TEXTILES, TESTING

1. Textile Fibers

There are many types of textile fibers that can be used in numerous products and
applications (5–11). The fibers are broadly classified as natural fibers, such as
cotton, jute, flax/linen, kenaf, milk weed, (commonly known as the vegetable
fibers) and wool, silk, hair, etc, (commonly known as the protein fibers) and
man-made, synthetic or regenerated fibers, such as nylon, polyester, acrylic, poly-
ethylene, polypropylene, Aramid, Lycra spandex, carbon, P.B.I., rayon, Tencel,
lyocell, etc. Ultrafine, high-performance nano fibers are the latest new develop-
ments of a rather old technology of electrospinning. Textile fibers are also classi-
fied according to their length. They can be either staple (in case of most natural
fibers), or cut-staple (mostly in case of synthetic fibers), or filament (mostly syn-
thetics). Textile Institute defines textile fibers as units of matter characterized by
flexibility, fineness, and a high ratio of length to thickness (11). The fiber length
depends on the fiber type and the source of production. Staple fibers generally
vary from 2 cm to 18 cm (
1’’ to 6’’), but they all must have a high length to thick-
ness ratio (>1000). Staple fibers mostly are used in staple-spinning systems,
such as ring spinning, open-end/rotor spinning, air-jet/vortex spinning, etc, to
produce yarns for knitting, weaving and sewing threads. Short and hence less
expensive staple fibers are used in producing nonwoven fabrics without the pro-
cess of yarn spinning. Filament fibers/yarns on the other hand generally are con-
tinuous and infinitely long. The length is actually determined by the total length
of the fiber/yarn on the supply package. A filament yarn may be a monofilament
or a multifilament (of several fine, individual filament strands). Filament yarns
include natural silk and synthetic fibers such as nylon, polyester, acetate, poly-
propylene, and the like. Beside the length, textile fibers should also have ade-
quate temperature stability, strength, and extensibility. Other important fiber
qualities include cohesiveness or spinability and uniformity. There are also sev-
eral secondary characteristics that improve product quality and consequently
customer satisfaction. These include cross-sectional shape, specific gravity or
density, moisture regain, absorbency, resiliency, luster, elastic recovery, and
affinity for dyes and pigments. However, the fibers should be resistant to envir-
onment-sensitive chemicals, to environmental and weathering conditions of
sunlight and temperature, and to biological organisms. Thus, the knowledge of
fiber properties, including physical, mechanical and chemical behaviors, is fun-
damental to understanding the fiber’s suitability for a particular textile struc-
ture, whether it is a singles, plied or folded yarn, a woven, knitted or
nonwoven fabric, or just a fibrous congregate for a certain end-use application.
1.1. Properties. Fiber properties can vary considerably depending on
the fiber type and production source. For example, cotton, being a natural pro-
duct, has properties that significantly vary from fiber to fiber within a boll on
a cotton plant, from bale to bale, from crop to crop, from region to region, from
variety to variety, and from cultivar to cultivar. Some of the representative phy-
sical properties of textile fibers are shown in Table 1.
In addition to the kind of fiber, the fiber quality plays a significant role in
determining the price of the fiber in the market place. For example, price of cot-
ton in the United States is largely determined by the fiber quality as determined

Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
2 TEXTILES, TESTING

by standard fiber measurements conducted (on fee basis) by the Agricultural

Marketing Service (AMS) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (12).
Fiber tests are conducted from each cotton bale produced in the States, in accor-
dance with the official American cotton grading system that now mostly utilizes
the state-of-the art High Volume Instruments (HVI) (13,14).
1.2. Testing Physical Properties. Fiber Length. The average or
mean fiber length (L) and the distribution of fiber lengths, ie, the fiber length dis-
tribution (FLD) of a population of staple fibers, are very important quality para-
meters, because these parameters considerably influence processing of the fibers
into yarns and consequently fabrics. The L and FLD are particularly critical in
case of natural fibers, especially cotton. Fiber length and the fiber length distri-
bution influence spinning performance as well as the yarn strength, uniformity,
evenness, surface imperfections, hand and appearance. It may be mentioned that
FLD, ie, the Fiber Length Uniformity Index (UI), in the case of cotton is more
influential than L in the fiber processing and fabric quality. The fiber length
or staple of cotton is generally determined by the Upper Half Mean Length
(UHML) or Upper Quartile Length (UQL) of the FLD. A High Volume Instru-
ment (HVI) is currently used to obtain information on the cotton fiber length.
However, presently, there is no standard high-volume instrument or method to
determine a truly representative average or mean length of staple fibers.
Advanced Fiber Information System (AFIS-Pro), a trademark of the Uster Cor-
poration (15), is currently involved in further investigating the FLD data, in
order to fully understand the impact of fiber length distribution of cotton on
the fiber quality, processing efficiency, and product quality. Accurate testing
for fiber length is essential as the fiber length-to-diameter ratio is utilized to
facilitate efficient conversion of the fiber into yarn. The standard test methods
used to measure fiber length and its distribution are listed in Table 2.
In these methods, both the average or mean staple length and the distribu-
tion of fiber lengths are recorded. ASTM D3661 gives the procedures for measur-
ing average staple length and distribution of staple length for synthetic fibers
ranging in length from 25 to 250 mm. Because synthetic filaments are cut or bro-
ken into staple fibers, the possibility of multiple lengths of fiber exists. ASTM
D3513 gives the procedures for determining the percentage of multiple-lengths
(over length) fibers using visual inspection of a combed sample of fibers. The
test instruments in these methods use either photoelectric, capacitance, or pneu-
matic scanning devices to determine fiber length. The results from these meth-
ods, however, do not agree with those obtained from ASTM D1440 (Manual
Array) because of the differences both in the treatment of fiber crimp and in
the definition of the length being measured. Other automatic and semiautomatic
systems exist for determining length and length distribution for wool, which can
be found in the literature (11, 16–18).
Fiber Density, Fineness and Cross-Sectional Shape. Fiber density is
defined by the mass per unit volume of the fibers and its measurement is useful
when comparing substances having different volumes. For fibers, the relative
mass per unit volume, called the specific density, is often given. The specific den-
sities of most common textile fibers as well methods of determining fiber densi-
ties by traditional means such as by the displacement of liquids and by precise
 TEXTILES, TESTING 3

microscopic measurements of the fiber length, cross-sectional area, and weight

are available in literature (11, 19–23).
Fiber fineness, linear density, or transverse dimension is usually described
by fiber diameter (for cylindrical fibers), fiber linear density, or fiber weight per
unit length (for fibers that have irregular cross-sections or that taper along their
lengths). All of these terms basically represent the fiber fineness, which is a mea-
sure of the fiber size. In the English system, the fiber size is expressed as micro-
grams/inch length of fiber. In the universal metric system, it is termed as denier,
tex, or decitex (dtex).

tex ¼ weight in grams of 1000 meters (1 kilometer) of fiber or yarn

decitex (dtex) ¼ weight in grams of 10000 meters (10 kilometer) of fiber or yarn
kilotex ¼ weight in kilograms of 1000 meters (1 kilometer) of fiber or yarn
denier (den) ¼ weight in grams of 9000 meters (9 kilometer) of fiber or yarn

An airflow type of instrument, called micronaire, is widely used in the HVI

system to determine fiber fineness. Fiber fineness determines the yarn size
potential and affects the yarn strength, uniformity, and appearance. An over-
view of the fiber fineness testing procedure is available in (24). Information on
measurement of fiber diameter using optics is available in Ref. 25. ASTM
D629, Sections 23 through 28, describes procedures for determining fiber
diameter using microscopic analysis. Characterization of cotton fibers by cross-
section, fineness, and maturity has been discussed in Refs. 11,26,27. These refer-
ences show one simple method for determining the fiber cross-sectional area and
length (27) and describe general methods for measuring and calculating fiber
transverse dimensions (11) (See also Table 3).
Fiber cross-sectional shape varies both naturally and by design (1,2,28).
For example, wool fibers are essentially round, ignoring the scales; cotton fibers
are elliptical or kidney-shaped; and synthetic fibers can have any desired cross-
sectional shape depending upon the method of spinning and the shape of the
spinneret hole through which the fiber is extruded (11). Cross-sectional shape
influences the stiffness (flexural rigidity) of fibers (11,29), the tendency of fibers
to pack together in yarns, as well as the luster of fiber, yarn and hence fabric. In
addition, fibers of specific cross-sectional shapes are often engineered to provide
particular fiber properties for a particular application. For example, circular hol-
low fibers can be used to improve fluid transport and insulation properties.
DuPont manufactures a fiber that has a square cross-section containing four
longitudinal, continuous holes or channels (Antron III) to hide soil. Eastman
manufactured an irregular cross-sectioned, deep-groove fiber (4DG) used for
fluid movement and absorbency. The cross-sectional shapes of synthetic
fibers, unlike those of natural fibers, can be easily verified by using microscopic
analysis.

denier ðgmÞ
Cross-sectional area of fiber ðcm2 Þ ¼
900000ðcmÞ  density of the fiber ðgm=cm3 Þ
4 TEXTILES, TESTING

Crimp. Practically all staple fibers have crimp, which is defined as ‘‘wavi-
ness’’ of the fiber. Fibers such as cotton and wool have a natural spiraling or heli-
cal crimp (convolutions). In synthetic fibers crimp is imposed by mechanically
deforming the fiber. The elasticity of crimp may vary, especially in synthetic
fibers where the method of deformation and heat setting are important factors.
Essential in the conversion of fiber to yarn, crimp determines the capacity of
fibers to entangle during processing and thus determines the cohesiveness of
card webs as well as the hairiness of the resultant yarn (30). Crimp is the prin-
cipal feature governing bulking power of textile materials and, generally, the
specific volume of yarns and fabrics (11). Physical properties of fibers may be
used to determine their amount of crimp (See Table 4).
Moisture Absorption. Absorption of moisture by a fiber usually changes
the latter’s properties (11). It may cause swelling, which alters dimensions of
the fiber and, in turn, changes the fiber size, shape and stiffness. The mechanical
and frictional properties may also be altered, thus affecting behavior of the fibers
during processing. Wetting and drying may lead to permanent set or creasing.
Moisture condition or content of fibers is also an important factor in determining
electrical properties (11). The amount of moisture present in a mass of fibers, a
yarn, or a fabric is calculated as moisture regain or moisture content. Moisture
regain is the difference in wet and dry fiber weight relative to the dry fiber
weight, whereas moisture content is water weight loss as a percentage of the
combined fiber and water weight.
8
>
> Original weight  Dry weight
< Moisture regain value ð%Þ ¼
Dry weight
>
> Original weight  Dry weight
: Moisture content value ð%Þ ¼
Original weight

The normal methods for determining these values involve weighing, bone-
drying, and reweighing the test materials. Moisture regain values of common
hydrophilic as well as hydrostatic and hydrophobic fibers at standard testing
conditions of 65% relative humidity and 218C and at higher relative humidity
can be found in the literature (2,11,28,31–33).
Color. The reflection of light falling on an object determines visual
appearance or color of the fibers. These optical properties of fibers are measured
by light microscopy methods and by a colorimeter. The meter measures grayness
(Rd), which indicates how light or dark the sample is, and also yellowness (+b),
which indicates how much yellow color is in the sample. This fiber attribute gives
an indication of the fiber’s quality and its ability to accept dyes in subsequent
textile finishing processes (11, 34–39).
Shrinkage. Shrinkage of a bundle of crimped or non crimped fibers that
contract at least 10% in boiling water or hot air can be determined by ASTM
D2102 and ASTM D5104 methods. More information about the fiber shrinking
mechanisms is available in the literature (40, 41–43).
1.3. Testing of Mechanical Properties. The most important proper-
ties of textile fibers probably are their mechanical properties, such as tensile
or breaking strength, stress–strain behavior, modulus of elasticity, etc. Knowl-
edge of fiber’s mechanical properties is essential in understanding the fiber
 TEXTILES, TESTING 5

behavior during processing as well as in the end product. Fiber strength is clo-
sely related to the spinning efficiency and to the yarn and fabric strengths. The
properties of yarns and fabrics generally are dependent on the fiber properties,
the fiber orientation within the yarn, and the arrangement of the yarns in the
ultimate fabric. Breaking strength of single fiber is determined by using an
instrument such as Instron. However, the testing of single fibers really is tedious
and time-consuming. Therefore, the fiber tensile or breaking strength most com-
monly is measured by breaking a clamped beard of parallel fibers on a Stelometer
with 1/8’’ (or, zero) gage spacing between the clamp jaws. The strength is
reported as the force in grams required to break a bundle of fibers one tex in
size. The bundle strength of fibers may also be determined by using an incline-
plane (for constant rate of loading), or a pendulum-type (for a constant rate of
strain) instrument (11). An overview of test procedures for evaluating the tensile
properties of fibers and their significance is available in Refs. 11,44 (See also
Table 5).
The stress-strain behavior of textile fibers can be obtained by several meth-
ods (21,44–46). The loop and knot strengths of textile fibers are essential.
Their relationship with fiber strength and rupture is available in literature
(11,21,47–49). The elastic property of the fiber is defined by its ability to deform
under below-rupture loads and to return to its original configuration or dimen-
sion upon load removal. The elastic recovery, delayed recovery, and permanent
set of fibers are also measured and their effects on the strain rate, temperature,
length of time strained, etc, have been discussed in the literature (11,30,50–52).
Other fiber deformations such as bending, torsion, shear, and compression also
are of practical importance in textile applications. Several test methods are avail-
able in literature to measure the fiber properties related to such deformations.
For example, the measurement of flexural rigidity of fibers is in Refs. 53–59, of
torsional rigidity of a fiber, or resistance to twisting is in Refs. 60–66, of shear
properties of fibers is in Refs. 60,67, and of the effect of compressive stresses on
a mass of fibers is in Refs. 11,68.
1.4. Testing of Friction. It is mostly interfiber cohesiveness or friction
that holds fibers together in a spun yarn or in a nonwoven fabric. In woven and
knitted fabrics, it is again the interyarn friction that keeps the interlacing yarns
together. High fiber friction can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. If the
fiber-to-fiber friction is too low, the yarn strength will also be low. If the yarn-to-
yarn friction is too low in a woven or a knitted fabric, the fabric dimensional sta-
bility will diminish. Friction also plays an important role in the processing of
fibers, yarns and even fabrics. To avoid excessive fiber breakage, the friction-
induced tension buildup in the fiber during processing must be less than the
average fiber strength. Fabric properties that are influenced by frictional effects
are fabric hand, strength, elongation, abrasion resistance, dimensional stability,
and seam slippage. Fiber friction can be determined by physical methods. For
rapid evaluation of fiber or yarn friction, the capstan method, where a fiber or
a yarn is pulled over a cylindrical surface (usually a highly polished steel rod),
is most commonly used. However, several methods for determining fiber-to-
fiber friction have been developed in the past (69–76) and the frictional proper-
ties of fibers and its measurement scheme are compiled in the manuscript (77).
Because fiber frictional properties are so important in the conversion of staple
6 TEXTILES, TESTING

fibers to spun yarns, the measurement of fiber cohesive/frictional force is essen-

tial. The frictional properties of fibers are affected by the latter’s surface lubrica-
tion, linear density, surface configuration, staple length, and crimp.
1.5. Testing of Electrostatic Properties. In the past it was believed
that static electricity was generated when two different materials were rubbed
together. Though the separation of two unlike surfaces does produce a static
charge, it now has been shown that the asymmetric rubbing of two identical sur-
faces also results in generation of charge (78). If the resulting charge is retained
and accumulated (ie, not conducted away), a measurable electric potential is gen-
erated. If the material under consideration is an electrical conductor that is
grounded, the charge is removed as fast as it is deposited and there is no static
electricity. However, if a material is a dielectric (11), the charge builds up to the
point where it may interfere with textile processing, such as carding and spin-
ning, fabric spreading, and ply separation in the cut-and-sew (garment) industry.
Buildup of static charge may also be objectionable to a person wearing the mate-
rial because of its clinging and sparking. Four criteria, viz., surface resistivity,
volume resistivity, rate of charge buildup and release, and maximum charge cap-
able of being retained, are used to study static electricity in a textile material
(See Table 6).
1.6. Testing of Thermal Properties. Depending on their reaction with
heat or temperature, textile fibers may be classified as thermoplastic, such as
polyamides, polyesters, acrylics, olefins, acetates, etc, and nonthermoplastic
such as wool, silk, cotton, linen, jute, regenerated rayon, and synthetic protein
and aramid fibers. A group of fibers that are highly resistant to high temperature
has been produced from highly aromatic compounds. The well-known fibers in
this group are Kevlar (DuPont), Nomex (DuPont), and PBI (Hoechst-Celanese)
(3). These fibers exhibit no clear melting point, degrade only at very high tem-
peratures, and maintain a high percentage of their original strength even at ele-
vated temperatures. These fibers are primarily used in body armor (Kevlar) and
protective clothing for firefighters, race-car drivers, and astronauts. Their great
thermal stability obviously is responsible for their resistance to burning, as well.
The effect of heat on fibers has been described in Refs. 11,28,79. Contraction tem-
peratures and melting points of thermoplastic fibers are available in Refs. 11,80.
It should be noted that most fibers have similar thermal conductivities and heat
capacities. The heat insulating characteristics of textiles are more related to fab-
ric structure or geometry than they are dependent on constituent fibers’ thermal
characteristics.
It is appropriate to mention here that most of textile testing worldwide
involves cotton and cotton textiles. In fact, cotton is the only natural, agricul-
tural commodity that undergoes intensive testing for stringent quality measure-
ments to assist in its marketing and processing. Accordingly, high volume
instruments (HVI) have been developed to efficiently and cost effectively mea-
sure the fiber’s essential properties, in order to establish uniform cotton quality
standards globally. Although many countries today have quite a few HVI sys-
tems and/or some derivatives thereof, the United States is probably the only
country where cotton lint testing for classification and grading of the country’s
entire cotton production each year is now done on HVI. Australia and China
 TEXTILES, TESTING 7

reportedly are also in the process of completely switching to HVI for classifica-
tion and marketing of their cotton productions.
1.7. Testing of Chemical Properties. Textile fibers widely vary in
their chemical reactivity, and testing for the chemical properties of textile fibers
is of paramount interest (81). Furthermore, concentration of chemicals, proces-
sing temperature and pressure, condition of substrate, and time or exposure of
reaction also greatly influence their chemical reactivity. Both acids and alkalis,
although they are extensively used in many textile processes, can attack and
damage most textile processes and products, if the reaction conditions are impre-
cise and not optimally controlled. For example, even a dilute (4–10%) sulfuric
acid at a high temperature may damage (carbonize) a cotton fabric instantly,
whereas it may not affect a wool fabric. Caustic or ammonia of optimum concen-
tration at a certain temperature may not adversely affect a cotton fabric in wet
condition, but it may instantly damage the treated fabric if it is dried without a
thorough rinsing. Fiber absorbency also plays a critical role in wet finishing of
specially those textiles that are made of two or more different types of fibers
with different absorbencies. For example, cotton, wool, polyester have all differ-
ent absorbencies (ie, affinities for water and other chemicals). When a fabric
made with a blend of these fibers is union dyed or otherwise specially finished,
it is imperative to ensure that the finished product has uniform appearance and
other aesthetics and evenly meets all the required performance attributes.
Frankly, textile wet finishing, although it seems an easy chore, is as complex
as textile manufacturing itself. Knowledge of chemical properties of the various
fibers and chemicals and their conditions involved in textile wet processing is
vital. Chemical reactivity of a few typical fibers with some commonly used che-
micals is briefed below.
Cotton. cotton is a hydrophilic fiber, it has high absorbency compared to
many noncellulosic fibers. Consequently, it is an excellent substrate for many
dyes and special chemical finishes, such as flame-retardant, antimicrobial, dur-
able-press finishes, etc. However, it can be badly damaged, if not totally
destroyed, by oxidation in improper reactions with both acids and alkalis. How-
ever, caustic of certain concentration and conditions is extensively used in wet
finishing of cotton materials, such as scouring and bleaching.
Wool. Wool is a protein fiber, it can accept without damage dilute acids (sul-
furic) even at moderate temperatures, if other conditions of reaction are properly
maintained. To get rid of foreign matter, such as grass, cotton, or any other
organic contaminant, from a woolen/worsted fabric, it is customary to treat a
woolen fabric with a dilute acid in a chemical finishing process called carboniza-
tion. However, extreme care must be exercised in controlling the reaction condi-
tions. Otherwise, a fabric of nonuniform appearance and properties will result.
Polyester and Nylon. Although polyester and nylon are hydrocarbons, they,
unlike cotton, are relatively quite stable in low concentrations of both acids and
alkalis, because they are relatively much less absorbent than cotton or wool.
However, they can fuse, melt, and even decompose at high temperatures,
which sometimes limit their chemical reactivity. In general, when compared to
natural fibers, they are inert to many chemicals, most of which are hydrocarbons,
anyway.
8 TEXTILES, TESTING

2. Textile Yarns

A yarn is a structure of long continuous length of interlocked fibers, which is sui-

table for use in production of fabrics, sewing threads, sweaters, hosiery, ropes, or
reinforced industrial products, such as engine belts, sandpaper, and other com-
posites. Yarn can be made from any number of natural and/or synthetic fibers
and their blends, using one of several spinning systems. Yarn can be a staple-
spun, a mono-filament, or a multi-filament. Yarns can be singles, plied, folded,
or cable. Two or more singles yarns, when twisted together, form a plied
(2-ply, 3-ply, etc) yarn. Two or more singles yarns, when assembled parallel to
each other, ie, without twisting, form a folded yarn. A sewing thread generally
is a 2-ply or 3-ply yarn. Industrial sewing threads may be produced by further
plying two or more ply yarns. Two or more plied yarns, when assembled/twisted
together, can also form a cable yarn, depending on the number and linear density
of constituent components. In some cases, a thread may be a monofilament, in
which case it is a single (synthetic) fiber. The only natural fiber that is considered
as a monofilament is silk.
Yarn is manufactured by a spinning process. Yarn production was one of the
very first industrialized processes. Yarns for fabric manufacture are generally
made by spinning staple fibers (of relatively short lengths) of various natural
and synthetic materials, although substantial quantities of yarns today are also
extruded (melt- or solution- spun) from synthetic or natural polymers. Synthetic
fibers that have high strength, artificial luster, and/or fire-retardant qualities
are blended in different proportions with natural fibers that have good water
absorbency and skin-comforting qualities, in order to produce yarns for manufac-
turing fabrics of desired characteristics for apparel and other end-uses. The most
widely used fiber blends for apparel today are cotton–polyester and perhaps wool–
acrylic. A yarn is usually ‘‘sized,’’ i.e., measured according to its linear (mass) den-
sity. In the United States, staple-spun yarns are generally sized/measured in the
old English system (Ne), which indicates the number of 840-yard hanks in one
pound of yarn. In Europe and in most of the rest world, the unit of yarn measure-
ment often is Tex (g/km), which is the weight in grams of 1000 meters of yarn.
Many other yarn sizing methods and units exist for different types of yarns.
Although there are many kinds and types of yarns, the cotton yarns, and for
that matter any other staple-spun yarns, can be broadly classified as carded or
combed. Carded yarns generally are coarser and fuzzier than combed yarns,
which are smooth, lustrous, and uniform. Combing is a process which removes
about 15% short fibers from the fiber population, while extracting minute
trash and parallelizing the remaining long fibers. Combed yarns generally are
superior to carded yarns and thus command a premium price. Similarly, sheep’s
wool is divided into the following two categories when referring to the resulting
yarn or fabric, depending on the length and fineness of the fibers and the way
they are processed before spinning: Worsted and Woolen. Worsteds are spun
from longer, combed fibers, and the resulting yarn is smooth and firm. Woolen
yarn is spun from only carded (not combed) wool and is fuzzier and weaker
than an equivalent worsted yarn. However, the different characteristics of
 TEXTILES, TESTING 9

both of these yarns definitely produce certain desirable effects in the finished
garments.
2.1. Properties of Textile Yarns. Evaluations and QC of staple and
filament yarns are normally conducted by monitoring some or all of the following
yarn properties:
Appearance: It is generally evaluated with the standard Yarn Standards
maintained by ASTM, AATCC, or individual mills or labs.
Yarn size or Count: Contrary to the linear density method (Direct System)-
for measuring fibers in which weight for a specified length is recorded, yarns in
the United States are usually characterized by count (Indirect System) or the
units (hanks) of certain length for a specific weight. For cotton yarns, the unit
or hank consists of 840 yards of yarn. For worsted yarns, the unit or hank is com-
prised of 560 yards. The unit of weight in both cases is English pound. Table 7
gives yarns size and conversion factors.
Linear density: It is the direct system of sizing yarns. The popular units of
measurements in this system are: tex; dtex; denier, metric (10 km), etc.
Unevenness: It is usually determined as a coefficient of variation (CV %) of
the mass per unit length of a certain length (generally, 1000 m) of the yarn. The
yarn unevenness indirectly is a measure of the yarn ‘‘uniformity or evenness.’’
Imperfections: They are very minor defects especially in cotton and other
staple-spun yarns. Imperfections can be thin places (typically 50% of average
yarn thickness); thick places (+50 % of the average yarn thickness); and neps
(+200% spot density).
Tensile Properties: They include the breaking strength and/or tenacity and
the breaking elongation as a % age of the original test specimen length.
Frictional Properties: They mainly include the coefficient of friction of a
yarn against a highly polished steel cantilever rod (capstan).
Twist Torque/Liveliness: Excessive twist torque in a yarn is very detrimen-
tal to the yarn processing. A well-balanced yarn is preferred.
Abrasion Resistance: This indirectly determines the yarn’s processing per-
formance and ultimately the durability of the end product.
Hairiness: It is a critical characteristic of staple-spun yarns and consider-
ably influences the yarn processing performance and the ‘‘hand and feel’’ of the
end textile.
2.2. Testing of Physical Properties. Size, Number, or Linear Density.
The count of a yarn of a given cross-sectional diameter varies according to the par-
ticular spinning process used. The yarn size conversion Table 7 lists the most com-
mon forms of yarn count, which apply for any fiber or blend of fibers processed by
a particular system. The yarn size can be determined by weighing a specific
length of yarn. Like fibers, continuous-filament yarns are normally sized using
the direct system of determining the linear density of yarns. See also Tables 8 and 9.
Yarn Evenness and Grade. Unevenness of diameter/mass along the yarn
length, which is more prevalent in spun yarns than in filament yarns, gives rise
to poor strength and a non-uniform appearance in fabric form, ie, thick and thin
spots. Yarn evenness is usually measured by passing a length of yarn through an
instrument that continuously measures capacitance. Fluctuations in capacitance
readings are proportional to yarn unevenness. Yarn grade is assessed using a
subjective test and also quantitatively (82).
10 TEXTILES, TESTING

2.3. Testing of Mechanical Properties. Yarn Strength. Yarn

strength is important not only in governing the strength of the resultant textile
structure, but also in terms of the ease of conversion of the yarns into the struc-
ture. Weaving and knitting processes impart significant stresses on the compo-
nent yarns. Weak yarns cause difficulties and breakages in the fabrication
process, resulting in fabric defects and loss of manufacturing efficiency. The
translation of fiber strength to yarn strength is complex even in the case of
rather uniform filament yarns. Although the yarn strength may be expected to
be equal to the fiber strength multiplied by the number of individual fibers in the
yarn cross-section, it, in reality, however, is usually significantly lower than the
sum of the individual fiber strengths. This is explained by the weak-link theory,
which argues that there is a distribution of individual fiber strengths in a yarn
bundle. If all fibers/individual filaments in a yarn are stressed uniformly, the
weakest fiber will break at a combined stress level less than 1/n of the average
yarn strength, where n is the number of fibers/filaments in the yarn (bundle).
The total stress in the yarn then must be shared by the remaining n-1 fibers,
which causes a stress surge in the remaining filaments. This increase in stress
exposure thus causes the filaments to fail at some combined stress level below
that calculated from the average fiber strength multiplied by the number of
fibers/filaments in the yarn bundle. Consequently, the larger the bundle size,
the lower the yarn strength is relative to the predicted value obtained from
the average fiber strength, because the probability or opportunity for the pre-
sence of a weak fiber/filament is increased by the larger number of fibers present.
In staple spun yarns, the yarn strength is only a fraction of that predicted by the
individual fiber strengths and the number of fibers in the yarn cross-section. In
addition to fiber strength, the twist, fiber migration, and frictional forces all
influence yarn strength. If a yarn contains two or more fibers of differing
stress–strain behavior, it would fail at a stress governed by a combination of
the breaking stress of the low-elongation fiber and the stress development in
the high-elongation fiber, at the breaking extension of the low-elongation
fiber. This phenomenon has encouraged the synthetic fiber industry to develop
special fiber variants for blending with cotton and wool to ensure compatibility
of the stress–strain curves for both blended fibers.
Yarn Twist Torque/Liveliness. Excessive twist torque is very detrimental
in yarn processing. A well-balanced yarn is preferred. In staple yarns, twist is
required to force the fibers into contact with one another, thus increasing cohe-
sion and thereby developing yarn strength. Without twist, constituent fibers in a
staple yarn would slip past one another easily. In filament yarns, each individual
filament is as long as the yarn itself, thus, eliminating the concern of yarn break-
age resulting from fiber slippage. Thus, for continuous-filament yarns, twist has
a secondary effect on yarn properties. Without twist in a continuous-filament
yarn, the individual filaments would spread out, separate from one another,
and cause the bundle to lack unit integrity. Twist in continuous-filament yarns
is also useful to help prevent snagging by tucking any loose fiber filaments into
the yarn bundle or structure. Twist results have been discussed (83). Measure-
ment of twist in a yarn spun on an open-end spinning system, which is a kind of
modern, relatively newer and faster method of yarn spinning as compared to con-
ventional ring spinning, is difficult. The difficulty arises because of wrapper
 TEXTILES, TESTING 11

fibers on the yarn surface. Because these fibers in part lay loosely on the yarn sur-
face, during the untwisting of the yarn they tend to become twisted and lead to an
erroneous measurement of yarn twist. Optical observation of the surface fibers has
been suggested as the most reliable method for measuring twist in open-end spun
yarns (84). The selection of twist level is important not only in establishing the sur-
face characteristics of the yarn (eg, low twist for a soft, fuzzy yarn and high twist
for a compact, smooth yarn), but also in determining the yarn strength. Yarn
strength as a function of yarn twist level is shown in Fig. 1.
As seen from Figure 1, there is an optimum twist level in terms of strength
development in spun yarns. As the twist increases, the frictional forces holding
the fibers together increases, thus reducing the chances of yarn breakage as a
result of fiber slippage. However, twist in excess of the optimal development of
frictional forces can cause a decrease in fiber orientation with respect to the
yarn axis. This decrease in orientation causes a decrease in strength because
only in the most oriented position do fibers bear the maximum stress in a tensile
test. Therefore, optimization of twist level for desired strength for a given appli-
cation and for desired yarn surface characteristics must occur. Because a given
number of turns per unit length produce a greater helix angle in a thicker, ie, a
low-count, yarn than in a thinner one, it is customary to express twist in the form
of twist multiplier or twist factor. These terms take into account the turns per
unit length required to give a constant helix angle in yarns of differing counts.
If this unit of twist measurement is substituted for the horizontal axis in Fig. 1,
then it is possible to determine the optimum twist level for maximum yarn
strength for any size yarn of a given fiber composition. Filament yarns require
much lower twist factors for optimum strength than spun yarns. These yarns
are often used as supplied by the manufacturer and contain producer twist
only, which can be as low as 0.25 turns per centimeter. Singles yarns may be
twisted together to form a plied yarn. Several plied yarns may be twisted
together to form a cable yarn, or a rope yarn. Several cable or rope yarns may
also be combined and twisted together to produce an even bigger and stronger
cord. A method for analyzing yarn construction and the nomenclature used to
define yarn construction is found in ASTM D1244 (See Table 10.)
2.4. Testing of Friction Properties. Frictional properties of yarns are
important in considering the performance life of some machine components, eg,
yarn guides, heddles, reed dents, and knitting and sewing needles. Frictional
properties also affect the quality and performance attributes of yarns. In high-
speed sewing, yarn friction plays an important part in the fabric-to-thread inter-
action. Sewing threads must be highly lubricated to ensure good stitch quality.
In sewing, high yarn friction may result in needle heating, which in turn may
cause yarn fusing and even the needle breakage. Also, high yarn-to-yarn friction
may hinder the needling from passing between yarns during stitching, thus
causing poor stitch quality. In determining frictional properties, it must be
remembered that no coefficient of friction exists for a single body. The coefficient
of friction measures the frictional interaction between two bodies or elements in
dynamic contact (See Table 11).
Testing of Abrasion Resistance, Hairiness, and Fiber Migration. Abra-
sion resistance indirectly determines the yarn’s processing performance and ulti-
mately the durability of the end product and it is the ability to withstand rubbing
12 TEXTILES, TESTING

or frictional forces on its surface (9). ASTM D 6611-00 has test method for esti-
mating yarn-on-yarn abrasion resistance of wet and dry yarn. Hairiness is a cri-
tical characteristic of only staple-spun yarns. It considerably influences the yarn
processing performance and the ‘‘hand and feel’’ of the end textile product. A
guide for estimating yarn hairiness by photo-electric apparatus is given in
ASTM D 5647-01. Fiber migration, which influences yarn properties, is the ‘‘abil-
ity or desirability’’ of individual staple fibers (in a dynamic fibrous bundle) to
alter their radial positions along the length of the bundle in a yarn formation/
spinning process. It enhances the interlocking of the fibers in the yarn structure
and increases the number of contact points among the fibers. An in-depth discus-
sion of fiber migration in yarn is available in Refs. 86–88. A comprehensive dis-
cussion of the effects of fiber migration, or lack thereof on fabric drape, hand, pill
resistance, and abrasion resistance, along with various methods for determining
fiber migration, is also available in (89) (See Table 11).
Testing of Textured Yarns. Synthetic filament yarns are often textured
to impart stretch, comfort, and bulk properties, which are desirable for certain
clothing. Texturing also alters hand and luster and improves insulating proper-
ties of the filament and its ultimate product. In evaluating textured yarns, along
with typical yarn properties such as linear density, strength, and elongation,
the yarn shrinkage and bulk are of special importance. Properties of textured
yarns are mostly determined by using the standard test methods for regular
continuous-filament yarns by using a Dynamic Textured Yarn Tester described
in ASTM D 6774-02 (90–93) (See Table 11).

3. Textile Fabrics

A textile fabric can be broadly defined as an integrated, flexible structure of tex-

tile fibrous material. A fabric is constructed in many ways, such as weaving, knit-
ting, nonwoven, composites, and any derivative thereof. However, the weaving is
by far the most common method of producing fabrics, worldwide. Knitting comes
next, followed by nonwovens and others. In weaving, two sets of yarns, viz., warp
and filling, are required to construct a fabric by interlacing the two sets of yarns,
while only one set of yarn, or even just one yarn package, may be used to knit a
fabric. A nonwoven fabric from staple fibers is produced by simply preparing a
card web or an air-laid mass of fibers, interlocking the fibers by mechanical
action or fusing them by heat, chemical or adhesive, and finally finishing the
fabric as required. Spunbonding and melt-blown technologies are most often
used in the production of non-woven fabrics directly from polymer chips. Within
each of these broad classifications of fabrics, there are numerous types of fabrics
for even more numerous applications in the apparel, household, furnishing, med-
ical, military, industrial, geo, transportation industries, and huge retail markets.
Examples of fabrics used in apparel are woven poplins and single-knits for shirt-
ing; woven twills and double-knits for trousers; leno, voiles and lawns for blouses;
and plain broadcloth for pajamas. Examples of household fabrics are sheeting, blan-
kets, and terry towels. Similarly, the upholstery, drapes and table cloths are exam-
ples of home/office furnishings. Diaper and wipes perhaps are the largest end-use
application of consumer nonwoven fabrics. Basically, fabrics are designed and
 TEXTILES, TESTING 13

produced according to their end-use applications. Fabric metrics, viz., fiber content,
yarn structure, and fabric construction and finishing, largely determine the end-
use performance of a particular fabric (See also Table 12 and 13).
The main types of fabrics are: Woven (conventional, tri-axial, multi-axial),
plain, twill, stain and sateen weaves and their derivatives; knitted [weft knitted
(single-knits, double-knits), warp knitted]; and nonwoven (needle-punched felts;
spun-laid for synthetics; hydro/air–entangled).
3.1. Properties of Textile Fabrics. Depending on the end-use applica-
tion of a fabric, the following properties may be important in evaluation of the
fabric:
Physical Properties: Aesthetic appearance, hand, luster, width, uniformity
construction/thread count, shrinkage, and weight per unit length or area.
Mechanical Properties: Tensile strength, tearing strength, abrasion resis-
tance, and pilling resistance.
Chemical Characteristics: Flame resistance or retardancy, antimicro bac-
terial character, substrate value, and effect of acids and alkalis.
Performance Characteristics: Absorbency and comfort, dimensional stabi-
lity, easy-care/durable-press, conductivity (static charge), effects of light and
environment on color fastness, and the ultimate core performance and durabil-
ity. Table 14 gives representative properties of some typical fabrics.
3.2. Testing of Textile Fabrics, General. Textile testing is the use of
engineering principles in the measurement of properties of textile fibers, yarns
and fabrics. Tests performed on textile structures relate to, but do not necessarily
define, textile’s use performance. These tests can be categorized as either objec-
tive or subjective. Objective testing is done on standard equipment with estab-
lished test procedures. Subjective testing or evaluation is based on human
perception and generally follows after fabric finishing and especially after cer-
tain number of laundering and/or dry cleaning cycles, in order to evaluate the
fabric’s performance in use.
Properties of finished textile fabrics are an accumulation of properties of con-
stituent fiber(s), yarn configuration, fabric construction, and selected finish. Fiber
properties, beside their very important uniformity and consistency, include length,
crimp, transverse dimensions, density, cross-sectional shape, shrinkage, friction,
moisture absorption, electrostatic and thermal properties, as well as optical, tensile,
and elastic properties. Yarn properties, again, beside their uniformity and consis-
tency, include size or number, twist, strength, evenness, friction, and texture. Fab-
ric properties include construction (number of yarn strands per unit area and type of
weave or stitch); thickness; air permeability; breaking strength and elongation;
snag, pilling and abrasion resistance; shrinkage; thermal and moisture transmis-
sion; color fastness after certain number of laundering/dry-cleaning cycles; flamm-
ability; hand; drape; wrinkle resistance; luster; and comfort, among others.
Properties of textile structures are dictated by interactions of the properties and
parameters of the constituent materials and the processing treatments thereof.
Table 15–18 show the standard fabric test methods recommended by ASTM and
AATCC.
Objective Tests. Fabric properties are dependent on the geometry and
form of the fabric structure, as well as the properties of the yarns or fibers
from which the fabric is constructed. The three principal types of fabric struc-
14 TEXTILES, TESTING

tures are woven, knitted, and nonwoven. In many cases, the types of tests
required to characterize fabric properties are defined by the fabric structure
itself. Those properties that are measurable in quantitative terms using instru-
mentation are referred to as objective properties, eg, tensile strength or color
measurement. Other fabric characteristics must be evaluated, at least in part,
by human observation and judgment. These are referred to as subjective proper-
ties. Fabric hand, drape, luster, and comfort are of this second category (28),
although in more recent years, instrumentation has been developed to allow
quantification of some of these properties. Many of the test methods for deter-
mining physical properties of fabrics are ASTM standards (1). Test methods
requiring chemical procedures are primarily based on AATCC standards (2).
Because of the moisture sensitivity of most textile materials, particularly hydro-
philic fibers such as cotton, and the dependence of physical properties on the
moisture content of the material, most test procedures should be carried out at
standard conditions of temperature and humidity. For a textile testing labora-
tory, these conditions generally are 21  18C and 65  2% relative humidity,
as specified in ASTM D1776.
3.3. Testing of Physical Properties. Fabric Construction. Woven
fabrics are characterized in terms of length, width, yarn count, and yarn crimp. Fab-
ric analysis may also include raveling warp and filling yarns to determine type of
yarn and its twist level. In addition, the weave of the fabric is usually specified,
eg, plain, twill, or satin weave. Knitted fabric constructions are characterized by
yield (area per weight), width, length, and yarn count (number of courses and
wales per unit length). The type of knit is also specified, eg, warp knit or weft
knit. Yarn analysis may be difficult on account of problems in raveling individual
yarns from the knitted structure, particularly warp knits. Regardless of
whether the fabric structure is woven or knitted, accurate characterization of
construction parameters is necessary to evaluate test results for other properties
and to explain differences noted when comparing test data from fabrics of different
constructions. Nonwoven fabrics are generally described by the method of
production, eg, needle-punched or spun-bonded (95) (See also Table 15).
Thickness. Because two fabrics that have identical weight per unit area
values may have widely varying bulks; so the specification of thickness is essen-
tial for properly characterizing a fabric. Fabric thickness has been shown to be
directly proportional to thermal insulation, or warmth. Fabric warmth is the
result of the entrapment of air between fibers and yarns. A thicker fabric in gen-
eral allows an increased amount of entrapped air and thus is warmer. The proper
methods for measuring fabric thickness are described in ASTM D1777. Because
fabric thickness is dependent on the applied pressure, any measurement of thick-
ness should also report the pressure at which the measurement was made. Thus,
an apparatus capable of applying variable pressure to the sample while deter-
mining thickness would be desirable. Many instruments, however, allow only
incremental increases in pressure, depending on the weight used. Regardless
of the instrument used, it is always necessary to state the pressure under
which the thickness was determined.
Air Permeability. Air permeability is an important parameter for certain
fabric end uses, eg, parachute fabrics, boat sails, warm clothing, rainwear, and
industrial air filters. Air permeability of a fabric is related to its cover, or opacity.
 TEXTILES, TESTING 15

Both of these properties are related to the amount of space between yarns
(or fibers in the case of nonwovens). The most common method for specifying
air permeability of a fabric involves measuring the air flow per unit area at a con-
stant pressure differential between the two surfaces of the fabric. Units for air
permeability measured by this method are generally abbreviated as CFM, or
cubic feet per square foot per minute. An alternative method for measuring air
permeability is based on measuring differential pressure when a constant rate of
air flow passes through the fabric. In this case, air resistance is reported in typi-
cal units of kPas/m.
3.4. Testing of Mechanical Properties. Breaking Strength and
Elongation. The breaking strength and elongation (extensibility) of woven fab-
rics are often used as quality-control parameters. These properties are especially
important for industrial uses where tensile strength is a principal consideration.
For many apparel uses, however, breaking strength is of little consequence,
although minimum standards are generally reported in most ASTM performance
specifications. Most fabrics far exceed the reported minimum tensile strength
standards. Nonetheless, tensile strength tests, generally easy to conduct, are
relied upon as popular quality-control tests. In some cases, the maximum or
minimum elongation produced at a selected stress level below rupture is speci-
fied as a criterion, eg, percent stretch in stretch fabrics. Two types of fabric ten-
sile strength tests are commonly used: the grab test (ASTM D5034) and the
raveled strip method (D5035). These tests are designed to be carried out on
either constant rate of extension (CRE), constant rate of load (CRL), or constant
rate of traverse (CRT) testing machines, although CRE testers are becoming the
most commonly used. Empirical attempts have been made to relate strip and
grab test results, particularly for cotton fabrics, so that if one strength is
known, the other can be calculated. The relationship is complex, depending on
fiber strength and modulus, yarn size and crimp, yarn-to-yarn friction, fabric
cover factor, weave, weight, and other factors (28) (See also Table 16.)
Bursting Strength. The tensile tests discussed above are not suitable for
knitted fabrics because of the distribution of applied forces in all directions in a
knitted structure. The strengths of knitted fabrics are measured by determining
bursting strength. ASTM D3786 describes the measurement of bursting strength
of knits of low-to-intermediate extensibility using a hydraulic burst tester. The
fabric is held over an expanding diaphragm, and the hydraulic pressure in the
diaphragm at the instant of fabric rupture is reported. For knitted fabrics exhi-
biting high extensibility to failure, the ball burst test is recommended. A polished
steel ball is pressed onto a rigidly held circle of knitted fabric. The force on the
ball required to rupture the fabric is reported as breaking strength.
Tear Strength and Energy. For flat, sheet-like materials such as woven
fabric, films, paper, and leather, the breaking strength of a material in a tensile
test is generally stronger than its tear resistance. Although it may be difficult
to initiate a tear in any of these materials, once started the tear can usually
be propagated using relatively low force. Three basic methods for determining
tear strength have historically been used for testing textile fabrics: the tongue
tear (ASTM D2261 and D2262), the Elmendorf tear (D1424), and the trapezoid
tear (D1117). The tongue and Elmendorf (falling pendulum) methods are gener-
ally used for woven fabrics, and the trapezoid method is recommended for
16 TEXTILES, TESTING

nonwoven fabrics. The tongue tear test can be performed on either a CRE-type
tester (ASTM D2261) or a CRT-type tester (D2262), although the former is pre-
ferred. The trapezoid test method (ASTM D1117) is recommended for determin-
ing the tear resistance of nonwoven fabrics.
Snag Resistance. Although knits do not tear easily, they are prone to
snagging on sharp, pointed objects. The tendency of a woven and knitted fabric
to snag can be measured. Fabric specimens in tubular form are placed on a rotat-
ing cylindrical drum, and a mace is allowed to bounce randomly against the
rotating specimen. The degree of snagging is evaluated by comparison of the
tested specimen with visual standards of fabrics or photographs of fabrics. Resis-
tance to snagging is reported on a scale from 5 (no snagging) to 1 (very severe
snagging). A second snag test method is the bean bag snag test. Each fabric spe-
cimen is made into a cover for a bean bag, which is randomly tumbled for 100
revolutions in a cylindrical test chamber fitted on its inner surface with rows
of pins. Evaluation is similar to that for the mace snag test. For tests performed
in simulated situations such as the snag tests, the results are meaningful only if
an established correlation exists between performance in the tests and in wear
situations. Thus, the acceptable level of performance in the test should not be
selected arbitrarily but should be established in actual wear studies (96).
Stretch and Compressional Resilience. The growth and stretch proper-
ties of knitted fabrics can be determined according to ASTM D2594. This test is
for fabrics intended for applications requiring low power stretch properties. To
determine growth (or stretch recovery), the specimen is extended to a specified
percentage stretch and held for a prescribed length of time. The specimen is
then allowed to recover under zero load. During the recovery period, the speci-
men length is measured at various time intervals. Fabric stretch is measured
by applying a load to a fabric specimen of known length and determining the
length of the fabric before and after loading. A similar method, ASTM D3107,
has been developed for measuring stretch and stretch recovery of woven fabrics
made in whole or in part from stretch yarns. The term stretch yarns refers to
thermoplastic filament or spun yarns having a high degree of potential elastic
stretch and rapid recovery. These yarns are characterized by a high degree of
yarn curl. Resilience of textile fabrics when compressed in the bent state is
related to wrinkle resistance and retention of shape, drape, and hand. Resilience
is an important parameter for evaluating blankets, wearing apparel in which
warmth is a factor, pile fabrics including carpets, and bulk fiber utilization in
mattresses, cushions, etc. The general method for determining compressional
resilience is to compress and unload the material cyclically, creating a plot of
compressive force versus fabric thickness.
3.5. Testing of Pilling, Abrasion and Wear. Pilling Resistance.
Fabrics containing high strength synthetic fibers, especially in blends with
weaker natural fibers, exhibit a tendency for pill formation in varying degrees.
The mechanism of pill formation involves breaking of the weaker fibers and
entangling of the stronger fibers with some retention of the broken fibers, result-
ing in small balls of fiber adhering to the fabric surface. Pilling resistance testing
involves rubbing the sample against a mildly abrasive surface, followed by visual
comparison of the fabric sample to a series of photographic standards represent-
ing no pilling (No. 5) to very severe pilling (No. 1). The most common method of
 TEXTILES, TESTING 17

testing for pilling resistance is the random tumble method (ASTM D3512), the
brush pilling test (ASTM D3511) and elastomeric pad method (ASTM D3514)
calls for laundering of the sample, followed by rubbing against an elastomeric
pad. Synthetic fiber producers have attempted to minimize the tendency for pil-
ling by several methods, one of which is to reduce polymer molecular weight. The
resulting lower strength fiber would break away from the fabric surface more
readily. Another method for reducing pilling is to notch or etch the fiber surface
either before or after incorporation in fabric form (See also Table 17).
Abrasion and Wear Resistance. Abrasion resistance is generally mea-
sured by subjecting the fabric to some type of rubbing action under known con-
ditions of pressure, tension, and abrasive action. The term wear is broader in
scope and includes the combined effects of additional factors such as laundering,
dry cleaning, ironing, and wearing of apparel. Correlation of laboratory abrasion
resistance with general wear resistance is very difficult. More often than not,
laboratory testing is useful for predicting the relative abrasion resistance of a
series of samples that vary greatly in resistance properties. Resistance to abra-
sion is affected by such factors as fiber properties, yarn structure, fabric con-
struction, dyes and finishes, as well as test factors such as the nature of the
abradant, tension of the specimen, pressure between specimen and abradant,
and dimensional changes in the specimen. Depending on the test method, the
abradant itself may change over the course of the test. Seven common abrasion
test methods are as follows:
Rotary Platform, Double-Head Method (ASTM D3884). Abrasion resistance
can be evaluated either by determining the loss in breaking load of the abraded area
after a specified number of cycles or by determining the number of cycles required
to give specified destruction, eg, color change as based on the AATCC Gray Scale.
Flexing and Abrasion Method (ASTM D3885). This method tests the resis-
tance of woven fabrics to flexing and abrasion. The specimen is subjected to
unidirectional reciprocal folding and rubbing over a bar under known conditions
of pressure and tension. Resistance to flexing and abrasion is evaluated by
determining the number of cycles to rupture the specimen, by comparing the
breaking load of the abraded fabric to the breaking load for nonabraded fabric,
or by examining the abraded specimen for visual changes to luster, color,
napping, pilling, etc.
Inflated Diaphragm Method (ASTM D3886). This method is applicable both
to woven and knitted fabrics. The specimen is abraded by rubbing either unidir-
ectionally or multidirectionally against an abradant having specified surface
characteristics. The specimen is supported by an inflated rubber diaphragm
under a constant pressure. Evaluation of abrasion resistance can be either by
determination of the number of cycles required to wear through the center of
the fabric completely or by visual examination of the specimens after a specified
number of cycles.
Oscillatory Cylinder Method (ASTM D4157). This test is applicable to
woven fabrics and measures abrasion resistance by subjecting the specimen to
unidirectional rubbing action under known conditions of pressure, tension, and
abrasive action. Abrasion resistance may be evaluated either by determining
the number of cycles required to rupture the specimen, by comparing the break-
ing load of the abraded fabric to the breaking load for nonabraded fabric, or by
18 TEXTILES, TESTING

examining the abraded specimen for visual changes to luster, color, napping,
pilling, etc.
Uniform Abrasion Method (ASTM D4158). This test is applicable to a wide
range of textile fabrics and materials, including floor coverings. Abrasive action
is applied uniformly in all directions in the plane of the specimen surface. The
test may be run dry or wet. Evaluation is made by comparing initial and final
value for various properties, which may be thickness, weight, electrical capaci-
tance, or absorption of beta emission from a radioactive surface. An abrasion
curve may be constructed by plotting values for the measured quantity against
the number of rotations of the tester.
Martindale Abrasion Tester Method (ASTM D4966). The Martindale tester
is used to determine the abrasion resistance of woven or knitted textile fabrics by
subjecting the specimen to straight-line rubbing motion, which becomes a gradu-
ally widening ellipse, until it forms another straight line in the opposite direction
under known conditions of pressure and abrasive action. Evaluation of abrasion
resistance is either by determining the number of cycles to break two or more
threads on a woven fabric or by causing a hole in a knitted fabric. Change in
shade, as evaluated using the AATCC Gray Scale for Color Change, can also
be used to determine the end point.
Impeller Tumble or Accelerotor Method (AATCC 93). A fabric specimen is
driven by a rotor in a random path so that it repeatedly impinges the walls
and abradant liner of the test chamber. The specimen is subjected to flexing, rub-
bing, shock, compression, stretching, and other mechanical forces during the
test. Evaluation of abrasion resistance is based on weight loss of the specimen,
loss in breaking load, or changes in various other properties, such as air perme-
ability, light transmission appearance, or hand. The variety of evaluation meth-
ods for abrasion resistance testing requires the tester to choose a method to align
most closely with the desired performance of the fabric under end-use conditions.
Although abrasion to rupture is an easy parameter to measure, unsightliness of a
textile garment or other consumer product would precede this stage. Alternative
techniques are the measurement of weight loss or the measure of remaining fab-
ric strength after abrasion. However, even these results generally exceed the
degree of fabric surface damage objectionable to the consumer. For example, in
blended fabrics containing two fibers of slightly varying color shades, preferen-
tial wear of one fiber can cause a shade change in the abraded area known as
frosting. Therefore, visual observations should be made frequently over the
course of testing, and the first detectable appearance changes should be noted.
The determination of the point where unacceptable damage to the fabric result-
ing from abrasion begins to occur is subjective and depends on the judgment of
the observer. Thus, abrasion-testing results often show a great deal of variabil-
ity. Acceptance standards and controls for evaluation of abrasion results have, in
many cases, not been estalished. Therefore, acceptability criteria must be deter-
mined based on requirements for the specific material and end use. Fiber
requirements for high abrasion resistance are low modulus of elasticity, large
immediate elastic deflection, high ratio of primary to secondary creep, high mag-
nitude of primary creep, and high rate of creep recovery. Three methods of fiber
abrasion are frictional wear, surface cutting, and fiber rupture or slippage. Sur-
face cutting occurs when a fiber is subjected to metal-cutting or grinding, as
 TEXTILES, TESTING 19

when a fine abrasive or emery surface is rubbed across a fabric, and is applicable
where surface projections of the abrading surface are small relative to fiber dia-
meter (See also Table 17).
3.6. Performance and Chemical Characteristics
Flammability. The terminology relating to the testing of flammability of
textile fabrics and the resulting classifications of materials may be somewhat
confusing. ASTM D4391 defines standard terminology relating to the burning
behavior of textiles. A material may be classified as combustible, flame-resistant,
flammable, noncombustible, or nonflammable. Various organizations and gov-
ernment agencies have established test methods for determining flammability
and these methods are indexed and described in ASTM D4723. The Consumer
Product Safety Commission (CPSC) has defined specifications and test methods
for clothing and textiles, including 16 CFR 1610 for general wearing apparel; 16
CFR 1615 for children’s sleepwear, sizes 0 through 6X; 16 CFR 1616 for chil-
dren’s sleepwear, sizes 7 through 14; and 16 CFR 1630 for carpets and rugs.
In addition to the conventional methods for determining flammability of the fab-
ric itself, some laboratories are using techniques for studying the thermal protec-
tion afforded by a garment. A few research laboratories are equipped with
mannequins containing heat sensors to provide a temperature profile when the
garment covering the mannequin is exposed directly to flames representing flash
fire conditions. Garments tested in this manner are generally made of high per-
formance fibers such as Nomex (DuPont) and are designed for use by the mili-
tary, race car drivers, or firefighters. (See also able 18).
Laundering Shrinkage (Dimensional Instability). Shrinkage, often a
result of laundering textile fabrics, can be of three types: relaxation, swelling,
or felting. Relaxation shrinkage occurs when a fabric that has been finished in
a stretched state is exposed to heat and/or moisture and allowed to relax. Swel-
ling shrinkage may occur when a fabric that is composed of hydrophilic fibers is
soaked in water, resulting in the increase of fiber diameter relative to the fiber
length. Because hydrophobic fibers do not swell in water, they do not shrink by
this mechanism when laundered. Hydrophobic fibers are much more susceptible
to relaxation shrinkage. Felting shrinkage is associated exclusively with wool
and other animal hair fibers and is characterized by a continued reduction in fab-
ric area and increase in fabric density. Felting is caused by a combination of heat,
moisture, and mechanical motion during aqueous washing. Five AATCC meth-
ods are described for determining the dimensional stability of fabrics and gar-
ments (AATCC 135, 150, 96, 158, 99) (See also Table 18).
Thermal Transmission. Thermal transmission of a fabric is an important
property affecting the comfort of a garment made from that fabric. Dry heat
transfer can be by conduction, convection, or radiation. As related to comfort,
heat transfer can also occur by evaporative heat loss from sweating skin. Ther-
mal transmittance is defined as the overall heat transfer through a fabric result-
ing from a combination of the three mechanisms for dry heat transfer (97).
Because the convection mechanism is based on the transport of heat by moving
air or liquids, the insulating properties of a textile fabric are therefore improved
by creating dead air spaces between and within fabric layers to reduce
heat transfer by convection (98). Increasing fabric thickness can also reduce
heat transfer. Although fabric thickness correlates well with thermal insulation,
20 TEXTILES, TESTING

fabric weight per unit area shows almost no correlation to this property. Thus,
the fabric’s ability to maintain its thickness under conditions of compression, ten-
sion, bending, laundering, dry cleaning, and wear can affect its insulative prop-
erties under conditions of use. One additional factor is fabric density. Two fabrics
may have the same thickness and, hence, the same thermal conductivity, but to
obtain such equal thickness, different weights of fiber may be needed. Thus,
aggregates of different fibers may have different bulk densities, and on this
weight basis one fiber may exhibit a thermal insulating advantage over another.
Thermal conductivity of a fabric is related to its air permeability, or movement of
air between the interstices of the yarn and fabric. For fabrics of a given thick-
ness, the one that has greater air permeability allows greater heat dissipation
by convection. Thus thermal insulation falls as air velocity rises. A guarded
hot-plate method, ASTM D1518, is used to measure the rate of heat transfer
over time from a warm metal plate.
Water Repellency and Water Resistance. Water repellency is defined as
the ability of a textile fiber, yarn, or fabric to resist wetting, whereas water resis-
tance is a general term applied to a fabric’s ability to resist wetting and penetra-
tion by water (2). A third term, waterproof, is applied to those fabrics that do
not allow any water penetration at all. Waterproof fabrics are generally coated
with an impermeable surface layer that does not allow air permeability.
Water-repellent finishes are hydrophobic compounds that are applied to fabrics
to inhibit water penetration while still allowing air permeability. AATCC meth-
ods for determining water repellency are AATCC 22 (spray test) and AATCC 70
(tumble jar dynamic absorption test). In the spray test, water is sprayed against
the taut surface of the test specimen to produce a wetted pattern the size of
which depends on the repellency of the fabric. Evaluation is by comparing the
pattern with a series of patterns on a standard chart. The latter method evalu-
ates the percentage by weight of water absorbed by a sample after dynamic expo-
sure to water for a specified period of time. Water resistance test methods include
AATCC 127 (hydrostatic pressure test), AATCC 42 (impact penetration test), and
AATCC 35 (rain test). In the hydrostatic pressure test, a sample is subjected to a
column of increasing water pressure until leakage occurs. The impact penetra-
tion test requires water to be sprayed on the taut surface of a fabric sample
from a height of two feet. The fabric is backed by a blotter of predetermined
weight, which is reweighed after water penetration. The rain test is similar in
principle to the impact penetration test.
Color, Colorfastness, and Lightfastness. Spectrophotometers are com-
monly used to quantify color shade and intensity. White light impinged on the
surface of a dyed fabric causes light of a specific wavelength to be absorbed or
reflected, depending on the properties of the chromopores in the dye. The
reflected light passes through a prism and is measured by a photoelectric cell.
A plot of reflectance (or absorbance) versus wavelength results. Although this
curve is adequate to define quantitatively any color, the transmission of these
plots from customer to dye house is difficult. However, it is possible to define a
color by comparing the intensities of the three reflected primary colors, ie, red,
green, and blue. Thus, a system of tristimulus values allows the storage and
transmission of color data. Dyestuff manufacturers list these tristimulus values
for each of their dyes as measured for fabrics of specific fiber content, allowing
 TEXTILES, TESTING 21

the dyer to approximate closely the desired color. Final adjustment should still be
made by a human eye skilled in shade matching. The science of color measure-
ment has been explored by various authors (99,100). AATCC evaluation proce-
dure no. 6 describes a method for instrumental measurement of color of a
textile fabric. AATCC evaluation procedure no. 7 may be used to determine the
color difference between two fabrics of a similar shade. Instrumentation may be
either a spectrophotometer for measuring reflectance versus wavelength, or a
colorimeter for measuring tristimulus values under specified illumination. If a
spectrophotometer is used, however, the instrument must be equipped with tris-
timulus integrators capable of producing data in terms of CIE X, Y, and Z tristi-
mulus values. Another test method applicable to textiles is ASTM E313, Indexes
of Whiteness and Yellowness of Near-White, Opaque Materials. The method is
based on obtaining G, ie, green reflectance, and B, ie, blue reflectance, from X,
Y, and Z tristimulus values. Whiteness and yellowness indices are then calcu-
lated from the G and B values. This method has particular applicability to mea-
surement of whiteness of bleached textiles. AATCC test method 110 also
addresses measurement of the whiteness of textiles.
A variety of test methods exist for determining the fastness, or color reten-
tion, properties of dyed fabric exposed to various conditions of weathering, laun-
dering, or general exposure associated with the end use of the product. The
AATCC Technical Manual should be consulted for the applicable test method
for the expected exposure of the sample. Fastness to acids and alkalies, bleach-
ing, gas fumes, crocking, dry cleaning, heat, light, perspiration, washing (laun-
dering), seawater, and numerous other conditions can be determined according
to AATCC methods. Four of the most common types of colorfastness tests are
described below. Evaluation of the results is generally performed by visual com-
parison of the exposed samples to the unexposed against the AATCC Gray Scale
for Color Change.
AATCC test method no. 16 describes various techniques for measuring
lightfastness of textiles. Exposure can be directly to the sun through glass or
by an accelerated method using a carbon-arc or xenon light source. The xenon
light source is the most commonly used accelerated exposure type, has a spectral
distribution similar to sunlight, and gives better correlation with direct sunlight
than the carbon-arc lamp (See also Table 18).

Laundering Fastness: Colorfastness to laundering (washing) under various

conditions of temperature, bleaching, and abrasive action is determined accord-
ing to AATCC test method no. 61. A Launder-Ometer or other apparatus for
rotating closed containers in a thermostatically controlled water bath is
required.
Abrasive action: It is accomplished by the use of a low liquor ratio and
an appropriate number of steel balls enclosed with the sample in a cylindrical
container. Samples are sewn to a multifiber test fabric, and the color change of
both fabrics after laundering is evaluated using an appropriate color change scale.
Gas Fading: Many dyes used in textiles, particularly disperse dyes on acet-
ate, triacetate, and polyester, will fade on exposure to oxides of nitrogen derived
from the combustion of illuminating or heating gas. Gas fading can also occur in
some sensitive resin-bonded pigments applied to cotton fabrics. AATCC test
22 TEXTILES, TESTING

method no. 23 describes a method for exposure of test specimens and a control
fabric to oxides of nitrogen until the control shows a change in color correspond-
ing to that of the standard of fading. The test specimen is then examined for fad-
ing. If none is observed, the cycle is repeated until fading is obvious. The
specimen is then ranked according to the number of exposures required to pro-
duce a shade change and the change in color according to the AATCC gray
scale.
Fastness to Crocking: Crocking is defined as the transfer of color from the
surface of a dyed fabric to another surface by rubbing. AATCC test method no. 8
is a method by which a colored test fabric swatch is fastened to the base of a
Crockmeter and rubbed against a white crock test cloth under controlled condi-
tions. Color transfer to the white cloth is evaluated by comparison with the
AATCC Chromatic Transference Scale. A similar method, AATCC 116, uses a
Rotary Vertical Crockmeter, which requires a smaller area of test fabric than
the Crockmeter.
Soil Redeposition and Soil Release. Hydrophobic synthetic fibers have
affinity for oily materials and therefore attract oily soils to a greater extent than
natural fibers and hydrophilic synthetic fibers. To promote release during laun-
dering of oily stains, a number of soil-release and whiteness-retention finishes
have been developed. Two factors are involved in evaluating the soiling charac-
teristics of fabrics: the amount of soil that can be deposited on a fabric during
laundering, and the ease with which soil can be removed during laundering. Sev-
eral AATCC methods exist to evaluate soil release of fabrics. AATCC test method
no. 130 measures a fabric’s ability to release oily stains during laundering by
using a weight to force a stain into a fabric and then rating the residual stain
after laundering by comparison with a standard replica. AATCC test methods
no. 151 measure a fabric’s resistance to soil re-deposition during laundering
using a launder-ometer and a terg-o-tometer, respectively; the latter is a more
accelerated test. This method evaluates soil edeposition by measuring the change
in reflectance of the samples. Carpet soiling can be evaluated by AATCC 121,
122, and 123. Method no. 121 describes a procedure for visually rating degrees
of cleanness in floor coverings; 122 involves subjecting carpets to foot traffic; and
123 is an accelerated laboratory procedure for tumbling carpet samples and a
prepared synthetic soil in a ball mill, followed by evaluation by the visual rating
method. The cross-sections of many carpet fibers, eg, trilobal or internal voids,
are designed to hide soil, so carpet appearance does not always correlate with
the amount of dirt present in the carpet (See also Table 18).
3.7. Subjective Tests. Fabric Hand or Handle. Fabric handle is
somewhat difficult to define, although the term generally refers to properties
such as draping quality, fullness, or stiffness (95). ASTM D123 defines a list of
eight terms relating to fabric properties that make up the components of the gen-
eral term, hand. These properties are flexibility, compressibility, extensibility,
resilience, density, surface contour, surface friction, and thermal character
(98). AATCC Evaluation Procedure no. 5 also provides guidelines for subjective
evaluation of hand properties. Although the description of fabric handle may rely
on subjective terms, several methods exist to quantify the stiffness of a fabric.
ASTM D1388 is used to measure the flexural rigidity and bending length of a
woven fabric by calculating its resistance to bending under its own weight.
 TEXTILES, TESTING 23

The cantilever test is the preferred method for this ASTM procedure, in which a
strip of fabric is slid in a direction parallel to its long dimension so that the fabric
end projects from the end of a horizontal surface. The length of overhang is mea-
sured when the tip of the specimen is depressed under its own weight to the point
where the line joining the tip to the edge of the platform makes an angle of 41.58.
with the horizontal. The bending length is defined as one-half the length of over-
hang. Bending length is related to the drape stiffness of the fabric. Flexural
rigidity is defined as the cube of the bending length multiplied by the fabric
weight per unit area. A fabric having a higher flexural rigidity is stiffer. A second
method, ASTM D4032, is a circular bend stiffness test, in which a fabric speci-
men is forced through a circular opening 1.5 in. in diameter by a plunger that
is 1 in. in diameter. The maximum force to push the fabric through the opening
is determined. This method is a good indicator of the three-dimensional bending
stiffness of a woven, knitted, or nonwoven fabric (98). Years of development have
led to a standardized system for objective evaluation of fabric hand (98). This, the
Kawabata evaluation system (KES), consists of four basic testing machines: a
tensile and shear tester, a bending tester, a compression tester, and a surface
tester for measuring friction and surface roughness. To complete the evaluation,
fabric weight and thickness are determined. The measurements result in 16 dif-
ferent hand parameters or characteristic values, which have been correlated to
appraisals of fabric hand by panels of experts (98). Translation formulae, have
also been developed based on required levels of each hand property for specific
end uses (101). The properties include stiffness, smoothness, and fullness levels
as well as the total hand value. In more recent years, abundant research has
been documented concerning hand assessment (102–105).
Drape. Drape is closely related to fabric hand. Whereas hand is based on
tactile criteria, drape refers more to a fabric’s appearance by its tendency to fall
into graceful, three-dimensional folds. Fabric drape depends to a large degree on
the same properties that influence hand, ie, flexural rigidity, thickness, and com-
pressibility. Although stiffness is normally measured in a single direction, drape
implies bending in all directions. Drape can be measured by placing a circular
fabric specimen over a round table or pedestal and viewing from directly over-
head. A drape coefficient is defined as the ratio of the area of the fabric’s actual
shadow to the area of the shadow if the fabric were rigid. Drape is closely related
to stiffness: the drape coefficient for a stiff fabric approaches a value of 1; a limp
fabric has a drape coefficient near 0. The Cusick drape tester is an example
of this type of measurement. For this method, the relative weights of paper
rings representing tracings of the fabric’s shadows are used to calculate drape
coefficient.
Crease Retention, Wrinkle Resistance, and Durable Press. On bending
or creasing of a textile material, the external portion of each filament in the yarn
is placed under tension, and the internal portion is placed in compression. Thus,
the wrinkle-recovery properties must be governed in part by the inherent, ten-
sional elastic deformation and recovery properties of the fibers. In addition to
the inherent fiber properties, the yarn and fabric geometry must be considered.
AATCC Test Method no. 66 describes measurement of recovery angle after pla-
cing a crease in a specimen. The specimen is creased by subjecting is to a
prescribed load for a length of time. The recovery angle is then measured after
24 TEXTILES, TESTING

a controlled recovery period. Recovery angles of an angle of 1208 are considered

to indicate good wrinkle resistance (98). Because wrinkle resistance is particu-
larly important for summer clothing, the AATCC stipulates that recovery angles
be measured at 90% as well as 65% relative humidity. The former is considered
to represent the most humid condition to which apparel textiles may be subjected
in summer.
Fabrics that have been given durable-press or permanent-press finishes
are generally treated with an uncured resin. In the post-cure process, curing
is done by the garment maker to set the garment in the desired configuration.
In the pre-cure process, the fabric is cured prior to garment manufacture.
Although the latter process does not result in permanent pleats, the smoothness
of the cured fabric is retained during wear and laundering. Thus, durable-press
goods are tested for recovery angle under both wet and dry conditions. A second
wrinkle-recovery test, AATCC test method no. 128, describes the determination
of the appearance of textile fabrics after intentional wrinkling followed by eva-
luation of appearance in comparison to standard replicas. A visual rating from 1
(wrinkled) to 5 (smooth) is assigned. This method may be used for both woven
and knitted fabrics, whereas the recovery angle method is applicable only to
woven fabrics.
Appearance After Laundering. The extent to which permanent-press
fabrics retain smoothness after laundering is determined by conducting a series
of tests devised by AATCC: 143 for appearance of apparel and other textile end
products after repeated home laundering; 124 for appearance of durable press
fabrics after repeated home laundering; as well as 88C and 88B for appearance
of wash-and-wear items, including creases after home laundering and seams
after home laundering. In each of these tests, the specimens are subjected to
standard procedures simulating home-laundering conditions. A choice is pro-
vided for alternative washing temperatures and drying procedures to conform
with care instructions recommended for the fabric or final garment. Evaluation
is performed by visual comparison with standards prepared by AATCC under
prescribed lighting; five grades from very poor to excellent can be assigned.
Luster. Luster is defined as the amount of light reflected from a fabric at
different angles. It depends on fiber, yarn, and fabric geometries which control
the regularity of the fabric surface. The greater the degree of parallelization of
fibers in yarns and yarns in fabrics is, the greater the luster. Luster is also
affected by fiber cross-sectional shape and, in synthetic fibers, the addition of
delustrants, eg, titanium dioxide. Luster can be evaluated quantitatively by mea-
suring light reflectance and the angle of the reflected light, but visual observa-
tion is necessary for a complete appraisal of luster. In general, a fabric having a
smooth flat surface shows higher luster than a fabric having a rough surface and
loose fibers. The more irregular the surface of the fabric is, the greater the degree
of scatter of reflected light.
Comfort. In the past, the evaluation of fabric or garment comfort has been
a subjective process influenced by such variables as temperature, insulating effi-
ciency, moisture absorption, drying speed, softness, bulk, fabric construction,
and air permeability. Human factors must also be considered. To predict the
comfort of a material, a combination of hand evaluation, eg, using the (Late)
Kawabata system, as well as determination of the heat and moisture transport
 TEXTILES, TESTING 25

properties, is necessary. Often, these values are correlated with a sensory eva-
luation of the tactile qualities of the material by a human subject panel. A thor-
ough discussion of the many physical and psychological factors affecting comfort
is available (106,107).

4. Fiber-to-Fabric Production, Processing and Testing of Cotton

Cotton is one of the oldest natural fibers and continues to be the one of the most
commonly used fibers today. About 85 countries grow cotton and produce about
115 million bales (480 pounds net each) of lint cotton annually, which is used by
almost all the countries of the world to produce various textiles. Although cotton
has recently been losing its market share to other textile fibers, it still represents
approximately 35% of the world consumption of all fibers. Cotton grows on a seed
pod boll that grows on a gossypium plant in a warm climate. Cotton bolls are har-
vested (picked) mechanically in the U.S., although manual picking is most com-
mon in other countries. Cotton fibers (lint) are separated from the seed pods in a
ginning process at a gin, which generally is located away from the cotton fields.
The byproducts of a ginning process are linters (very short cotton fibers) and cotton
seeds. The worldwide cotton production in 2005 crop year was about 115 million
bales of approximately 480 pounds each. China, the U.S., Russia, India, Pakistan,
Brazil and Turkey, in that order, are the major cotton producing countries, produ-
cing about 80% of the world production. The United States is the second largest
producer of cotton (23.3 millions of 480-lb bales almost 20% of the world cotton pro-
duction) and the largest exporter (14 millions of 480 lb bales) of high quality cotton
in the world (108). Texas, California, Mississippi and Arizona are the major cotton
producing states. Cotton is a versatile fiber which is used in many textile products
for apparel, household, furnishing, industrial, military and medical applications.
Perhaps, it is the only fiber that easily absorbs moisture, transports the moisture
through its capillary action, and quickly dissipates it to the outside atmosphere. It
is this peculiar characteristic of cotton, which makes it so-called ‘‘breathable’’ and,
thus, provides comfort to the wearer. It is an excellent substrate in dyeing and
finishing and thus ideally suitable for apparel and household textiles. However,
the fiber is often blended with manufactured fibers to produce fabrics that
are stronger and more resilient and crease-resistant than equivalent 100% cotton
fabrics.
In this section the most popular terminology used in cotton production and
processing is described, highlighting the relevant textile testing practices used.
A flow chart of manufacturing cotton-based fabrics is shown in Figure 3. The
related terminologies and relevant testing practices are summarized below.
4.1. Harvesting/Picking. Cotton is harvested and picked in cotton
fields. In the U.S., almost all cotton now is machine picked, while it is mostly
hand picked in the rest of the world.
Testing. Productivity is measured by the yield (typically 2 bales per acre)
of picked cotton per acre of land. Quality of picked cotton is subjectively assessed
by the visual inspection of foreign matter content, such as the plant leaves,
stems, branches, bark, trash, etc.
26 TEXTILES, TESTING

4.2. Ginning. It is a mechanical process of separating cotton fibers (lint)

from the seeds and simultaneously cleaning the fibers to a certain degree by
removing the foreign matter. Ginned cotton, or the so-called lint, is hard com-
pressed into a bale of 480 lb net.
Testing. Every ginning mill in the U.S. must send a test sample of cotton,
from each bale produced, to a USDA facility for conducting fiber quality measure-
ments, in order to determine the cotton grade, which subsequently determines
the marketing price (and any subsidy) for the cotton. Major fiber properties
tested are the length, strength, maturity, trash, and color. Today, the average
price of cotton is about $ 0.65 per pound. For decades, it has been fluctuating
between $ 0.45 to a dollar per pound.
4.3. Lay-down, Mixing, Opening and Cleaning. Physical attributes
of cotton fibers vary considerably from boll to boll, from crop to crop, from bale
to bale, and even within a bale. Appropriate lay-down of bales and subsequent
mixing of fibers enhance uniformity of the input material and consequently of
the end product. Opening and cleaning of a cotton mix with different types
and numbers of machines (beating/cleaning points) loosen fiber tufts
and removes large particles of foreign matter as well as very short fibers
(linters).
Testing. There are no specific quality tests in this particular processing
area, although the trash removed is monitored to assess effectiveness of the pro-
cess.
4.4. Carding. The somewhat opened and cleaned cotton from the open-
ing/cleaning line is chute fed to a card. Carding is a process for further fine open-
ing and cleaning of cotton and for parallelizing the fibers and converting them
into a consolidated sliver of continuous length.
Testing. Number of neps in the card web (web NEP count) and the
various wastes removed from the card determine effectiveness of the carding
process. Linear density and uniformity (unevenness) of the output sliver gener-
ally are quality controls.
4.5. Drawing. Drawing is a process to further enhance uniformity of the
card sliver by combining 6 to 12 card slivers and drawing them with a draft
(stretch) of 6 to 12, in order to ‘‘average out’’ any irregularities in the input
card slivers.
Testing. Measurements of linear density and uniformity of the output sli-
ver are typical quality controls.
4.6. Combing. Combing is a process of removing (15–20%) short fibers
from carded cotton stock (lap) to produce a sliver of long and parallel fibers,
which ultimately produces a smooth, lustrous cotton fabric of premier quality
and, of course, price.
Testing. A combed sliver is also tested for its linear density and
uniformity.
4.7. Spinning. Spinning (rotor, ring, air-jet/vortex, friction, and tandem)
is a process of converting cotton fibers (in a sliver or a roving form) into a strong,
continuous strand (yarn) of much lesser diameter and linear density, compared
to the input material. Basically, a yarn is an integrated structure of fibrous mate-
rial that has been twisted to impart intrafiber cohesion and hence strength.
Today, there are many spinning systems available. The selection or deployment
 TEXTILES, TESTING 27

of a spinning system for a particular fiber largely depends on the type of fiber and
the type of end product. For ring spinning, an extra process for making a roving
(much lighter than a sliver) is necessary. The yarn properties vary with the fiber
and the spinning system used. Almost all modern spinning systems utilize a
sliver and produce yarns at much greater production rates than ring spinning.
However, unique all-staple core-wrap bicomponent yarns of truly co-axial config-
uration and significantly improved properties can be produced on modified ring
spinning systems (109–111). Tandem Spinning is a new high-speed system,
which produces integrated bicomponent (core-wrap) yarns of unique physical
and mechanical properties (112). Efficiency of a spinning system is mainly influ-
enced by the frequency of ends down (yarn breakage or any other failure) per
unit time or production.
Testing. Yarn quality inspection and testing include: Appearance (with
the standards); defects (major and minor slubs, snarls, bad splice/knot etc); imper-
fections (thin and thick places and neps, per unit length, usually 1000 m); tensile
breaking strength and elongation (%); linear density, count or size, and their
statistical variations.
4.8. Winding, Warping, and Sizing. Winding is a preparatory process
for preparing yarn for weaving or knitting. In this process, small packages of the
yarn as spun are wound onto a relatively much larger package, while simulta-
neously ‘clearing’ the yarn by removing its major defects and also lubricating
it with a lubricant/wax, if necessary especially for knitting. The warping and siz-
ing are two independent processes for preparing warp yarns for weaving.
Depending on construction of the desired fabric, a number of warp beams are
prepared on a warping machine (warper). Each warp beam may have several
hundred individual warp yarns/strands. These beams, generally 10 to 20 in num-
ber, are placed in a creel of a slasher (sizing machine). The yarns from all of these
beams are assembled and sized, ie, coated with a thin film of chemical formula-
tion of an adhesive (starch, CMC, PVA, acrylics, etc), dried and wound onto a
loom beam that is ready for looming and weaving. Packing Density (Rockwell)
and Build of the packages are normal quality controls in the winding process.
Warping machine stoppages due to broken or failed yarn strands provide the
major quality and/or production assessments.
Testing. Warp sizing is a costly, complex, and environmentally sensitive
process and requires quite a few indigenous/local tests and precautions to ensure
preparation of a good loom beam with uniform size-add-on, drying, winding ten-
sion/stretch and moisture regain throughout the entire loom beam; parallel yarn
strands with no crossed ends, etc.
A Recent Important Development. It may be worthwhile to mention here
that the size formulation added to the warp in the sizing operation must be com-
pletely removed from the greige woven fabric at the first instance. The process of
removing size is termed desizing. Although warp sizing and subsequent fabric
desizing are the centuries-old, traditional processes, they (no both) really are
costly, complex and environmentally sensitive. The textile industry certainly
likes to eliminate warp sizing, if at all possible. Recent research conducted at
USDA-ARS on weaving cotton fabrics with reduced or preferably without warp
sizing has demonstrated that the so-called size-free weaving is at least mechani-
cally feasible. For the first time ever, hundreds of meters of 100% cotton, 2/1-twill
28 TEXTILES, TESTING

fabrics of relatively low weight and construction have been woven with no yarn
breakage or failure on a conventional fly-shuttle loom as well as on a modern
high-speed weaving machine - both operating under almost mill-like conditions.
Although this indeed is a pioneering development and a significant milestone in
textile manufacturing, the fabric quality still is not satisfactory. The fabric has
numerous tiny soft-ball-like fibrous defects on its surface. Efforts to eliminate
fabric defects in size-free weaving are underway (113–114).
4.9. Weaving. (Weaving is Done by the Factoring: flexible-rapier,
air-jet, water-jet, and missile weaving machines and the traditional fly-
shuttle loom). Weaving is a process of converting yarns into a woven fabric. It
may be done on a modern high-speed rapier (flexible or rigid), air-jet, water-jet,
or missile weaving machine, or on a conventional fly-shuttle loom. Weaving
involves two sets of yarns, namely warp and filling or weft. Woven fabrics are
made of different width, fiber content, construction, weave, weight and appear-
ance. Although there are many types of weaves and their derivatives, only three
are the basic ones, which account for the bulk (probably 80%) of weaving, world-
wide. Those basic weaves are:

1 Plain weave (1 up and 1 down) is the most commonly used weave. However,
it has quite a few derivatives, such as Warp Rib (Oxford), Weft Rib, and
Basket Weave Hopsacking.
2 Twill weaves are formed when each warp or filling yarn floats over two or
more filling or warp yarns with a progression of interlacing by one to the
right or left to form a pronounced, wale-like diagonal line. Twill weave also
has a number of derivatives, such as 1/2 - 2/2 - 1/3- 4/5 regular twills, sev-
eral irregular twills, and some elaborate diamond weaves.
3 Satin and sateen weaves have long floats and hence are relatively easier to
weave. In these weaves, each warp or filling yarn floats across generally
four filling or warp yarns with a progression of interlacing by two to the
right or left. Regular warp satin and weft sateen complete a repeat on
odd number of ends, ie, 4/1 and 1/4, while irregular satins and sateens
repeat on even number of ends, ie, 4, 6, 8,. . ..

Today, there are many types of weaving machines that give much higher
production rates, compared to convention fly-shuttle looms. However, they do
require high quality of warp and filling yarns, in order to minimize yarn
breakages or failures that cause relatively more expensive machine stoppages
and hence production interruptions.
Testing. The production efficiency, defects, width and construction of
greige fabrics are typical process controls.
4.10. Knitting. Knitting is an alternative process of producing a fabric
from a yarn. Unlike weaving, a fabric can be (weft) knitted from a single set of
yarn and even from a single yarn package. However, warp knitting may require
a separate warp beam, as well. Knitting productivity generally is about 5 times
greater than that of weaving. However, the knit structures are not as stable as
woven structures. They generally are loose and thus shrink on laundering. Hosi-
ery (ie, socks, undergarments, etc) is a big knitting industry.
 TEXTILES, TESTING 29

Testing. Generally, the fabric productivity and quality controls in knit-

ting are similar to those in weaving industry.
4.11. Wet Processing and Finishing of Fabrics. Since the warp siz-
ing agents in a fabric can adversely affect the latter’s finishing processes and
quality, it is imperative that the sizing ingredients are completely removed at
the first opportunity available. Thus, the boil-off, desizing and scouring are the
initial wet processes for removing the size and foreign matter/contaminants, (i.e.,
waxes, oil stains, sugars, etc.) from a greige woven fabric.
Testing. A finished fabric is tested for fabric construction (in order, to
comply with the customer’s requirements), tensile strength, tear strength (dur-
ability), dimensional stability, color fastness, defects, appearance, hand, etc,
before and after a certain number of laundering cycles, usually 5 to 10. Chemical
finishing of fabric generally consists of: Bleaching; dyeing/printing; and any spe-
cial finishing (ie, flame-retardancy, crease-resistance/Durable-Press (DP), anti-
microbial, mildew resistance, and the like). The bleached fabric usually is
examined for its whiteness and any strength loss.
4.12. Cotton Nonwovens. Utilization of cotton in nonwovens is still
very limited. Cotton’s market share in nonwovens presently is approximately
4% of the world market, which mostly consumes manufactured fibers. However,
because of cotton’s high absorbency and biodegradability features, its utilization
is growing in certain applications, such as medical textiles, pads, wipes and
diapers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

‘‘Textile Testing’’ in ECT 1st ed., Vol. 13, pp. 908–927, by E. R. Kaswell, Fabric Research
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 TEXTILES, TESTING 31

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32 TEXTILES, TESTING

95. A. M. Collier, A Handbook of Textiles, 3rd ed., Wheaton, Exeter, 1980.

96. R. T. Cary, Text. Res. J. 51, 61 (1981).
97. D. S. Lyle, Performance of Textiles, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1977.
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New York, 1975.
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science, New York, 1966.
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106. T. Wallenberger, Text. Res. J. 10, 5 (May 1980).
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PAUL S. SAWHNEY
BRIAN CONDON
Agricultural Research Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
KUMAR V. SINGH
Miami University, Oxford, OH
 TEXTILES, TESTING 33

Tenacity (mN/tex)

Twist

Fig. 1. Effect of twist on the yarn strength (85).

34 TEXTILES, TESTING

Warp yarn is floating

over the filling yarn

Filling yarn is floating

over the warp yarn
Repeat warp yarn
Warp over the filling yarn
direction

Weft or fill direction

4/1 Warp 1/4 Weft

2/1 Twill weave satin weave sateen weave

Fig. 2. Basic weaves or structures of woven fabrics.

 TEXTILES, TESTING 35

COTTON FIBER-TO-FABRIC PROCESSING

(A TYPICAL FLOW CHART)

HARVESTING/PICKING
FIELD
(Outside the Textile Mills)
GINNING

TEXTILE MILL

LAY DOWN/MIXING OPENING AND CLEANING

CARDING (NONWOVENS)

FIBERS DRAWING

COMBING

ROTOR SPINNING AIR-JET/ VORTEX

RING TANDEM (Core-Wrap)

WINDING
FRICTION

WARPING SIZING LOOMING

YARNS

WEAVING KNITTING
Flexible Rapier Loom Air/Water-Jet Circular knitting

Missile Loom Traditional fly-shuttle Warp knitting

DESIZING SCOURING
FABRICS
FINISHING
BLEACHING DYEING SPECIAL FINISHING

GARMENT MANUFACTURING

Fig. 3. Flow chart of a representative cotton textile production process.

Table 1. Representative Physical Properties of Some Commonly Used Textile Fibersa;b
Properties ! Fiber Breaking Elastic Fiber
Fiber types length Density tenacity Moisture recovery stiffness
# Diameter (inches) (g/cm3) (g/denier) regain (%) (%) (g/denier)
Dry Wet

cotton 12–20 mm 0.75–1.75 1.54 3.0–5.0 3.3–6.4 7–11 74 57–60

wool 17–40 mm 1.0–15 1.30–1.32 1.0–1.7 0.8–1.6
15 99 3.9
silk 900–1200 m 1.25 2.4–5.1 1.8–4.2 10–11 92
nylon 1.5– 6 den 1.5–3.0 1.14 2.5–9.5 2.0–8.2 4.0–4.5 100 5–60
(as desired) (as desired)
polyester 0.5 den 1.5–3.0 1.22, 2.2–9.5 2.2–9.5 0.4–0.6 6–80
(as desired) (as desired) 1.38
polyethylene (as desired) 1.5–3.0 0.92–96 1.0–8.0 1.0–8.0 0 100 18–60
(as desired)
Kevlar (as desired) (as desired) 1.38 18–26.5 17–25.0 1.2–4.3 100
(aramid
fiber)
glass 2–10 mm (as desired) 2.45–2.55 9–15.3 9–15.3 0 310–380
acetate (as desired) (as desired) 1.32 1.1–1.5 0.8–1.0 3–6
65 3.5–5.5
rayon 2–3 den 1.5–3.0 1.51 1.0–6.5 0.5–4.3 11–14
75 6–50
(as desired) (as desired)
spandex (as desired) (as desired) 1.20–1.41 0.5–1.5 – 0–1.3 100 0.11–0.16
a
Refs. 6–12 TFN.
b
Note: Besides the constituent fiber’s properties, the yarn and fabric structures and the applications of special chemical, thermal, or mechanical finishes that the
fabrics generally undergo also influence performance of the end-products.
 TEXTILES, TESTING 37

Table 2. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Fiber Length and its Distribution
Test number Test method

ASTM D 1234 for length (greased wool and other animal hair fibers)
ASTM D 1440 for length and length distribution (cotton fibers: Array
Method)
ASTM D 1445 for breaking strength and elongation of cotton fibers
ASTM D 1447 for length and length distribution (natural fibers: fibrograph)
ASTM D 1575 for length and length distribution (wool)
ASTM D 3660 for length and length distribution (synthetic staple)
ASTM D 5103 for length and length distribution (natural and synthetic
fibers)
ASTM D 5332 for length and length distribution (natural fibers: AL-101)
ASTM D 4604 for length and length distribution (HVIFIS)
ASTM D 4605 for length and length distribution (spinlab system HVI).
38 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 3. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Fineness, Linear Density, Shape of
Fibersa
Test number Test method

ASTM D 276 for determining fiber density

ASTM D 861-01A practice to designate linear density of fibers, yarn
intermediates, and yarns
ASTM D 1448 for linear density and fineness (micronaire for cotton)
ASTM D 3818 for linear density and fineness (IIC-Shirley maturity tester
for cotton)
ASTM D 4604,5 for linear density and fineness, using High Volume
Instruments (HVI)
ASTM D 1282 for linear density and fineness (Port-Arwira fiber fineness
meter:wool)
ASTM D 1577 for determining linear density of textile fibers using a
vibroscope
ASTM D 2130 for average fiber diameter, using microprojection
(wool, hairs)
ASTM D 629 for determining fiber diameter and shapes, using
microscopic analysis.
a
Ref. 28.
 TEXTILES, TESTING 39

Table 4. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Crimp, Moisture, Color and Shrinkage in
Fibers
Test number Test method

ASTM D 3937-01 for crimp frequency of manufactured staple fibers

ASTM D 1774 to determine amount of crimp in textile fibers
ASTM D 2612 to measure the cohesive/frictional force in the drafting of sliver
ASTM D 2654-89 for measuring moisture in textiles
ASTM D 2462 for determining moisture specifically in wool
ASTM D 4920–98R03 terminology relating to moisture in textiles
ASTM D 1576–90R01 for moisture in wool by oven-drying
ASTM D 1909-04 table of commercial moisture regains for textile fibers
ASTM D 2118-05 practice for assigning a standard commercial moisture content
for wool test
ASTM D 2495-01 method for moisture in cotton by oven-drying
ASTM D 2525-90R01 practice for sampling wool for moisture
ASTM D 6961-03 for color measurement of flax fiber
ASTM D 2102 for measuring shrinkage of a bundle of crimped or noncrimped
fibers
ASTM D 5104 for measuring the shrinkage of crimped and noncrimped single
fibers
40 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 5. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the Mechanical Properties of Fibers
Test number Test method

ASTM D 76 for fiber tensile testing

ASTM D 1445 for fiber bundle strength (incline-plane and pendulum-type machines)
ASTM D 1294-05 for tensile strength and breaking tenacity of wool fiber bundles
ASTM D 3822 for measuring stress-strain parameters
ASTM D 2101 for measuring stress-strain parameters
ASTM D 1774 for measuring elastic recovery, and permanent set of fibers
ASTM D 4604 for measuring fiber bundle strength
ASTM D 3217 for measuring the loop and knot strengths
 TEXTILES, TESTING 41

Table 6. Standard Test Methods for Important Fiber Properties

Test number Test method

ASTM D 2612 to measure the cohesive/frictional force in

the drafting of fibers
ASTM D 276 to measure the optical properties of fibers
by light microscopy
ASTM D 276 the fiber melting point
ASTM D 4238 to measure electrostatic propensity of
textiles
AATCC 84-1960 to measure the electrical resistivity of
yarns
ASTM G 23-25 general practice to evaluate sunlight aging
of textile materials
ASTM D 7024-04 for steady state and dynamic thermal performance
of textile materials
ASTM D 1518 for thermal transmittance of textile materials
ASTM D 7140-05 to measure heat transfer through textile
thermal barrier materials
ASTM D 5866-05 for Neps in Cotton Fibers (AFIS-N Instrument)
ASTM D 5867-05 for measurement of physical properties of cotton
fibers by HVI
ASTM D 7139-05 terminology for cotton fibers
AATCC 20, 20 (A) for qualitative and quantitative identification of
textile fibers
42 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 7. Yarn Size and Conversion Table

Cotton Worsted Wood
count count count denier
(CC) (WdC) (Wc) (den) tex
cotton count — 1.5  CC 52.5  CC 5315 590:5
(CC) CC CC
WdC 7972 885:8
worseted count — 35  WdC
(WdC) 1:5 WdC WdC
WC WC 279030 3100
wool count (WC) —
52:5 35 WC WC
5315 7972 279030 den
denier —
(den) den den den 9
590:5 885:8 31000
tex 9  tex —
tex tex tex
Table 8. Representative Properties of Some Yarnsa
Yarn type Typical yarn properties !
#
Tensile
Linear breaking Breaking Breaking Defects
density/ strength tenacity elongation Twist torque Uniformity (major
size (
gm) (
g/tex) (%) Hand or feel (liveliness) (CV %) per 1 km)
cotton carded 30-tex 400 13.3 7–8 soft lively 12–14 1–2
yarn
cotton combed 30-tex 450 15.0 8–10 very soft slightly 8–10 0.5–1
yarn lively
woolen yarn 9 woolen 200 6.6(min) 20–30 slightly lively 15–18 2–5
harsh
worsted yarn 27 worsted 250 8.3(min) 20–30 typically balanced 10–12 1–3
2-plied
med. soft
polyester 300-den 1200 40.0(max) 10–14 soft and Balanced 1–1.5 0–0.25
filament yarn smooth
(high-tenacity)
low-tenacity 30-tex 550 18.6 15–20 slightly lively 8–10 0.5- 1.5
polyester harsh
staple yarn
nylon filament 300-den 1100 36.6 12–18 soft and balanced 1–1.5 0–0.25
yarn(high smooth
tenacity)
low-tenacity 30-tex 500 16.6 20–30 moderately slightly 8–10 0.5–1.0
nylon soft lively
staple-spun
yarn
gel-spun 30-tex 650 18.6 7–10 harsh lively 12–14 2–4
polyethylene
and cotton
blend yarn
(20:80)
a
Approximately similar linear density/size.
44 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 9. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the Physical Properties of Yarns
Test number Test method

ASTM D 1907 for measuring skein lengths

ASTM D 1059 for measuring short lengths
ASTM D 861 for linear density of yarns
ASTM D 2260 for linear density of yarns (conversion table, yarn
numbering systems)
ASTM D 1425 for yarn evenness by measuring the equivalent capacitance
ASTM D 2255 to assess yarn grade relative to preserved yarn standards
ASTM D 2591-01 for linear density of elastomeric yarns
ASTM D 6587 for yarn number, using an automatic tester
ASTM D6612 for yarn number and yarn number variability, using an
automated tester
 TEXTILES, TESTING 45

Table 10. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the Mechanical Properties of the Yarn
Test number Test method

ASTM D 2256 for determining yarn strength (single strand)

ASTM D 1578 for determining yarn strength (yarn skeins)
ASTM D 885 for testing tire cords and industrial filament yarns
ASTM D 1422 for determining the twist in conventional ring spun yarns
ASTM D 1423 for determining the twist in conventional ring spun yarns
ASTM D 1244 for analyzing yarn construction and defining yarn nomenclature
ASTM D 2653,2731 for tensile properties of elastomeric yarns
ASTM D 7269-06 for tensile testing of aramid yarns
46 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 11. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Special Properties of Yarns
Test number Test method

ASTM D 3108 for determining yarn-to-solid friction

ASTM D 3412 for determining yarn-to-yarn friction
ASTM D 6611-00 for wet and dry yarn-on-yarn abrasion resistance
ASTM D 5647-01 for measuring hairiness of yarns by the photo-electric apparatus
ASTM D 2259 for determining shrinkage in yarns
ASTM D 4031 for determining bulk properties
AATCC 84-1960 for electrical resistivity of yarns
ASTM D 6774-02 for crimp and shrinkage properties of textured yarns
ASTM D 4031-01 for bulk properties of textured yarns
ASTM D 5591-04 for thermal shrinkage force of yarn and cord
 TEXTILES, TESTING 47

Table 12. Typical Fabric Styles and Constructions Made with Basic Weaves
Approximate fabric
construction
Typical Warp Weft Ends 
fiber yarn Yarn picks
Fabric content (tex) (tex) (per cm) Weave End use
print cloth shirting,
carded cotton 20 15 23.62 plain blouses
and  21.26
cotton
blends
combed 15 12 36.22 plain
 29.92
chambery apparel,
furnishing,
carded cotton 20 15 25.20 plain drapes
and  18.90
cotton
blends
combed 15 12 34.65 plain
 31.50
poplin shirting
carded cotton 21 25 39.37 plain,
and  18.90 warp, rib
combed cotton 16 20 120.0 68.0
blends (2-piled)

coarse drills work

trousers
carded cotton 37 42 22.05 2/1 twill
 12.60
coarse denim work
trousers,
jeans
(warp dyed) cotton 54 45 24.41 2/1 twill
 14.96
satin/sateen nylon, satin blouses,
acetate, neck ties,
rayon, scarf
silk
8 30 118.11 sateen
 35.43
48 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 13. Typical Woven Fabrics and Weaving Systems/Machines

Typical woven fabrics Typical weaving systems

Apparel and Household: sheeting, Conventional Looms: fly-shuttle looms.

shirting, poplins, lawn, towels, Modern Weaving Machines:
bottom-weight (trousers), light- missile or projectile, flexible rapier,
weight (blouses), medium-weight rigid rapier, air jet, water jet,
(misc), draperies sheens, furnishing multiphase or progressive-shed
Industrial: tire cord, carpet backing, Conventional Looms: fly-shuttle looms.
awnings, roofs, belts and hoses, Modern Weaving Machines:
sandpaper foundation cloth, rigid rapier, missile or projectile,
geo-textiles, technical fabrics water jet, multiphase- or progressive-
shed (these mostly are wide weaving
machines that weave either a single
wide fabric or multiple fabrics of
standard (narrow) width).
Others: medical- and bio- end-use all of the above weaving systems may be
fabrics, specialty fabrics used, in addition to air-jet weaving
machines that are becoming increasingly
popular.
 TEXTILES, TESTING 49

Table 14. Representative Properties of Some Typical Fabricsa

Bending Shear
stiffness, Weights stiffness
Fabric (dyne-cm) (g/m2) gf/(cm) Tensile properties
WT
LT (gf-cm/cm2) RT (%)
plain1 35 110 1.110 0.570 11.7 49.27
plain 2 82 194 2.297 0.631 13.12 47.43
plain 4 129 168 2.634 0.696 11.308 44.174
interlock 6 38 202 0.552 0.779 3.394 45.573
rib 38 211 0.9489 1.7127 12.7014 47.4833
lawn 68 95 1.8117 0.6532 13.1004 52.6073
challis 91 153 0.7412 0.6198 14.8874 50.8424
twill 1 122 190 2.060 0.660 6.710 58.540
oxford 5 129 211 2.093 0.658 6.561 52.122
sheeting 138 189 2.3055 0.6184 26.5521 36.9171
sateen 180 248 4.4332 0.6881 11.6228 49.4988
poly twill 213 254 0.7929 0.6194 37.3918 66.7362
corduroy 251 217 2.4607 0.5916 19.094 50.6522
momie 470 180 3.0817 0.7043 12.0568 58.0024
a
Ref. 94.
50 TEXTILES, TESTING
Table 15. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Physical Properties of Fabrics
Test number Test method

ASTM D 3773 for determining the length of woven fabric

ASTM D 3774 for determining the width of woven fabric
ASTM D 3776 for determining the weight per unit area of the woven fabric
ASTM D 3775 for determining the yarn count, number of warp and filling
yarns/unit length
ASTM D 3883 for determining the yarn crimp in the woven fabric
ASTM D 1059 for determining the twist and yarn number in the woven fabric
ASTM D 3887 for characterizing knitted fabric (yield, width, length, and yarn count)
ASTM D 1117 for evaluating nonwoven fabrics
ASTM D 1777 for measuring fabric thickness
ASTM D 737 for measuring permeability of woven, knitted, and nonwoven fabrics
 TEXTILES, TESTING 51

Table 16. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Mechanical Properties of Fabrics
Test number Test method

ASTM D 5034 for fabric tensile strength tests (the grab test)
ASTM D 5035 for fabric tensile strength tests (the raveled-strip method)
ASTM D 3786 for bursting strength (knitted fabric)
ASTM D 3787 for bursting strength (ball burst test: knitted fabric)
ASTM D 1424 for determining tear strength of textile woven fabrics
(Elmendorf tear)
ASTM D 1117 for determining tear strength of textile non-woven
fabrics (trapezoid tear)
ASTM D 2261 for fabric tear strength (the tongue tear: CRE type)
ASTM D 2262 for fabric tear strength (the tongue tear: CRE type)
ASTM D 1424 for fabric tear strength (Elmendorf tear)
ASTM D 3939 for quantifying the fabric snag resistance
ASTM D 5362 for quantifying the fabric snag resistance (bean bag snag test)
ASTM D 2594 for quantifying the growth and stretch properties of knitted fabrics
ASTM D 3107 for measuring stretch and stretch recovery of woven fabrics
52 TEXTILES, TESTING

Table 17. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating the Pilling, Abrasion and Wear Proper-
ties of Fabrics
Test number Test method

ASTM D 3512 for pilling resistance (the random tumble method)

ASTM D 3511 for pilling resistance (the brush pilling test)
ASTM D 3884 for abrasion resistance (rotary platform, double-head method)
ASTM D 3885 for flexing and abrasion resistance (flexing and abrasion method)
ASTM D 3886 for abrasion resistance (inflated diaphragm method: woven
and knitted)
ASTM D 4157 for abrasion resistance (oscillatory cylinder method)
ASTM D 4158 for abrasion resistance (uniform abrasion method: wide range
of fabric)
ASTM D 4966 for abrasion resistance (Martindale Tester: woven and knitted)
AATCC 93 for abrasion resistance (impeller tumble or accelerotor method)
 TEXTILES, TESTING 53

Table 18. Standard Test Methods for Evaluating Performance and Chemical Character-
istics of Fabrics
Test number Test method

ASTM D 1230 for evaluating flammability for

apparel textiles
ASTM D 2859 for evaluating flammability for finished
textile floor-covering materials
ASTM D 3411 for evaluating flammability for textile materials
ASTM D 4151 for evaluating flammability for blankets
ASTM D 4372 for evaluating flammability for camping tentage
AATCC 135,150 for laundry shrinkage (home laundering conditions)
AATCC 158 for laundry shrinkage (dry cleaning)
AATCC 96 for measuring stability of all fabrics except wool
(laundering conditions)
AATCC 99 for determining the shrinkage specifically for wool fabrics
ASTM D 1518 for thermal transmission (heat transfer in fabric)
AATCC 22,70 for water repellency in fabrics
AATCC 127,35 for water resistance of the fabric
AATCC 130 for soil redeposition and soil release in fabric (oil stain)
ASTM D 4391 for testing of flammability of textile fabrics
AATCC 76 for electrical resistivity of fabrics
AATCC 115 for electrostatic clinging of fabrics
ASTM D 4238 for determining electrostatic propensity of textiles
AATCC 101 for colorfastness to bleaching with hydrogen peroxide
AATCC 172 for colorfastness to nonchlorine bleach in home laundering
ASTM D 123 for fabric hand or handle