) The ddp of each resistor.
c) The total electric current intensity and in c) The total electric current intensity and in
each resistor. each resistor.
d) The power of each resistor and the total power. d) A potência de cada resistor e a potência total.

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Example 13 - In the circuit below UAB= 70V, Example 14 - In the circuit below UAB= 70V,
calculate: calculate:

a) The value of the equivalent resistance between the a) The value of the equivalent resistance between the
points A and B. points A and B.
b) The total electric current intensity. b) The total electric current intensity.
c) The voltage drop and the current of each resistor. c) The voltage drop and the current of each resistor.

d) The total power. d) The total power.

Example 15 - In the circuit below, calculate: Example 16 - In the circuit below, calculate the value
the equivalent resistance between points A and B.

a) The value of the electric current intensity and the

ddp across resistor 3.
b) The value of the voltage difference and the value of resistors 1 and 2.
c) The value of the total difference in price.
d) The value of the equivalent resistance.

Example 17 - In the circuit below, calculate the value of the equivalent resistance and the intensity of the
total electric current.

Answers:

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 Electrical measurement devices: Ammeter and Voltmeter
Ammeter = device used to measure Voltmeter = device used to measure voltage
the intensity of electric current. ddp or electric tension or voltage.
It is always placed in series in the circuit, as it is always placed in parallel in the circuit, as
"sériiiiiiiiiii..." the value of "i" is equal. in "paraleluuuuuuu..." the value of "U" is always
same.

Attention: if you put an ammeter in

parallel, as its internal resistance is very
small, tending to zero, it will cause a
short circuit.
Attention: if you place a voltmeter in series,
Ammeter with voltmeter: since its internal resistance is very high,
tending to infinity, he will not allow the
passage of electric current. The circuit only
stops working.

Circuit with ammeter and voltmeter

Example 18–In the circuit of the figure, the Example 19 - In the circuit of the figure below, the
the voltmeter indicates a value of 120V and the The battery has a total voltage of 12V. Determine:
4A ammeter. Determine:

a) The value of the electrical resistance of resistor R5.

b) The value of electric current intensity
what goes through the resistor R6.
c) The value of the battery's DDP that the circuit is
linked.
d) The energy consumed by the circuit in 1 a) The total electrical resistance of the circuit.
minute. b) The readings of the voltmeter and the ammeter.
c) To the ddp and the intensity of electric current in
resistor between points X and Y.
Respostas:

9
 Self-assessment

These exercises are for you to test if you understood the basics of electrical circuits.

1. Four resistors, all the same 3.Consider that a certain student,

Electrical ResistanceRare associated among using available resistors in
the points A e B of an electrical circuit, school laboratory, set up the circuits
according to the configuration indicated in the figure. presented below:
Calculate the equivalent electrical resistance
between points A and B.

Wanting to take some electrical measurements,

used a voltmeter (V) to measure the voltage and
an ammeter (A) to measure the intensity
of electric current. Considering all the
elements involved as being ideal,
calculate the values measured by the voltmeter
(situation 1) and by the ammeter (situation 2)

Resp.: 4R/3

2.In the circuit drawn below, the

intensity of continuous electric current that Resp.: 4V e 1,2A
passes through the resistor of50Ω is from80 mA.

Calculate the electromotive force of the generator 4. Analyze the circuit below. Knowing that the
ideal, in volts, that is, the battery's voltage or current I is equal to 500 mA, calculate the value
ddp total. the voltage provided by the battery, in volts.

Resp.: 6V Response: 30V

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 Wheatstone Bridge

The Wheatstone Bridge is used to discover the value of an unknown resistor, having 3 resistors.
knowns and a galvanometer or a wire of known length and a galvanometer.

The Galvanometer is a low-intensity electric current meter. To validate the relationships

mathematics, the condition is that the value marked on the galvanometer is zero amperes or the DDP in the
the terminals of the galvanometer being zero.

The mathematical relationship for this Bridge of The mathematical relationship for the Bridge of
Wheatstone is obtained by equalizing the Wheatstone with wires is obtained by equalizing the
multiplication of the resistors that are in multiplications of the resistors with the
opposite diagonals. lengths of the wires that are on the diagonals
opposites.
iCD= iG= ZERO and UCDZERO

Example 20 - The galvanometer in the figure below indicates zero amperes.

This means that the Wheatstone Bridge is in equilibrium and it is possible
apply your mathematical relationship.

Determine:
a) The value of the resistor R.
b) The electric current intensity in the 15 resistor .
c) The voltage drop across the 20-ohm resistor .
d) The total electric current of the circuit.

Response:

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 Generator
I will generate the element that provides the voltage and electric current for the circuit.
Pode ser uma pilha, uma bateria ou uma tomada que transmite a energia do gerador de uma usina
hydroelectric power plant.

Direct current generator Alternating current generator

Batteries provide a current The outlet provides an alternating current, that is,
continuous, that is, the electric current has a electric current changes direction several times per
unique meaning. second. In Brazil, this frequency is 60Hz, or
the current reverses direction 60 times in one
second.

Receptor
A receptor is the element that absorbs the energy generated by a generator.
It can be a motor or an inverted battery in the circuit.
A receiver only works if it is connected to a generator, necessarily.

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 Generator and Receiver Equations
Generator: Receptor:
The electric current enters through - and exits through + The electric current enters through + and exits through -

The useful ddp at the generator terminals (U) is The total DDP at the terminals of the receiver (U`) is
result of all ddp generated (E) by the fem useful ddp result by fcem (E`) plus what the
less what the generator itself spent on its the receiver itself spent with its resistance
internal resistance (Uresistance= r·i). internalresistance= r`·i).

Ugenerated utilityUtotal of the generator - Udissipated by the resistor Utotal spending= Uuseful of the receiver + Udissipated by the resistor
Generator Equation Receiver Equation
U = E - r·i U' = E' + r'·i
U = useful ddp (potential difference) (V) U` = ddp total (diferença de potencial) (V)
E = emf = electromotive force = total potential difference generated
E' = fcem = counter electromotive force = useful voltage
by the battery (V) spending by the receiver (V)
r = internal resistance of the generator ( ) r' = internal resistance of the receiver ( )
R = external resistance to the generator ( )
i = electric current of the circuit (A) Once the useful voltage of the generator is the same
for the receptor plus the resistor, we can equate:
For the external circuit, the useful voltage of the generator is the
same consumed by the external resistor, thus: Youreceptor+ Uresistor= Ugenerator
E' + r' i + R i = E - r i r`·i +R i + r i = E–E`
U=R i
Once the useful DDP is the same for the Pouillet's Law:
generator and for the external circuit (resistor),
we can equalize:
Where: that is, the generated DDP must be
U=U R i=E-r I R i+r i = E
greater than the consumed or received ddp.
Pouillet's Law:

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 Association of generators and receivers
For several generators and receivers connected in series:
For several generators connected in series: Pouillet's Law: ∑ ∑
∑ ∑ ∑
Pouillet's Law: ∑ Where:∑ that∑is, the total DDP generated
∑ ∑ it has to be greater than the total consumed ddp or
received.

Graphs of Generator, Receiver and Resistor

Generator Receptor Resistor

U=E-r·i U' = E' + r'·i U=R I

It is always a first degree function. It is always a first function. It is always a function of
decreasing. increasing grade. 1st degree increasing that has
The devaluation values are constant. The values of E`er` are beginning at the source of
constants. coordinate system
Example 21) U = 36 - 3·i, in other words, cartesian
E = 36V e r = 3 . Example 22) U' = 9 + 3·i, or
seja, E` = 9V e r` = 3 . The value of Ré is constant.

Example 23) U = 5·i, or

be, R = 5 .

Observation:
When i = 0, the value of U is a
own fem E. This means that the
generator terminals are open or
disconnected.
When the value of U = 0, the value of i
heycc= E/r. We call this i as icc, or

be, short circuit current. It occurs

when the generator terminals are
directly connected in a short circuit.

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 Generator and Receiver Power (W)
Generator Receptor

Pt= Pu+ Pd Pt= Pu+ Pd

PtGenerated power or total power PtConsumed power or total power

Pt=E·i Pt = U`·i

PuUseful power (released) or power to be PuUseful power or power to be used

used outside the generator or dissipated power by the running engine. Transforms the
through the external resistor to the generator. electrical energy into kinetic by magnetism
Pu= U·i = R·i2 PuE`·i

PdPower dissipated in the form of heat by PdPower dissipated in the form of heat by
the generator's own internal resistance. own internal resistance of the receiver.
Pd= r·i2 Generally the wires of the motor winding
Furious this resistance.
Pd= r`·i2

Maximum Useful Power of the Generator (W)

It occurs when the value of the electric current is

half of the short-circuit current. Thus:
()

second degree equation parable

( )

Generator and Receiver Yield( )

Generator Receptor

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 Kirchhoff's Laws
Law of Knots Law of Meshes

The sum of the electric currents that arrive The sum of all the ddps in a mesh is
at a node, the sum of currents is equal always equal to zero.
electricals that come out of the nodes. Remember: U=R·i

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

Meaning of the ddp to be considered in each device:

Generator: the meaning of ddp is Receptor: the meaning of the potential difference is
Resistor: the direction of the voltage is
always from - to + always from–to the+ always opposed to that of the current
electric

Example 24–Given the circuit below, determine:

a) The values of i1, i2and I3.

b) The ddp between points AB, AC, AD, and AE.
Answers:

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 SUMMARY
Electric charge (C): Association of resistors in Generator:
seriiiiiiiiii... (the 'i' is the same): U = E - r ·i
RT= R1+ R2+ R3+···+RN
Electric current (A): U=R I
iT= i1= i2= i3=···=iN

UT= U1+ U2+ U3+···+UN

Δq = area of the graph i x t
Association of resistors in
DDP (V): paralleluuuu… (the “U” is the same):
UAB= VA- VB

1st Law of Ohm:

iT= i1+ i2+ I3+···+iN
Pt= Pu+ Pd; Pt=E·i
2nd Law of Ohm ): UT= U1= U2= U3=···=UN
Pyou= U·i = R·i2; Pd= r·i2
For two resistors in
parallel

For N equal resistors in

parallel Receptor:
U` = E` + r`·i

Wheatstone bridge:
Variation of electrical resistance
with the temperature: or

Kirchhoff's Laws:
∑ ∑
Electric power (W):
;
∑ ∑ ∑ Pt= Pu+ Pd; Pt = U`·i
or
Pu= E`·i; Pd= r`·i2
Electric energy (J or kWh):

Transformed electrical energy

in thermal (amount of Association of generators with
heat) (J or cal): receptors:
∑ ∑
or ∑ ∑ ∑
you
By Prof. Nilton Sihel - image obtained from the internet and adapted for this booklet

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