FUNDAMENTOS I (FIRST TERM)

●​ PARINI A. (The British and American paradigm)

Without any doubt English is the most important language in the world
today. The text explores the global dominance of the English language
and the two primary models that shape how it is used and perceived:
British English and American English.

-​ Origins of English’s Global Power: English didn’t become an

international language because of its linguistic qualities, but yes for
the cultural, political, military, and economic power of the nations
that speak it, particularly Britain and the United States.

-​ The British Paradigm (Colonial Influence): For centuries, the

British variety of English was seen as the standard of education
and prestige. This was largely due to Britain’s colonial expansion,
which spread English to many regions including Africa, Asia, etc.
In these areas, British English became the official or administrative
language, and local elites were educated in english.

-​ The Rise of the American Paradigm: After World War II, the
balance of global power shifted from Britain to the United States.
America’s economic strength and cultural dominance through
mass media—especially film, television, music, and theater—led to
the increasing influence of American English, particularly among
younger generations and in informal contexts.​

-​ The Resulting Hybridization: Today, many non-native speakers of

English are exposed to both varieties, often simultaneously. As a
 result, they tend to mix features of British and American English in
vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, and grammar. For example,
someone might write “favourite” (British spelling) but say “gotten”
(an American form).

-​ Colonization vs. Modernization (evolution of english accents):

●​ Colonization, which planted British English across the globe
during the imperial period.
●​ Modernization and globalization, which now reinforce
American English as a global lingua franca in technology,
science, pop culture, and international business.
Modernization has led to the evolution of accents, with
American English gaining influence.

-​ The standarisation of English, Karch’s circles:

●​ Inner circle: English is the first language.
●​ Outer circle: English was introduced as a colonial language.
●​ Expanding circle: English was introduced as a foreign
language.
●​ QUIRK: Supports a single global English standard to ensure
clarity in international communication. KARCHU: argues that
English Variety should be recognized as legitimate, as these
countries develop their own norms.
-​ Codification and standard in english:
●​ standard english: the variety with the highest status.
●​ accent: the pronunciation.
●​ dialect: the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar.
●​ RP ACCENT: NON-REGIONAL accent.
●​ GENERAL AMERICAN: uniform speech.
-​ Implications for Learners and Teachers:​
For those learning or teaching English, this dual paradigm
presents both challenges and opportunities. Teachers must decide
which variety to focus on, and learners are increasingly exposed to
a fluid, mixed model of English shaped by international use rather
than a single national standard.

-​ The confusing picture: British vs. American English:

●​ Cultural Prestige: Standard British English.
●​ Economic Influence: Standard American English.
●​ Educational Systems: Both models promoted.
The cultural prestige of British English and the economic influence
of American English are equally positioned internationally. Some
countries, like Argentina, promote both models, creating a
confusing picture in English language education.

●​ BRYSON (Mother tongue) 1,2,3,4,5

-​ CHAPTER 1 AND 2:
●​ English comes from the Indo-European language
family, specifically the West Germanic branch. The
arrival of the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes in the 5th
century marked the beginning of Old English. The
Vikings brought Old Norse, contributing vocabulary like
sky, egg, knife, and husband. The Norman Conquest in
1066 introduced about 10,000 French words,
especially in law, governance, and aristocracy (court,
jury, parliament, etc.).
 ●​ English is spoken by over a billion people as a first or
second language. Its global success is not due to its
simplicity, it’s actually full of exceptions (615.000
WORDS, EXCLUDING TECHNICAL TERMS IN
ENGLISH WHEREAS IN GERMAN ONLY 184000
AND IN FRENCH 100000). English dominates science,
business and pop culture. English is seen as a big
business, a big industry such as the export of
manufacturing goods. The demand for English is big.
●​ Despite its exceptions and irregularities, it is seen as a
practical tool for global communication. Bryson said
that no one planned for English to become dominant, it
just evolved with power and history.

DISTINCTIVE CAPACITIES: House vs home, I wrote vs. I

have written. words that act as nouns or verbs such as fight,
drink, sleep. I went swimming (participle) swimming is good
(a gerund)

-​ CHAPTER 3: (history of english)

●​ English has gone through four main stages:
-​ Old English (Anglo-Saxon)
-​ Middle English (after the Norman Conquest)
-​ Early Modern English (Shakespeare’s time)
-​ Modern English

Major influences:

-​ Latin (through Christianity)

-​ Old Norse (from Vikings)
-​ French (via the Normans)
 -​ English vocabulary is a mosaic of borrowed words, making it
flexible but inconsistent. Historical events like invasions and
printing shaped how English developed.

William Shakespeare coined or popularized over 2,000 words and

phrases. His creative use of language helped enrich and legitimize
English as a language of high culture and literature.

CHAPTER 4: (pronuciation)

●​ A third advantage of English is the relative simplicity of its spelling

and pronunciation. It has fewer of the awkward consonant clusters
and tonal variations that make other languages so difficult to
master. For instance, in Welsh, the word for beer is CWRW- an
impossible combination of letters for any English speaker. Try
pronouncing GEIMHREADH , Gaelic for “winter”.

CHAPTER 5: (conciseness)

●​ English evolved differently in North America, absorbing words from

Native American languages. American English developed its own
accents, idioms, and spelling standards (color vs. colour). Bryson
argues that American English is no less “pure” or “correct” than
British English, it is simply evolved differently.​
English also has a commendable tendency towards
CONCISENESS in
●​ contrast to many languages. For example, German is full of
jaw-crunching words like WIRTSCHASTSTREWHANDLW
GESELLSCHAFT for A BUSINESS TRUST COMPANY. In Holland
companies commonly have names of forty letters or more.
 ●​ Periods of the English language.

CELTS/ INDO EUROPEAN

ROMANS GERMANIC
OLD FRISIAN
ANGLES-SAXONS-JUTES/ OLD ENGLISH
VIKINGS (ANGLO SAXONS)
NORMANS/ MIDDLE ENGLISH
FRENCH
GREAT VOWEL SHIFT/ EARLY MODERN ENGLISH
ENGLISH RENAISSANCE/
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
INDUSTRIAL LATE MODERN ENGLISH
REVOLUTION/
COLONIALISM
TECHNOLOGY/ ENGLISH TODAY
JARGON SLANG

●​ KACHRU model (The three circles of english)

ENL: English as a native language, mother tongue.
ESL: English as a second language, learner who has learnt
english at the same time as mother tongue.
EFL: English as foreign language. A speaker how lerner english in
a country that doesn’t speak english.

1. The Inner Circle: Countries where English is the native language (L1)
for most people. Role: These countries set the linguistic norms, they
create grammar rules, dictionaries, standard accents, etc. United
Kingdom, United States and Canada. English is the primary means of
communication. Native speakers are considered “owners” of the
language” (a view Kachru critiques).English is stable but continues to
evolve with new technologies and cultural shifts.

2. The Outer Circle: Countries where English is not the native language,
but it holds official or institutional status. Role: English is used in
education, government, legal systems, and media. India, Pakistan, etc.​
English was introduced through colonialism. English is often a second
language (L2) for educated citizens. These countries are developing
their own localized varieties of English. English serves as a link
language between ethnic groups or regions.
3. The Expanding Circle: Countries where English has no historical or
official status, but it is studied and used as a foreign language. Role:
English is used mainly for international communication, business,
science, tourism, etc. In Japan, China and Brazil. English is taught in
schools, used in universities and business. No native or official status,
but growing influence. English norms are usually borrowed from Inner
Circle models (especially American or British English). Learners may still
develop their own variations (e.g., “Euro-English”).

●​ Kachru challenged the idea that only native speakers determine

what is “correct” English. He emphasized that English now belongs
to all its users, and its global spread has created legitimate new
varieties. His model highlights the importance of context in shaping
how English is learned, taught, and used. It helped shift
perspectives in linguistics, valuing World Englishes rather than
promoting only “Standard English.”

●​ CHOMSKY (Interview)
●​ Chomsky argues that humans are genetically pre-programmed
“language organ.” He compares it to heredity physic characteristics
 like having arms instead of wings, it doesn't depend on the
environment . He dismisses behaviorist theories (e.g., Skinner),
stating that learning alone cannot account for children acquiring
complex grammar . Chomsky says that there is an organ in our
brain that is activated when we produce language. ​

●​ Chomsky dismissed Piaget's idea that the brain is developed alone

and globally. He says that our brain is divided into different parts, a
specific part to language is used. Chomsky favors UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR (we understand certain things that we didn’t know by
UG), a mix of things that are activated when we are exposed to a
language. He highlights the poverty of stimulus: children learn
grammar with limited and imperfect input, implying that most
grammatical knowledge must be prewired. Chomsky draws
parallels between language development and embryological
growth, suggesting both rely on genetic control and internal
organization rather than external instruction.

-​ Language acquisition: innate structure+ environmental interaction.

-​ Behaviorism: Inadequate for explaining language learning.
-​ Modularity: mind comprises independent modules.
-​ Universal Grammar: innate, parameter driven grammar system.
-​ Poverty of stimulus: limited input argues for innate knowledge.
-​ Neuroscience: Evidence sparse but promising knowledge.

●​ Chomsky believes that language learning during childhood is

part of the body preprogrammed pattern of growth. We have
the capacity to speak however, the environment is important,
due to it we can develop it.
●​ SPADA (How languages are learned ch1)

-​ First Language Acquisition in Early Childhood

●​ Language acquisition progresses in predictable stages: from
babbling, to single words, two-word combinations, and gradually
full sentences, including questions and negation. Children reach
near adult-like competence by age five.
●​ Behaviorism: Views language learning as imitation, reinforcement,
and habit formation, but fails to explain how children produce new
phrases that never listened. .
●​ Nativist: children are born with an innate capacity to acquire
language (universal grammar) and like a device in their minds.
●​ Interactionist: Emphasizes social interaction and the child’s
cognitive ability to connect language with context, depending on
the environment the children learn. How children naturally build
grammar, driven by innate capacity and rich interaction.
●​ Early bilingualism supports development in both languages.
Delays can occur, but children generally follow the same
developmental stages.
●​ GRAMMATICAL MORPHEMES: some morphemes are acquired to
all children in a similar way.
1.​ Present progressive.
2.​ Plural s.
3.​ irregular past form.
4.​ possessives
5.​ cópula.
6.​ articles the and a.
 7.​ regular past ed.
8.​ simple present s.
9.​ auxiliary be.
●​ NEGATION: children learn negation very quickly, first the child
starts with the word “no”, then auxiliaries and then they start to use
auxiliaries in sentences. QUESTIONS: The first questions are
“who, where and what” in the second year comes “why” and then
how and when appear. At first questions are single words with
intonation then they notice some structures and then they start to
use the variation of auxiliaries.
●​ PRESCHOOL YEARS: At the age of 4 children show that they
know how to speak to adults and how to babies. THE SCHOOL
YEARS: Children develop more sophisticated vocabulary.
ACQUISITION OF REGISTERS: Children learn how written
language differs from spoken language, how the language use in a
playground is different from the one used usually.​

●​ Chapter 2 extends to L2, comparing theories—and showing that

learners follow predictable paths influenced by input, instruction,
and L1.​

●​ Chapter 3 focuses on the individual—how age, motivation,

cognition, and emotion shape learners’ journeys.​

●​ SPADA (How languages are learned ch2)

Explaining second Language Learning

●​ Young children may learn more easily in natural contexts; adults

often face classroom constraints. Modified input (teacher talking,
 foreigner talking), consistent exposure, and corrective feedback
support learning.
●​ L2 learners follow predictable sequences for grammatical
morphemes, negation (“no bike” → “He doesn’t like it”), and
question formation. Similar stages across L1 backgrounds, but
influenced by the native language .
1.​ Behaviorism Analysis: Habit formation; transfer predicts errors.
2.​ Innatist / Universal Grammar: UG is available to L2 learners, but
L1 can modify its effects. Advanced learners’ competence reflects
deep grammatical knowledge.
3.​ Krashen’s Monitor Model: Includes acquisition vs learning, monitor
use, natural order, input hypotheses, and affective filter. Highlights
importance of comprehensible input.
4.​ Cognitive (Connectionist): Learning through frequency, general
cognitive abilities, not an innate language module .
5.​ Sociocultural: Emphasizes social interaction. Corrective feedback
(e.g., recasts) helps learners ready for specific structures .

“The behaviourist perspective: Say what I say”

-​ Influential theory in 1940-1950. The best-known proponent: B.F.
Skinner. It hypothesised that when children imitated the lg
produced by those around them, their attempts to reproduce what
they heard received ‘positive reinforcement’. Thus encouraged by
their environment, children would continue to imitate and practise
these sounds and patterns until they formed ‘habits’ of correct lg
use. This theory gives importance to the environment as the
source of everything the child needs to learn. IMITATION AND
PRACTICE: as the primary process in lg development
According to the BEHAVIOURIST THEORY children are born with a blank
slate, or tabula rasa. And language is learned by environment and
imitation, practice, reinforcement (or feedback on success), and habit
formation

“The innatist perspective: it’s all in your mind”

-​ The best-known proponent: Noam Chomsky He said Behaviourism
could not account for the complexity of language acquisition,
particularly the ability to generate novel sentences that were never
explicitly taught or heard. According to him what enables us to
acquire language is the fact that humans are born with an innate
language faculty or a "universal grammar," which provides the
underlying structures for all human languages. Researchers argue
that such complex grammar cannot be learnt by imitating and
practicing sentences in the input.They say the same as chomsky.
The INNATIST PERSPECTIVE emphasizes the fact that all
children successfully acquire their native lg.
-​ Language is somehow separated from aspects of cognitive
development and may depend specifically on a specific module of
the brain. So children achieve mastery of the language spoken to
them and diff levels of vocabulary, creativity, social grace and so
on.

“The critical period hypothesis”

-​ Chomsky’s ideas are linked. Suggests that there is a biologically

determined window of time during which humans are most capable
of acquiring language, typically in early childhood. After this period,
the ability to learn a language, especially to achieve native-like
proficiency, diminishes significantly. The hypothesis is often linked
 to the concept of brain plasticity, which decreases with age. Critics
argue that environmental factors, motivation, and the amount of
exposure also play significant roles in language acquisition at any
age.

"Interactionist/developmental perspectives: Learning from inside and

out”
-​ sociocultural theory that emphasizes the importance of social
interaction and the environment in learning language. In their view,
there's no need to assume that there are Specific brain structures
devoted to log acq. They hypothesise that what Children need to
know is essentially available in the Ig they're exposed to.
Psychologists and psycholinguists attribute more importance to the
environment than the innatists do. They see lg acquisition as
similar to and influenced by the acq of other kinds of skills and
knowledge
“Piaget’s hypothesis (1951/1946)”
-​ He said that:
➢​Lg was developed in childhood
➢​children’s lg is built on their cognitive development
➢​Lg: used to represent knowledge that children have acquired
through physical interaction with the environment
-​ He traced the development of their cognitive understanding of
tihings as object permanence (knowing that hidden things are still
there)
“Vygotsky hypothesis (1978)”
-​ Lg develops from social interaction. In a supportive interactive
environment, children are able to advance to a higher level of
knowledge and performance. Lg seen as a symbol system used to
 express knowledge acquired through interaction w/ the physical
world.
-​ ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT: place in which the
children could do more than they would be capable of
independently. refers to the range of tasks that a learner can
perform with the guidance or assistance (e.g., a teacher, peer, or
mentor) but cannot yet complete independently. It represents
where instruction and support can effectively bridge the gap
between what learners currently know and what they are capable
of achieving with help.
Child-directed speech
It’s the different way in which adults talk to children. It may be
characterized by a slower rate of delivery, more varied intonation,
shorter, simpler sentence patterns. Adults may recast what a child have
said wrong, into a grammatical correct sentence
-​ “Dump truck! Fall!”
-​ “Yes, the dump truck fell down”
“Connectionism”
-​ Differs from the Chomskyan innatist because they hypothesise that
lg acq does not require a separate module of the mind. What
children need to know is essentially available to them in the lg they
are exposed to. Language acquisition is a process of associating
words and phrases w/ elements of external reality, phrases and
words w/ grammatical morphemes that occur w/ them. According
to connectionism hypothesis all this is possible because of the
child’s general ability to develop associations between things that
occur together.
LEARNERS CHARACTERISTICS:
All second language learners, regardless of age, have already acquired
at least one language. This prior knowledge may be an advantage in the
sense that they already know how the language works. On the other
hand, this prior knowledge can lead learners to make incorrect guesses
about how the second language works, and this may result in errors that
1L learners would not make.
●​ VERY YOUNG LEARNERS begin the task without the cognitive
maturity or metalinguistic awareness that OLDER LEARNERS
have.
●​ OLDER LEARNERS have cognitive maturity and metalinguistic
awareness which allow them to solve problems and engage in
discussions about language.
LEARNING CONDITIONS:
-​ Researchers suggested that the use of cognitive skills can actually
interfere with language acquisition.
HYPOTHESIS→ successful lang acquisition draws on different
mental abilities. This is related to the idea that there’s a CRITICAL
PERIOD for lang acq. Suggestion: older learners draw on their
problems solving metalinguistic abilities precisely because they
can no longer access the innate lang acq. Ability they had as
children.

OLDER YOUNG

-​ Find it stressful when they’re Willing to try to use the

unable to express themselves language Allowed to be silent
clearly until they are ready to speak
-​ Forced to speak Practice through games and
-​ Likely to receive limited songs
 exposure to the second Exposed to the second
language language for many hours
everyday

Learners also vary the linguistic forms they use in accordance with the
situational context. They are more likely to use the correct
target-language forms in formal context and non-target forms in informal
context.
-​ What does the concept of U-shaped development mean? You can
use a labelled diagram to help you explain.

U-shaped development refers to a pattern in language acquisition (or

other cognitive skills) where learners initially perform a task correctly,
then regress to less accurate or more error-prone performance before
finally returning to accurate performance at a higher level of
competence. This occurs because learners initially rely on simple rules
or memorization, then start experimenting with more complex but
incorrect rules, and eventually refine their understanding to master the
task.

1.​ Correct Initial Performance:​

Learners might initially produce correct forms because they are
repeating memorized chunks or patterns they have heard (e.g.,
"went" for the past tense of "go").
2.​ Regression (Errors Appear):​
As learners begin to internalize and apply general rules, they might
overgeneralize these rules, leading to errors (e.g., applying the
regular past tense rule and saying "goed" instead of "went").
3.​ Final Correct Performance:​
With more input, practice, and refinement, learners learn the
 exceptions to the rules and return to correct usage (e.g.,
consistently saying "went").

Examples in Language Development:

-​ Past Tense in English:

-​ Stage 1: "went" (memorized correct form)
-​ Stage 2: "goed" (overgeneralization of -ed rule)
-​ Stage 3: "went" (correct form, with understanding of
irregularity)
●​ ORTEGA (Understanding 2nd language acquisition ch2)
1.​ Critical vs. Sensitive Periods
-​ The chapter opens with foundational theories from
neurolinguistics which suggest that there may be a
biologically‑based “critical period” for language learning,
especially before puberty, when neuroplasticity and brain
facilitate first language acquisition .
-​ Ortega clarifies distinctions: Critical period: a narrow
biological window (e.g., kitten vision). Sensitive period: a
broader timeframe where learning is easier but not strictly
limited. Ortega introduces Julie — a late learner of Arabic
who moved to Egypt at age 21, learned Arabic naturally, and
was evaluated after over two decades of immersion. Julie’s
accent, voice recordings, and grammatical usage were
indistinguishable from native speakers, a rare case of native
like fluency achieved despite adult age.

3. Research comparing children and adults shows that while children

may acquire SLA at a slower rate initially, their ultimate level of
attainment often exceeds that of adults—though adults can show rapid
progress in early stages. Adults benefit from cognitive maturity and
learning strategies, but children usually outperform them in long-term
attainment, especially in phonological accuracy .

-​ Studies indicate that children’s grammatical accuracy in SLA

typically surpasses that of adult learners. However, neural or
cognitive maturation may limit adults, especially in the acquisition
of complex morphology and syntax, compared to early learners.

4. Phonology and Accent: Pronunciation is particularly sensitive to age:

most adult learners retain an accent, whereas children who begin early
often achieve native-like phonology.

5. The Bilingual Turn: Ortega highlights newer perspectives: early

bilingual exposure might influence L2 learning mechanisms. These could
modify or delay critical age windows, though research is ongoing.

●​ Age plays a substantial role in SLA, but it’s not deterministic. While
earlier start often leads to better accent and grammar, adults still
often reach high proficiency. Ortega argues age matters because it
affects neurological plasticity, cognitive methods, identity
formation, and sociocultural contexts .

Final Summary

●​ A moderate age effect exists: earlier exposure favors accent and

syntax, yet adults can still develop advanced language skills.
Sensitive periods exist for aspects like phonology and some
grammar. SLA outcomes are influenced by biological, cognitive,
affective, and social factors — making age one of several
interacting variables .
 -​ Critical/sensitive period: stronger at earlier ages for accent
and grammar.
-​ Phonology: extremely age-sensitive.
-​ Grammar (morphosyntax): earlier learners often reach a
higher ceiling, though adults may initially learn faster.
-​ Individual variation: motivation, strategies, environment can
compensate for.
-​ Biological vs. experiential: both shaping SLA, but
neuroplasticity interacts with social and cognitive influences.​

●​ SPADA (How languages are learned ch3)

INTERLANGUAGE:
The concept of interlanguage can be viewed as a metaphor of how L2
acquisition takes place. The human mind functions as a computer. The
learner is exposed to input, which is processed in 2 stages
1→ parts of it are attended to and taken into short-term memory
(intake)
2→ some intake is stored in long-term memory as L2 knowledge
3→ L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and
written output
BEHAVIOURIST LEARNING THEORY
-​ 1950s-1960s. Lang learning involves habit formation. Habits:
formed when learners respond to stimuli in the environment and
subsequently have their responses reinforced so they are
remembered. Learners imitated models of correct language
(stimuli) and received positive reinforcement if they were correct,
and negative reinforcement if they were wrong.
A MENTALIST THEORY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
-​ 1969s-1970. According to this:
 → only humans were capable of learning a language, human mind
occupied with a faculty for learning language (language acquisition
device) input is needed, but only to “trigger” the operation of the
language acquisition device.
INTERLANGUAGE AND ITS PREMISES ABOUT L2 ACQ:
1.​ Learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules (‘mental
grammar’) which underlies comprehension and production of the
L2.
2.​ Learner’s grammar is permeable. It means that it’s open to
influence from the outside (through input) and from the inside.
3.​ Learner’s grammar is transitional, it means that it changes from
one time to another by adding and deleting rules. This results in
interlanguage continuum → those are the ‘mental grammar’
rules (interlanguage) that they build as they gradually increase the
complexity of their L2.
4.​ The systems learners construct contain variable rules. Other
researchers argue that interlock systems are homogeneous and
that variability reflects the mistakes learners make when trying to
use their knowledge when they communicate.
5.​ Learning strategies: to develop their interlog. The diff kinds of
errors learners produce, reflect different learning strategies.
6.​ Grammar is likely to fossilize. Only about 5% of os sts go on to
develop the same mental grammar as native speakers.
Backsliding → the action of relapsing into bad ways or errors.
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR
Chomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract
principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in
different languages.
THE CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS
The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which
language acquisition is easy and complete, and beyond which it is
difficult and typically incomplete. There’s considerable evidence to
support the claim that L2 learners who begin learning as adults, are
unable to achieve native speakers competence in either grammar or
pronunciation.
Individual Learner Differences
●​ Younger learners often reach native-like pronunciation; older
learners bring metalinguistic awareness, which may help
problem-solving but hinder fluency. Critical period effects suggest
that before a certain age, innate capacities are more available;
beyond that, general learning strategies dominate .
●​ Motivation (integrative/instrumental), attitudes, risk-taking, anxiety,
introversion/extroversion, and learning styles all impact success.
Effective learners often:
-​ Use strategies (e.g., noticing patterns, reparsing).
-​ Seek opportunities for communication.
-​ Persist through errors.
-​ Match instruction to cognitive readiness.​

●​ SPADA (How languages are learned ch4)

Explaining Second Language Learning

This chapter examines major theoretical approaches to how second

languages are learned, analyzing their implications and applications:

1.​ Behaviorist Perspective: Views L2 acquisition as habit formation

through imitation, repetition, reinforcement, and contrastive
analysis. the idea that learners transfer L1 habits into L2. However,
 this perspective struggled to explain why many errors aren’t
directly traceable to L1 influence, leading to its decline in favor .
2.​ Innatist Perspective (Universal Grammar & Monitor Model) Builds
on Chomsky’s theory: learners have innate knowledge of universal
grammatical principles that guide L2 acquisition. Explains why
learners often follow a natural order of acquisition, regardless of
explicit instruction. Includes Krashen’s Monitor Model, which
distinguishes:
-​ Acquisition (unconscious learning through meaningful
communication)
-​ Learning (formal instruction and awareness of rules)
-​ Emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input and the
“affective filter” (low anxiety) in acquiring language naturally
3.​ Cognitive Perspective: Posits that L2 learning draws on general
cognitive mechanisms like attention, memory, noticing, and
practice, not a separate language module. Highlights noticing as
crucial: language acquisition begins when learners detect a new
structure in the input. Differentiates declarative knowledge (explicit
grammatical facts) and procedural knowledge (automatic use
through practice). Addresses how learners gradually automatize
structures via meaningful repetition and processing .
4.​ Sociocultural Perspective: Emphasizes that learning occurs
through social interaction. Integrates the Comprehensible Output
hypothesis (Swain): producing language helps learners notice
gaps in their knowledge and develop accuracy. Recognizes the
classroom as a site of learner–learner and learner–teacher
interaction that drives development .
5.​Additional Cognitive and Developmental Frameworks:
 -​ Interaction Hypothesis: Dialogue and negotiation of meaning
help learners extract relevant structures .
-​ Noticing Hypothesis & Input Processing: Learners first must
notice language features before internalizing them .
-​ Processability Theory: Learners acquire structures they can
process cognitively at their current developmental
stage—predicting the order of feature acquisition
6.​ Pedagogical Implications: Highlights the need for a balanced
approach that combines: Form-focused instruction (grammar and
corrective feedback) and meaning-focused activities
(communication and negotiation of meaning)

●​ ORTEGA (Cognition)
Cognition refers to how information is processed and learned by the
human mind. SLA researchers study what it takes to ‘get to know’ an
additional language well enough to use it fluently in comprehension and
production. SLA theories:

INFORMATION PROCESSING IN PSYCHOLOGY AND SLA

Information processing emerged in the 1970s. Initially a reaction against
behaviourist theories that could only offer stimulus-response
explanations for human learning. The human mind is viewed as a
symbolic processor that constantly engages in mental processes. These
mental processes operate on mental representations and intervene
between input (data that gets into the mind) and output (the result of
those performances).

SEVERAL KEY ASSUMPTIONS DONE IN RESEARCH ABOUT

COGNITION:
 -​ The human cognitive architecture is made of representation and
access. Mental processing consists of two kinds of computation:
automatic or fluent (unconscious) and voluntary and controlled
(conscious). Cognitive resources are limited (memory and
attention)
INFORMATION PROCESS THEORIES DISTINGUISH BETWEEN:
→ Representation (knowledge): This is like the books in a library. If a
book is there, it means the information exists in your mind.
→ Access (processing): This is like the librarian who helps you find the
book. If the librarian is slow or confused, it takes longer to retrieve the
information. Linguistic representation is comprised of three kinds of
knowledge: grammatical, lexical, world-related. Access entails the
activation of two mechanisms → automatic and controlled
processing.
-​ Automatic processing: require small effort. It takes up few
cognitive resources. During this process, cognitive activation is
triggered by sth outside the processor (input or the environment)
-​ Controlled processing: it’s activated by sth inside the processor,
that is, by voluntary. It allows us self-regulation, but they require a
lot more effort and cognitive resources.
CP is subject to a bottleneck effect → when we voluntarily attend
to one thing, we need to block out the rest.
→ limited capacity model: it is based on the idea that human cognitive
resources, especially attention and working memory, are limited. This
means that learners cannot process all linguistic information at once, so
they must allocate their mental resources selectively when acquiring a
second language.
→ closely related to it, we have the dual-task as it also focuses on the
competition for cognitive resources. It suggests that when learners
perform two tasks simultaneously, especially when both require attention
and working memory, their performance on one or both tasks may suffer.
PROCEDURALIZATION AND AUTOMATICITY:
SKILL ACQUISITION THEORY:
-​ Mid 1980s, Defines learning as the gradual transformation of
performance from controlled to automatic. This happens through
relevant practice. With practice, you stop thinking about each step
and start doing it automatically →
proceduralization/automatization. Learners start with
explanations explicitly presented. With practice, this knowledge
can convert into ability for use → or implicit-procedural knowledge
made up of automatic routines.
LONG-TERM MEMORY:
It is about representations and unlimited. It’s made of two kinds
-​ Explicit-declarative memory: supports recollection of facts or
events.
-​ Implicit-procedural memory: things that we know without
knowing that we know them.
-​ Semantic memory: pertains to relatively decontextualized
knowledge of facts that ‘everyone knows’
-​ Episodic memory: involves knowledge of events people have
lived.
LONG TERM MEMORY AND L2 VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE
A word is established in long-term memory when the link between a form
and its meaning is made. Vocabulary knowledge strength concerns the
ability to use a given known word productively. Learners know more
words receptively than productively. → Size of the mental lexicon: the
total number of words known and represented in long-term memory. →
Vocabulary depth: resides in the realm of both explicit and implicit
memory. It refers to how well words are really known. It includes:
-​ How a word sounds
-​ How it is spelled
-​ How many other parts can appear with (pre-, -ment…)
-​ What is likely to proceed a word (make a decision, do exercise…)
-​ How many meanings the word may have
-​ Different synonyms (weather, climate)
●​ L2 words that are learned naturally—through real-life experiences,
conversations, or immersion are remembered better because they
are connected to rich, meaningful experiences. In contrast, words
learned in a classroom setting may not have as many real-life
connections, making them harder to remember.
●​ It’s been shown that when bilinguals recognize or produce words,
information encoded for both languages is initially activated →
non-selectivity
WORKING MEMORY: Where we develop, apply, and refine our
metalinguistic insights into an L2. We need working memory to hold
information as well as to integrate new info. With known info already
encoded in the long-term.
-​ Limited capacity: under normal conditions info can be
remembered in working memory for about two seconds only,
unless we actively rehearse it and it can eventually enter long-term
memory.
-​ Temporary activation: it only activates during a processing event.
People who have better working memory capacities can learn an
L2 more efficiently.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION:
 -​ Limited capacity, It is selective: only one attention-demanding
processing task can be handled at the same time, It can be
voluntary: it is driven by goals and intentions of the individual, It
control access to consciousness: under normal conditions
learners can tell about their thoughts or feelings.
THREE ATTENTIONAL CONDITIONS:
-​ Incidental: learning without intention, while doing sth else
-​ Implicit: learning without intervention of controlled attention,
without providing and looking for rules.
-​ Explicit: learning with the intervention of controlled attention,
usually with the provision of rules
ATTENTION AND SLA
-​ Learners must consciously notice language features before they
can be learned. Example: If an English learner does not notice
the "-s" in "he speaks," they will not acquire the third-person
singular rule.
Learning Without Intention
-​ Learners can acquire language without intending to learn (e.g.,
picking up words while watching TV).However, explicit learning is
often more effective for grammar and vocabulary.
Learning Without Attention
-​ Some studies suggest implicit learning is possible. people can
learn complex patterns without being aware of the rules.
Implication for SLA: Learners may absorb grammar patterns
through exposure rather than formal study.
Learning Without Awareness
-​ Some researchers argue that awareness is not necessary for
learning. Some learners improve without being aware of
grammar rules. However, Schmidt’s Noticing Hypothesis
 contradicts this idea, emphasizing the role of conscious
awareness.
IMPLICIT VS EXPLICIT LEARNING
-​ two types of learning:
○​ Symbolic Learning: Conscious rule learning.
○​ Associative Learning: Learning patterns through exposure.
➢​Found that explicit instruction helps in the early stages, but
implicit learning is more effective for long-term retention.

THE EMERGENTIST APPROACH (O’Grady, 2005)

-​ Rejects rule-based learning and argues that language emerges

from usage and exposure. Learners develop patterns rather
than memorizing rules. This contrasts with Chomsky’s Universal
Grammar, which assumes innate language structures.

Final Summary

1.​ Skill Acquisition Theory (DeKeyser, 1997) explains how L2 learners

progress from declarative knowledge to automaticity through
practice.
2.​ Long-term memory is divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit
(procedural) memory. Vocabulary relies on explicit memory, while
grammar and fluency rely on implicit memory.
3.​ Working memory is crucial for holding and processing linguistic
information.
4.​ Noticing Hypothesis (Schmidt, 1990) states that conscious
awareness is necessary for learning.
5.​ Implicit learning is possible, but explicit instruction helps in early
stages.
6.​ Emergentist theories suggest that language learning comes from
exposure and pattern recognition, not innate rules.
 ●​ BAGARIC (Defining communicative competence)
-​ Origins of Communicative Competence: The concept
originated from Chomsky (1965), who distinguished between
competence (knowledge of language) and performance
(actual language use). Hymes (1972) expanded this by
introducing communicative competence, which includes both
grammatical knowledge and the ability to use language
appropriately in different social contexts.

Widdowson
-​ Differentiated between competence (linguistic knowledge) and
capacity (ability to use language creatively).
-​ He understood the ability to use knowledge as means of
creating meaning in a lg
-​ He was the first to make a relationship between competence
and performance, and he gave more attention to performance
or real lg use.
Canale and Swain and Canale
-​ Synthesis of an underlying system of knowledge and skill
needed for communication. Knowledge: conscious or
unconscious knowledge of an individual about lg.
-​ 3 types of knowledge→ of underlying grammatical
principles, of how to use lg in a social context and of how to
combine utterances and communicative functions.
-​ Skills: how an individual can use knowledge in actual
communications
Savignon
-​ Focused on ability in real communicative situations,
emphasizing the dynamic nature of communication.It means
not just knowing grammar and vocabulary but also being able
to adjust the way you speak or write depending on the context,
the people you're communicating with, and the overall
situation. Its nature is dynamic.
Bachman and Palmer
-​ Defined communicative language ability as the combination of
competence (knowledge) and capacity (practical use in
specific contexts). It is defined as a concept composed of
knowledge and capacity for appropriate use of knowledge in a
contextual communicative lg use.
MODELS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: The study reviews
three dominant models of communicative competence.
Canale and Swain’s Model (1980, 1983) Divides communicative
competence into four components:
1.​Grammatical Competence – Mastery of vocabulary, syntax,
morphology, phonology.
2.​Sociolinguistic Competence – Understanding of social rules
for language use.
3.​Discourse Competence (added later) – Ability to maintain
cohesion and coherence in speech/writing.
4.​Strategic Competence – Use of strategies to compensate for
communication breakdowns.
Bachman and Palmer’s Model (1996)
Expands on Canale & Swain’s model, introducing a more detailed
framework:
-​ Organizational Knowledge: Includes grammatical and
textual knowledge (cohesion, structure).
-​ Pragmatic Knowledge: Covers functional (illocutionary force
of utterances) and sociolinguistic knowledge.
-​ Strategic Competence: Metacognitive strategies for
planning, assessing, and adjusting communication.
Common European Framework of Reference (CEF, 2001)
●​ Linguistic Competence – Grammar, phonology, semantics.
●​ Sociolinguistic Competence – Use of language in social
contexts.
●​ Pragmatic Competence–Discourse structuring and functional
appropriateness.

Model Components

Canale & Swain (1980, 1983) Grammatical, Sociolinguistic,

Discourse, Strategic

Bachman & Palmer (1996) Organizational (Grammatical +

Textual), Pragmatic (Functional
+ Sociolinguistic), Strategic

CEF (2001) Linguistic, Sociolinguistic,

Pragmatic (no Strategic
Competence)

Conclusion
 ●​ Over time, communicative competence has been refined and
adapted to language learning contexts.
●​ Researchers agree that communicative competence includes
both knowledge (linguistic, sociolinguistic, pragmatic) and
ability (strategic use in real situations).
●​ The study of communicative competence remains relevant for
understanding second language acquisition and assessment.

●​ COOK, KRASHEN (The input hypothesis model)

THE FIVE HYPOTHESES:
This theory consists of 5 linked ‘hypotheses’: input, acquisition/learning,
monitor, natural order, affective filter.
1.​ THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS:
‘Humans acquire language in only one way: by understanding messages
or receiving “comprehensible input” When the learner hears meaningful
speech and tries to understand it, acquisition will occur. L2 acquisition
fails when there’s no meaningful lg (activities that concentrate on forms
rather than meaning)
→ Listening: crucial activity
→ speaking: either unnecessary or harmful (active knowledge of how to
use an L2 never comes from production. Spk is a result of acquisition,
not a cause)
2.​ ACQUISITION/LEARNING HYPOTHESIS:
Adults have two distinctive ways of developing competences for real
communication. Acquisition (using lg for real communication) and
Learning (knowing ab the lg)’
-​ claims that there is a strict separation between acquisition and
learning
-​ In the process of lg learning, knowledge is gained through
conscious understanding of the rules of lg.
-​ acquisition as a purely subconscious process and learning as a
conscious process, and claimed that improvement in language
ability was only dependent upon acquisition and never on learning.
3.​ MONITOR HYPOTHESIS: ‘Conscious learning can only be used
as a Monitor, or an editor’ describes how learners use grammar to
consciously edit their speech.
-​ Monitoring uses learnt knowledge as a quality check on speech
originating from acquired knowledge
-​ Monitoring depends on several factors: tasks that focus on ‘form’
rather than meaning, personality of learners.
-​ Krashen believes that ‘learnt’ knowledge can never be converted
into ‘acquired knowledge.
4.​ NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS: ‘We acquire rules of lg in a
predictable order’ ‘ i + 1: for the learner to progress, the input has
always to be slightly beyond the level at which he is. (i: learner’s
level / 1:new info)
5.​ AFFECTIVE FILTER HYPOTHESIS: ‘A mental block, caused by
affective filter factors that prevent input from reaching the lg
acquisition device’ If the learner is unmotivated, lacking in
self-confidence, or anxious, comprehensive input cannot get
through.
6.​ THE LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD): Proposed by
Chomsky. It is a theoretical construct that helps children learn
language. LAD is made up of the natural lg learning abilities of the
human mind. Language input comes into the mind; LAD processes
it and procedures an internal grammar of the lg. Its function is to
turn lg into a grammar of the lg.
EVIDENCE FOR THE INPUT HYPOTHESIS:
-​ Motherese/Caretaker speech: Parents simplify their speech when
talking to children, which supports the Input Hypothesis.
-​ People speak to L2 learners in special ways: ‘teacher talk’ and
‘foreigner-talk’ are slower, well-formed, have shorter sentences
and simpler syntax. These characteristics improve the
comprehensible input.
-​ L2 learners often go through an initial silent period: the child is
building up competence in the second lg via listening, by
understanding te lg around him
-​ Comparative success of younger and older learners reflects
provision of comprehensible input: older learners progress
more quickly in early stages because they obtain more
comprehensible input, while younger learners do better in the long
run because of their lower effective filters.