Human Behavior and

Victimology

CRI 177
Module 8
 Feminine psychology
• Feminine psychology focuses on the social,
economic, and political challenges women face
throughout life.

• It developed as a response to male-centered theories,

like Sigmund Freud’s view of female sexuality.
Question:

Who is often credited with pioneering

the "feminine psychology" approach?
Question:

Why did Karen Horney criticize

Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic
theory?
 Feminine psychology
•Psychologist Karen Horney, a pioneer in this
field, argued that male perspectives cannot fully
explain women’s psychology because they are not
based on women’s real experiences.

• She criticized Freud’s theories as biased and

“phallocentric” (male-focused).
• Horney also studied the neurotic personality, which
she defined as an unhealthy way of handling
relationships.
• People with this personality often feel unhappy and seek
constant relationships to boost their self-worth. They
may show insecurity, neediness, or even anger—
behaviors that push others away.

• According to Horney, neurotic personality often develops

in a childhood filled with anxiety. While such behavior
might help a child cope, it usually prevents adults from
getting their emotional needs met.
Karen Horney’s Three Coping Styles
Relationship
Coping Style Main Behavior Key Traits
Outcome
• Clingy
Seeks approval &
1. Moving Toward • Needy Drives others away
acceptance to feel
People • Overly attached due to neediness
worthy
quickly

• Bossy
2. Moving Against Gains self-worth by • Demanding Creates conflict;
People controlling others • Selfish relationships fail
• Hostile
• Detached Feels safe alone
3. Moving Away Avoids closeness to
• Asocial but ends up lonely
from People prevent hurt
• Indifferent & empty
Question:
Which personality style involves
seeking help and acceptance from
others in response to anxiety and
helplessness?
- Moving Toward People
Question:
How does Horney describe the
relationship between the real self and
the ideal self for neurotic individuals?
 Real Self vs. Ideal Self (Karen Horney)
• Real Self – Who we truly are at a given time.
• Ideal Self – Who we wish to be.

For neurotic people:

• Their view of the real self is distorted/broken.
• The ideal self becomes an unrealistic escape, not a goal.
• They focus on what they “should” be instead of reality (Horney
called this the Tyranny of the Should).
• This leads to failure because their ideals don’t match their real
self.
The ideal self is a wish, not a
reality; it is an unrealistic,
immutable dream.
Question:
According to Erich Fromm, what is
the source of destructiveness and
cruelty in human beings?
Social Psychological Theory
(Erich Fromm)
• Humans are not naturally aggressive.
• Cruelty and destructiveness are not inherited.
• The urge to destroy appears when life needs are
frustrated.
• Destructive aggression comes from personality
tendencies, not from birth or simple learning.
Question:
How does the exploitative type fulfill
their need to belong, according to
Fromm?
Question:
How does the marketing type
approach relationships, according to
Fromm?
 Fromm’s Five Character Types:
Type Description
Passive, needy, and dependent on others for support, but rarely
1. Receptive
give it back; often from controlling households.
Use lies, manipulation, or force to get what they want; take
2. Exploitative
advantage of others to meet selfish needs.
Hold on to possessions for security; value things over people;
3. Hoarding
never feel satisfied despite having much.
Treat relationships as transactions; seek personal gain like
4. Marketing
money or status; opportunistic and changeable.
Channel negative feelings into meaningful work; build healthy,
5. Productive
loving, and supportive relationships.
In real life, no individual represents only one character
or orientation. Instead, it is a combination of the
various character types.

However, a person may manifest one type dominantly

such that it subordinates the other types.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 9
Interpersonal Theory
and
Personology
Interpersonal Theory
(Harry Stack Sullivan)
• Personality is shaped by relationships and social
experiences.
• Development occurs in stages: infancy, childhood, juvenile
era, preadolescence, early adolescence, late adolescence,
and adulthood.
• Healthy growth depends on the ability to form close, intimate
relationships unless interfered by anxiety.
• Anxiety can disrupt relationships at any stage.
• Society plays a major role in creating personality—people do
not develop in isolation.
Sullivan listed six stages in personality development prior to final stage of maturity:
Age Range / Start
Stage Key Features
Point
Birth → appearance of Oral interaction is primary; baby connects with
1. Infancy
speech environment through mouth.
Language develops; experiences are
2. Childhood After learning speech organized; The growth of symbolic ability
enables the child to play being a grown-up.
Grammar school Becomes social; period of becoming social,
3. Juvenile Stage
years becoming competitive and cooperative.
Needs a close same-sex friend for trust,
4. Preadolescence Before puberty
sharing, and problem-solving.
Patterns of preferred genital activity emerge;
5. Early Adolescence Start of puberty
explores romantic and sexual interest.
Moves toward fully mature interpersonal
6. Late Adolescence Until maturity
relationships and responsibilities.
Personology
(Henry Murray)
• Personality develops through three life stages:
• Childhood, adolescence, young adulthood
• Middle years
• Senescence (final stage of life)
• Everyone has personality complexes of different
intensities.
• Complexes aren’t always abnormal—only extreme
cases are.
• A complex is a enduring or lasting trait from earlier
experiences that shapes future development.
Five Complexes of a Person

1. Claustral complexes- represent residuals

of the uterine or pre-natal experience of the
individual.

Under this heading, he suggested three

specific types of complexes:
a. Simple Claustral Complex – the wish to reinstate the
conditions similar to those prevailing before birth.
• Desire for small, warm, dark, safe spaces.
• Traits: dependent, passive, prefers familiar and safe
routines.
b. Fear of Insupport Complex – Anxiety from feeling insecure
or helpless.
• Fears: open spaces, falling, drowning, disasters, or major
changes.
c. Aggression Complex – Fear of suffocation or confinement.
• Preferences: open spaces, fresh air, travel, movement, and
change.
2. Oral Complexes - represent derivatives of early feeding
experiences. Murray again proposed three categories:
a. Oral Succorance Complex – oral activity in combination with
passive and dependent tendencies.
• Traits: sucking, kissing, eating, drinking, craving affection, sympathy,
protection, and love.
b. Oral Aggression Complex – Oral activity combined with
aggression.
• Traits: biting, cathexis for solid objects, strong aggressive needs, mixed
feelings toward authority, harm-avoidance, phobia of biting objects, and
stuttering.

c. Oral Rejection Complex – involves spitting; Disgust for oral

activities.
• Traits: picky eating, small appetite, vomiting, fear of oral contamination
(kissing), desire for seclusion, avoids dependence.
3. Anal Complexes -events associated with the act of defecating
and bowel training:

a. Anal Rejection Complex – Preference for disorder and

autonomy. Anal theory of birth
a. Traits: messy, disorganized, seeks independence, linked to anal
sexuality.

b. Anal Retention Complex – Hidden attachment to feces,

masked by neatness.
a. Traits: collects and saves things, values cleanliness, neatness, and
order.
4. Urethral Complex – Linked to excessive
ambition and distorted self-esteem.
• Traits: aims too high, often disappointed when
dreams fail.

5. Genital / Castration Complex – Fear from

masturbation and parental punishment.
• Traits: in boys, fear that the penis might be cut off.
a. Protaxic Mode- Earliest mode of experience
(infancy).
• Experience is fragmented, unorganized, and
immediate—no cause-and-effect understanding
yet.
• Events are taken just as they come, without
connection to other experiences.

Example: A baby feels hunger and cries but does not yet
understand that crying will bring food.
b. Parataxic Mode- Middle stage of development.
• Experiences are connected by coincidence or
subjective associations, not by logical reasoning.
• May result in illogical or superstitious thinking.

Example: A child believes that wearing a “lucky shirt” makes

exams easier, simply because they once did well while wearing it.
c. Syntactic Mode- Most mature mode of
experience.
• Thinking is logical, organized, and based on
shared meanings (language, symbols, logic).
• It allows effective communication and realistic
understanding.

Example: An adult knows that studying increases the chances of

doing well in an exam, based on
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 10
Operant Conditioning and Imitation
Operant Reinforcement (Burrhus Frederic Skinner)
• Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) -is a
learning theory where behavior is influenced by its
consequences.
• Behavior that is reinforced (rewarded) will likely be
repeated;
• Behavior that is punished will occur less frequently.
• Skinner’s theory says that in operant conditioning, if a
behavior is followed by a reward, it becomes stronger
and happens more often.

• Rewards (positive or negative) increase behavior, while

punishment decreases it and can have bad effects.

• Skinner also explained that punishment is different from

simply forgetting or extinction.

• He believed personality is just a collection of learned

behavior patterns.
 Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement - is any event that strengthens or increases
the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of reinforcers:
➢Positive reinforcement – adding something good after a
behavior.
Example: A teacher gives a student a star for finishing homework, so the
student keeps doing homework.

➢Negative reinforcement – removing something unpleasant after a

behavior.
Example: You fasten your seatbelt and the annoying car alarm stops, so you
buckle up more often.
 Punishment in Operant Conditioning
Punishment - is an adverse event or outcome that
causes a decrease in the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of punishment:
➢Positive punishment – adding something unpleasant to reduce a
behavior.
Example: A child touches a hot stove and feels pain, so they avoid
touching it again.
➢Negative punishment – taking away something pleasant to reduce
a behavior.
Example: A teenager breaks curfew, so their parents take away their
phone, making them less likely to break curfew again.
Social Learning Theory/Imitation
(Albert Bandura)
➢Observational learning happens when a person
changes behavior after watching someone else (the
model).
➢The model’s actions are called modeling cues.
a. Live modeling – learning by watching someone in real life.
Example: A child learns to cook by watching their parent.

b. Symbolic modeling – learning by watching or reading about

someone.
Example: A student learns teamwork by watching a sports movie.
Three Effects of Observation and Imitation
1.Modeling effect – Learning a new behavior by copying a
model (as long as you are able to do it).
Example: A child learns to dance by watching a teacher.

2.Disinhibitory effect – Seeing someone else do a behavior

makes you feel free to do it too, even if you usually hold back.
Example: A shy student answers in class after seeing friends do it.

3.Eliciting effect – Copying a behavior you already know after

seeing a model do it.
Example: You yawn when someone else yawns.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 11
 Anxiety Disorder
Separation Anxiety Disorder,
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
Obsessive - Compulsive
Disorder
What is Anxiety?
▪ Anxiety often produces tension, worry, and physiological
reactivity.
▪ Anxiety is frequently an anticipatory emotion, a sense of
unease about a dreaded event or situation that has not
yet occurred.
▪ From an evolutionary perspective, anxiety may be
adaptive, producing bodily reactions that prepare us for
“fight or flight.”
 Difference between anxiety and fear :
ANXIETY FEAR
• a response to external and • is a more intense emotion
internal stimuli that can have experienced in response to a
behavioral, emotional, cognitive, threatening situation.
and physical symptoms. • the emotional response to real or
• anxiety is anticipation of future perceived imminent threat.
threats.
 Generally, there are two types of anxiety:
1.Free-floating Anxiety
The American Psychological Association defines it as “a diffuse,
chronic sense of uneasiness and apprehension not directed toward
any specific situation or object.”
In simpler terms, this type of anxiety makes a person feel worried,
nervous, or fearful without any clear reason.

2.Signal Anxiety
This type of anxiety arises in response to internal conflict or an
emerging impulse and serves as a warning signal to the individual.
Anxiety Disorder
-A group of conditions that share a key
feature of excessive anxiety with ensuing
behavioral, emotional, cognitive and
physiologic responses.
 Types of Anxiety Disorder
1. Separation Anxiety Disorder
2. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
3. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
a. Obsession
b. Compulsions
Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD)

• It is intense worry or fear about

leaving home, being alone, or being
separated from a parent or loved
one.
Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD)
• The main feature of SAD is fear of being apart from home or
from people the child is strongly attached to.
• Common symptoms include:
➢ feeling upset before and during separation,
➢ refusing to go to school,
➢ clinging to parents,
➢ trouble sleeping alone,
➢ nightmares, and
➢ physical complaints (like headaches or stomachaches).
• These symptoms must last for at least 4 weeks.
• While it usually starts in childhood, it can also occur in adulthood.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
 Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
• The core feature of GAD is excessive
worry.
• It involves persistent, high levels of
anxiety and uncontrollable worry
about life circumstances.
• These feelings are often accompanied
by physical symptoms such as
restlessness or tension.
• For a DSM-5 diagnosis, symptoms
must occur most days for at least 6
months and cause significant
distress or impairment in daily life.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• OCD is characterized by intrusive, repetitive anxiety-
producing thoughts (obsessions) and/or a strong need to
perform acts or mental tasks (compulsions) to reduce anxiety.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Obsession VS Compulsions
• Intrusive, repetitive • Repeated actions or mental habits
thoughts or images that done to reduce anxiety from
cause anxiety. obsessions.
• Can be visible behaviors like
• Create a need to perform washing hands, checking, or
certain acts or mental tasks arranging things.
to relieve the anxiety. • Can also be mental acts like
praying, counting, or repeating
words silently.
• Anxiety gets worse if these acts
aren’t done or aren’t done “correctly.”
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Example:
❖ A person fears germs (obsession), so they wash their hands many times
even though they’re already clean (compulsion).
❖ A person constantly fears that the door is unlocked (obsession), leading

them to repeatedly check it even when they know it’s locked

(compulsion).
❖ A person keeps imagining germs spreading on everything they touch

(obsession), which makes them feel they must sanitize their hands over
and over (compulsion).
❖ A person fears their house might catch fire (obsession), so they

repeatedly check that the stove is turned off before leaving

(compulsion).
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
• People with obsessions often have unwanted, irrational
thoughts or images that are hard to control. Even if they try
to ignore them, the thoughts usually continue.
Common obsession themes include:
a. Contamination – fear of germs, dirt, or being polluted by contact
with unclean or harmful things.
b. Errors or uncertainty – constant worry about mistakes or doubts,
like checking if the door is locked or appliances are off.
c. Unwanted impulses – disturbing thoughts of harming oneself,
others, or sexual acts.
d. Orderliness – strong need for perfect order, balance, or
symmetry.
Associated Disorder with OCD
1. Trichotillomania: recurrent
and compulsive hair pulling
that results in hair loss and
causes significant distress

2. Excoriation (skin-picking)
disorder: a distressing and
recurrent compulsive picking
of the skin resulting in skin
lesions.
Phobias
Phobias
• An intense and irrational fear of specific objects,
situations, or activities.
• The fear is much stronger than the actual danger.

Examples:
✓ Fear of heights (acrophobia)

✓ Fear of spiders (arachnophobia)

✓ Fear of flying, or fear of confined spaces (claustrophobia).

Common Phobias
• Acrophobia – fear of heights
• Arachnophobia – fear of spiders
• Claustrophobia – fear of small or enclosed spaces
• Ophidiophobia – fear of snakes
• Nyctophobia – fear of the dark
• Aerophobia – fear of flying
• Trypanophobia – fear of injections/needles
• Mysophobia – fear of germs or dirt
• Cynophobia – fear of dogs
• Agoraphobia – fear of open or crowded places
• Phobophobia -It is the fear of phobias themselves, or the fear of
developing a phobia.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 12
 Anxiety Disorder
Social Phobia
Panic Disorder
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
 Social Anxiety Disorder (social phobia)
➢ The individual is fearful or anxious about or
avoidant of social interactions and situations
that involve the possibility of being
scrutinized.
➢ These fear includes meeting new people,

being watched while eating or drinking, and

performing in front of others.
➢ The main thought is the fear of being judged,

embarrassed, humiliated, rejected, or

offending others.
Signs and Symptoms of Social Anxiety Disorder:
❖ Constant fear of being judged.
❖ Worry about embarrassment or humiliation.

❖ Intense fear of talking to strangers.

❖ Fear others will notice your anxiety.

❖ Fear of physical signs like blushing, sweating, trembling, or shaky

voice.
❖ Avoiding people or activities to prevent embarrassment.

❖ Avoiding being the center of attention.

❖ Feeling anxious before social events.

❖ Strong fear during social situations.

❖ Overthinking and finding flaws after social interactions.

❖ Expecting the worst outcome from social experiences.

Panic Disorder

▪ People with panic disorder often have

sudden and unexpected panic attacks.
▪ These are intense waves of fear or
discomfort that peak within minutes, even
without real danger, and come with physical
and mental symptoms.
▪ Panic disorder often begins in the late
teens or early adulthood. Women are more
likely than men to develop panic disorder.
Signs and Symptoms of Panic Disorder
➢ Sudden, repeated panic attacks with extreme fear.
➢ Feeling out of control or fearing death/doom during attacks.

➢ Constant worry about future panic attacks.

➢ Avoiding places where attacks happened before.

Physical symptoms like:

• Fast or pounding heartbeat
• Sweating or chills
• Trembling
• Trouble breathing
• Dizziness or weakness
• Tingling or numb hands
• Chest pain
• Stomach pain or nausea
 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
❑A mental health condition that can happen after
experiencing or witnessing a traumatic or life-threatening
event. It can affect a person’s mind, body, emotions,
relationships, and overall well-being. Examples include
natural disasters, serious accidents, war, violence,
abuse, or bullying.
❑ People with PTSD have intense, disturbing thoughts
and feelings related after the traumatic event has ended.
❑ They might relive the event through flashbacks or
nightmares, feel sadness, fear, or anger, and often feel
distant or disconnected from others.
❑ People with PTSD often avoid people or places that
remind them of the trauma, and they may react strongly
to everyday things like loud noises or accidental touches.
To be diagnosed with PTSD, an adult must have all of the following
for at least 1 month:
• At least one re-experiencing symptom
• At least one avoidance symptom
• At least two arousal and reactivity symptoms
• At least two cognition and mood symptoms
Re-experiencing symptoms include:
• Experiencing flashbacks—reliving the traumatic event, including physical
symptoms such as a racing heart or sweating.
• Having recurring memories or dreams related to the event.
• Having distressing thoughts.
• Experiencing physical signs of stress.
Avoidance symptoms include:
• Staying away from places, events, or objects that are reminders of the
traumatic experience.
• Avoiding thoughts or feelings related to the traumatic event.
Arousal and reactivity symptoms include:
• Being easily startled.
• Feeling tense, on guard, or on edge.
• Having difficulty concentrating.
• Having difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep.
• Feeling irritable and having angry or aggressive outbursts.
• Engaging in risky, reckless, or destructive behavior.
Cognition and mood symptoms include:
• Having trouble remembering key features of the traumatic event.
• Having negative thoughts about oneself or the world.
• Having exaggerated feelings of blame directed toward oneself or others.
• Having ongoing negative emotions, such as fear, anger, guilt, or shame.
• Losing interest in enjoyable activities.
• Having feelings of social isolation.
• Having difficulty feeling positive emotions, such as happiness or satisfaction.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 13
SOMATIC DISORDERS
AND ITS TYPES
Somatic Symptom Disorder
-Is when a person feels very worried about
physical symptoms (like pain, tiredness, or other
body problems).

-Even if the symptoms are not very serious, they

spend too much time and energy thinking about
them, stressing over them, or visiting doctors.
• is a mental health condition characterized by a
preoccupation/worry with physical symptoms or health
concerns, despite the absence of a medical explanation.

• Individuals with somatic symptom disorder may experience

significant distress and impairment in their daily functioning
due to their excessive focus on physical symptoms.

• People with Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD) often

report pain or other upsetting body symptoms. This
continues for at least 6 months and comes with constant
worry or anxiety about their health.
Example:
➢Mark often gets headaches, but even after the doctor
says it’s not serious, he keeps worrying it might be a
brain disease and spends too much time thinking about
it.

➢Lisa feels chest pain, and even though tests show her
heart is healthy, she constantly fears she has a serious
heart problem and keeps visiting clinics.
 Causes of Somatic Symptoms / Somatoform Disorders
The exact cause of the somatoform disorders remains unknown. However, several
reasons or factors appear to play a role such as:
Cause/Factor Explanation
1. Biological factors Being very sensitive to pain.
Worrying a lot, thinking negatively, or having antisocial
2. Personality
traits.

3. Family influences Genetics and family environment can increase the risk.

4. Difficulty with Trouble expressing or handling emotions may turn into

emotions physical symptoms.
Persons may sometimes transfer their emotional issues
5. Learned behavior into physical symptoms to gain attention, care, or avoid
uncomfortable tasks.
Types of Somatic Disorder/ Somatoform Disorder

1. Conversion Disorder
• (Functional Neurological Symptom Disorder) is when a person has
problems with movement, senses, or perception, but no medical
cause is found.
• Symptoms can include numbness, blindness, or difficulty walking.
They often appear suddenly, may last a short or long time, and are
often linked with depression or anxiety.
In short: It’s when the body shows real symptoms (like not seeing
or moving properly) without a physical cause, usually connected to
stress or emotional issues.
Types of Somatic Disorder/ Somatoform Disorder

2. Somatization Disorder
• Happens when a person keeps complaining about physical problems
even though no medical cause is found.
• It usually starts before age 30, lasts for years, and includes different
symptoms like pain, stomach issues, sexual problems, or neurological
complaints.
• Common symptoms may include nausea, headaches, bloating,
irregular menstruation, or balance problems.
In short: It’s long-term, repeated physical complaints without a medical
reason, affecting different parts of the body.
Types of Somatic Disorder/ Somatoform Disorder

3. Hypochondriasis
• Is when a person believes that normal body sensations or minor
symptoms mean they have a serious illness, even though medical
tests show nothing is wrong.
• The symptoms may be real or imagined, but the worry is extreme.
• In the DSM-5, Hypochondriasis was removed and replaced by
Somatic Symptom Disorder and Illness Anxiety Disorder.
Example: A person thinks indigestion means stomach cancer, or a
headache means brain cancer, and no reassurance or test result eases
their fear.
Types of Somatic Disorder/ Somatoform Disorder

4. Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)

• Is a mental health condition where a person is overly worried
about a flaw in their appearance, even if the flaw is small or
not noticeable to others.
• They spend a lot of time thinking about or trying to fix this
perceived defect.

In short: It’s being extremely self-conscious about looks, even when

others don’t see a problem.
Types of Somatic Disorder/ Somatoform Disorder

5. Pain Disorder
• Is when a person feels ongoing pain in one or more parts of the
body, but doctors can’t find a medical cause.
• Persons with pain disorder suffer from chronic pain for which no
physical cause can be found.
• The pain is real, lasts a long time, and is strongly influenced by
psychological factors like stress or emotions.

In short: It’s chronic pain without a clear physical reason, often linked
to psychological causes.
 Note:
Disorder Requirement Duration
Person has at least 1
a. Undifferentiated
unexplained physical 6 months or more
Somatoform Disorder symptom

b. Somatoform Disorder Person has unexplained

Less than 6
Not Otherwise Specified symptoms that don’t meet
months
(NOS) full criteria

In short: The difference is mainly the duration of symptoms — 6 months

or more vs. less than 6 months.
Signs and Symptoms of
Somatic Symptom Disorder (SSD):
• Ongoing physical problems like pain, tiredness, weakness, or shortness of
breath.
• Symptoms have no clear medical cause, or if there is one, the reaction is far
more severe than expected.
• Even mild symptoms are seen as serious and threatening.
• Constant worry about illness and health.
• Frequently checking the body for problems or defects.
• Symptoms may change over time (sometimes one, sometimes many).
• Daily life is disrupted because of the focus on symptoms.
• Doesn’t feel reassured even after seeing doctors or getting treatment.
• Worry and behavior about the symptoms start to affect relationships and daily
activities.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 15
Lesson Title: Dissociative Disorders

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Explain the concept of Dissociative Disorders
2. Describe the implications of Dissociative Disorders to
Human Personality.
 What is Dissociative Disorder?
• mental health conditions that involve experiencing a
loss of connection between thoughts, memories,
feelings, surroundings, behavior and identity.

• In simple terms, it’s when the mind separates from

reality in ways that are often involuntary and
unhealthy.
In simpler sense:
• Dissociative disorder is a mental health condition
where a person feels disconnected from their thoughts,
memories, surroundings, identity, or actions.
• Or in other words, it’s when the mind “breaks away”
from reality without the person choosing it, and this can
cause problems in daily life.

Example: Someone may forget important parts of their life, feel like
they are outside their own body, or act like a completely different
person without remembering it later.
 What causes dissociative disorders?
• Dissociative disorders usually happen after shocking,
distressing or painful experiences and work as a way for the
mind to block out hard memories.
• The symptoms depend on the type of disorder—some people
may have memory loss, while others may feel like they have
different identities or disconnected identities.
• Stressful situations can make these symptoms worse or more
noticeable.
Dissociative symptoms are experienced as:
• Memory loss (amnesia) of certain time periods, events, people and personal
information.
• A sense of being detached from yourself and your emotions.
• A perception of the people and things around you as distorted and unreal.
• A blurred sense of identity.
• Significant stress or problems in your relationships, work or other important
areas of your life
• Inability to cope well with emotional or professional stress.
• Mental health problems, such as depression, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts
and behaviors.
 Three Major Dissociative Disorders
According to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), APA

1. Dissociative amnesia
a. Selective Amnesia
b. Continuous Amnesia
c. Systematized Amnesia
d. Generalized Amnesia
e. Localized Amnesia

2. Dissociative Identity Disorder

3. Depersonalization-derealization Disorder
1. Dissociative Amnesia
• Is when a person has memory loss that is more serious than
normal forgetting and is not caused by a medical problem.
• They may not remember personal information, people, or events—
especially after a traumatic experience.
• The memory loss can cover a short event, a longer period, or in rare
cases, nearly everything about themselves. Sometimes, it includes
wandering or traveling away without knowing why (called
dissociative fugue).
• An episode of amnesia usually occurs suddenly and may last
minutes, hours, or rarely, months or years.
Example: Dissociative Amnesia
When a person, after experiencing a traumatic event like a
sexual assault, cannot recall the event itself but develops an
intense, unconscious aversion/dislike to the location where it
occurred, such as refusing to enter elevators or any building with
a stairwell.

This happens because, even though the conscious memory is

gone, the trauma's emotional impact continues to influence their
behavior in ways that are not consciously understood.
 Types of Dissociative Amnesia
Type of Amnesia Description
Forget some parts of a certain period (e.g., parts of a
1. Selective Amnesia
traumatic event, but not all).
Forget each new event as it happens, often triggered
2. Continuous Amnesia
by trauma.
Forget memories related to a specific category or
3. Systematized Amnesia
person (e.g., all memories of one individual).
Rare; forgets entire identity and life history, including
4. Generalized Amnesia who they are, where they’ve been, or what they’ve
done.
Most common; forgets a specific event or period of
5. Localized Amnesia
time.
2. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
• Previously called multiple personality disorder, this condition
involves “switching” between two or more identities.
• A person may feel like different people live inside their mind,
each with its own name, history, voice, and behaviors. These
identities may or may not know about each other.
• People with DID often also experience memory loss (amnesia)
or wandering episodes (fugue).
MOVIE NAME: SPLIT
3. Depersonalization-derealization Disorder
• This disorder makes a person feel disconnected from themselves or
their surroundings.
i. Depersonalization- you may feel like you’re watching yourself
from the outside, as if your actions, feelings, or thoughts don’t
belong to you.
ii. Derealization- the world around you feels strange or unreal—
things may seem foggy, dreamlike, or distorted. Time may also feel
too slow or too fast.
• Some people experience one, while others experience both. These
episodes can be brief or long-lasting, and they are often very
upsetting because they make everyday life feel unreal.
Example:
A college student is sitting in class during a stressful exam.
Suddenly, she feels like she is watching herself from outside her
body, as if she’s in a movie (depersonalization). At the same time,
the classroom looks strange and unreal, like everything is foggy
or dreamlike (derealization).
This episode lasts for a few minutes, then fades, leaving
her shaken and confused.
Exit Assessment
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 16
Lesson Title: Depressive and Bipolar Disorder

Lesson Objectives:
• At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
• Explain the concept of Depressive and Bipolar Disorders;
and
• Discuss the implications of Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
to Human Personality.
Depressive Disorder
▪ Also known as depression;
▪ It is a common mental health problem. It happens when a
person feels sad or loses interest in activities for a long
time.
▪ The sadness is strong or lasts so long that it affects daily
life, making it hard to enjoy or do normal activities.
Types of Depressive Disorder
a. Major Depressive Disorder
➢This happens when a person feels sad most of the day,
almost every day, or loses interest in almost all activities for at
least two weeks.
➢People with this condition may look very unhappy—crying,
avoiding eye contact, speaking softly, or showing little
movement.
➢Some may feel so deeply sad that they can no longer cry or feel
emotions, as if the world has lost its color and meaning.
b. Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD)
➢Thistype of depression lasts for 2 years or more without going
away. It often starts during teenage years and can continue for
many years.
➢People with PDD may seem gloomy, pessimistic, tired, quiet,
and overly critical of themselves or others.
➢They may also face other problems like anxiety, substance use,
or personality disorders.
c. Prolonged grief disorder
➢ This happens when deep sadness after losing a loved one
continues for a very long time.
➢ Unlike depression, the sadness comes from the specific loss.
➢ It is more serious than normal grief and can make daily life very
difficult, often requiring special treatment or therapy.

Common signs include:

• Strong disbelief or intense emotional pain
• Feeling confused about one’s identity
• Avoiding reminders of the loss
• Feeling numb or empty
• Deep loneliness and meaninglessness
• Trouble moving on with daily life
 Disorder Core Feature Duration Pattern Impact

Intense episodes of
Can occur once
depression
1. Major Depressive At least 2 weeks of or recur in episodes, Strongly interferes with
(sadness,
Disorder (MDD) symptoms. but not necessarily daily functioning.
hopelessness, loss of chronic/long lasting.
interest/pleasure).

2. Persistent Long-lasting low mood,

Ongoing, less severe At least 2 years Continuous symptoms
fatigue, low self-esteem,
Depressive Disorder but chronic/continuing (1 year for children/ (not symptom-free for
often feels “part of the
(PDD / Dysthymia) depressive symptoms. adolescents). more than 2 months).
person’s life.”

Impairs social,
Distinct from
Beyond 1 year in occupational, and
Intense and persistent depression—focused on
3. Prolonged Grief adults other important areas of
grief after losing a loved yearning, longing, and
Disorder (PGD) (6 months in children/ functioning, tied
one. difficulty moving on
adolescents). specifically to
from the loss.
bereavement/mourning.
In short:
▪ MDD = episodes of clinical depression.
▪ PDD = chronic, long-term low-grade depression.
▪ PGD = persistent, disabling grief specifically
after a loss.
Bipolar Disorder
➢This is a mental illness that causes extreme changes in
mood, energy, and activity.
➢A person may swing from feeling very happy and energetic
to very sad and tired, even without a clear reason.
➢These mood shifts can make it hard to manage daily life.
Types of Bipolar Disorder
➢Bipolar I Disorder
• Characterized by manic episodes lasting at least seven days or by manic symptoms
that are so severe that immediate hospital care is needed.
• Depressive episodes usually occur as well, typically lasting at least two weeks.
• The mood swings are more extreme and intense.
➢Bipolar II Disorder
• Involves a pattern of depressive episodes and hypomanic episodes, but not the full-
blown manic episodes seen in Bipolar I.
• Hypomania is a milder form of mania — the person may appear energetic or unusually
productive but still able to function.
➢Cyclothymic Disorder (Cyclothymia)
• Involves numerous periods of hypomanic and depressive symptoms lasting for at
least two years (one year in children and teens).
• Symptoms are milder than those of Bipolar I or II but can still disrupt daily life.
Two Phases of Bipolar Disorder
➢Manic Phase
❖ The person may become overly excited, act silly, make reckless
decisions, or argue a lot.
❖ They might talk very fast, have unrealistic ideas, and quickly change
topics.
❖ They often struggle to sleep or stay still.

➢Depressive Episode
❖ The person feels very sad, tired, or withdrawn.
❖ They may sleep a lot, lose energy, and become easily irritated.
ACTIVITY 2 (P3) ¼ yellow pad
Activity Instruction:
List down 3 words or short phrases that can describe
Each type of Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder.
Example:
Major Depressive Disorder –
• deep sadness
• A
• a
Bipolar Disorder (Manic Phase) –
• high energy
• A
• a
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 17
Lesson Title: Sexual Dysfunctions

Lesson Objectives:
At the end of the lesson the students must be able to:
1. Explain the concept of Sexual Dysfunctions
2. Discuss the implications of Sexual Dysfunctions
to Sex Crimes
Sexual Dysfunctions
-is a disruption (disturbance/disorder) of any
part of the normal sexual response that affects
sexual desire, arousal, or response.

Sexual dysfunctions can be classified as:

• Lifelong
• Acquired
• Generalized
• Situational
1. Lifelong Sexual Dysfunction
• Evident during a person’s initial sexual experiences.
• The problem has been present since the first sexual experiences and has always
existed, not developed later in life.
Example:
A man who has never been able to maintain an erection, or a woman who has always
experienced pain during intercourse.

2. Acquired Sexual Dysfunction

• Developed after successful sexual experiences.
• The dysfunction appears after a period of normal, satisfying sexual functioning.
• This shows a change from previous functioning.
Example:
A woman who used to have orgasms but later can no longer reach orgasm due to
stress, trauma, or medical issues.
3. Generalized Sexual Dysfunction
• Occurs in all or nearly all sexual situations.
• The problem is consistent and not limited to specific partners, places, or
circumstances.
Example:
A man who cannot achieve an erection with any partner, in any circumstance.
4. Situational Sexual Dysfunction
• Occurs only in specific situations, with certain partners, or
during particular types of sexual activity.
• The problem is context-dependent, suggesting
psychological, relational, or situational factors.

Example:
A person who can have an orgasm through masturbation but not
during intercourse with a partner.
Human Sexual Response Cycle
 Human Sexual Response Cycle
Stage Name Description

• The first stage of the sexual response cycle.

Excitement Phase
1 (“turning on stage”)
• Begins with physical or mental stimulation (e.g., kissing, touching,
or erotic thoughts) that lead to sexual arousal.

• Follows the excitement phase.

Plateau Phase • Heart rate and circulation increase further, and sexual pleasure
2 (“building up”) intensifies.
• Involuntary sounds or movements may occur.

• The peak of sexual pleasure and the climax of the cycle.

Orgasm Phase
3 (“climax”)
• Involves muscle contractions in the pelvic area.
• In men, this stage is usually accompanied by ejaculation.

• The final stage that occurs after orgasm.

Resolution Phase
4 (“cooling down”)
• The body relaxes, blood pressure drops, and the person returns to a
normal, unaroused state.
 Stage Description

Excitement Getting aroused.

Plateau Arousal intensifies and stabilizes.

Orgasm Climax or release of sexual tension.

Resolution Body recovers and relaxes.

 Terms to Remember
Dysfunction Definition Associated Features
Male Hypoactive • Recurrent lack of sexual ▪ Increasing prevalence
Sexual Desire interest with age

Erectile • Inability to attain or ▪ Low self-esteem or

Dysfunction maintain erection lack of confidence; fear
sufficient for sexual activity of failure
Premature • Ejaculation prior to or ▪ Fear of not satisfying
Ejaculation within1 minute after partner; but only 1%-
vaginal penetration 3% meet the criteria
Delayed • Persistent delay or absence ▪ Partner may feel less
Ejaculation of ejaculation nearly all the attractive, feelings of
time during partnered sex frustration
activity
Female Sexual • Little or no sexual interest or ▪ Problems with arousal,
Interest/Arousal arousal for sexual activity pain, orgasm;
Disorder relationship problem

Female • Persistent delay or inability ▪ Only mildly related to

Orgasmic to attain an orgasm in nearly women’s sexual
all sexual encounters satisfaction

Penetration • Difficulty with vaginal ▪ Fear of penetration,

Disorder penetration, fear of pain, avoidance of sexual
tightening of pelvic muscles activities
 Abnormal Sexual Behaviors
➢Abnormal sexual behaviors often lead to sex-
related crimes.

➢The following are the classifications of abnormal

behaviors involving sex:
 A. Sexual Reversals
1. Homosexuality – a sexual
behavior directed towards
the same sex; lesbianism or
tribadism for female
relationships.
2. Transvestism – the achievement of sexual excitement
by dressing as a member of the opposite sex such as a
man who wears female apparel.
3. Fetishism – sexual gratification is obtained by looking at some
body parts, underwear of the opposite sex or other objects
associated with the opposite sex.
 B. Abnormal behavior based on choice
of partner.

1. Pedophilia – a sexual
perversion where a
person has the
compulsive desire to have
sexual intercourse with a
child of either sex.
2. Bestiality – the
sexual gratification is
attained by having
sexual intercourse
with animals.
3. Auto-Sexual – This refers to sexual
self-abuse or sexual satisfaction that is
carried out without the cooperation of
another person.
• An autosexual individual is primarily
sexually attracted to themselves.
• They may find their own body,
appearance, or presence to be a
source of sexual arousal.
• However, this does not necessarily
mean they cannot be attracted to
others; rather, their strongest or most
fulfilling attraction is toward
themselves.
4. Gerontophilia – is a sexual desire with an elderly person.
5. Necrophilia – an erotic desire or actual
intercourse with a corpse.
6. Incest – a sexual relation between persons
who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally
marry.
 C. Based on sexual urge

1. Satyriasis – an
excessive desire of men
to have sexual
intercourse.
2. Nymphomania – a strong sexual feeling of
women with an excessive sexual urge.

Amu lang to? isa pa!!!!

 D. Based on mode of sexual
expression

1. Oralism – the use of

the mouth or the tongue
as a way of sexual
satisfaction.
Fellatio – male sex organ to the mouth of the
women coupled with the act of sucking that
initiates orgasm.
Cunnilingus – sexual gratification is attained
by licking the external female genitalia.
 Anilism/Anilingus – licking the anus of the
sexual partner.
2. Sadism – achievement of
sexual stimulation and
gratification through the
infliction of physical pain
on the sexual partner.
• It may also be associated with
animals or objects instead of
human beings.
3. Masochism – infliction of pain
to oneself to achieve sexual
pleasure.
4. Sado-masochism (Algolagnia)
– pain/cruelty for sexual gratification.
E. Based on Part of the Body

Term Description

Sodomy A sexual act performed through the anus of the sexual partner.

Sexual gratification attained through fingering, touching, holding the

Uranism breasts, or licking different parts of the body.

The act of rubbing one’s sex organ against the body parts of
Frottage another person for sexual pleasure.

Refers to sexual attraction or arousal focused on a specific part

of the partner’s body, such as the feet, hair, hands, legs, or
Partialism breasts.
The attraction is so strong that it becomes central to sexual
excitement.
F. Based on Visual Stimulus
Term Definition
The person is commonly called a “peeping Tom”; it is the
achievement of sexual pleasure through secretly watching
Voyeurism others, such as peeping into dressing rooms, couples’ rooms, or
toilets. The person often masturbates during the peeping
activity.

Scoptophilia The intentional act of watching people undress or engage in

(Mixoscopia) sexual activities for sexual arousal or pleasure.
G. Based on the Number of Participants in the Sexual Act

Term Definition
A sexual act involving three participants, such as two women
Troilism with one man or vice versa.

A sexual activity involving a group of people in sexual orgies,

Pluralism such as couple-to-couple relations. It is also referred to as a
“sexual festival.”
Other Sexual Abnormalities
Term Definition
Also called indecent exposure; the intentional exposure of one’s genitals to
Exhibitionism members of the opposite sex under inappropriate conditions.
Sexual gratification obtained through the use or insertion of feces into the
Coprolagnia body.

Coprolalia The use of obscene or vulgar language to achieve sexual satisfaction.

The compulsive act of seducing multiple women as a form of personal

Don Juanism achievement, without the intention of maintaining a permanent sexual
partner or relationship.

Urolagnia Sexual gratification derived from urination or activities involving urine.

A sexual behavior wherein the offender performs sexual intercourse with

Necrosadism the victim and subsequently kills them.
 ACTIVITY....

Answer in 1 whole sheet yellow pad.

A 25-year-old man was arrested after repeatedly
targeting elderly women in the community for sexual
advances.

Questions:

What abnormal sexual behavior is this?

Why are elderly persons considered vulnerable victims?
How should criminologists handle profiling of this
suspect?
Investigators found that a burglary suspect stole
dozens of women’s shoes. During interrogation, he
admitted he used them for sexual arousal. In
another case, a different suspect reported he was
only attracted to women’s feet, ignoring the rest of
their body.

Questions:

Which case shows fetishism and which shows

partialism?
Police rescued a woman who was tied up and
physically hurt during a sexual assault. The suspect
admitted he could only be aroused when inflicting
pain.

Questions:

What paraphilia is involved?

Why is criminological knowledge important here?
A 45-year-old man was caught chatting online with a
12-year-old girl, convincing her to meet him at a
mall. He promised gifts in exchange for “secret
dates.”

Questions:

What abnormal sexual behavior is this?

Who is the vulnerable victim?
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 18
Personality disorder:
➢Characterized by:
• Impairment in self, and
• Interpersonal functioning, and
• Presence of pathological personality traits that are
relatively inflexible and long-standing.
➢Personality Disorder (APA, 2013)
- is characterized by enduring personality patterns that
involve behavior, thoughts, emotions, and interpersonal
functioning, which are:
a. Extreme and deviate markedly from cultural expectations
b. Inflexible and pervasive across different situations
c. Evident in adolescence or early adulthood and stable over time
d. Associated with distress and impairment
 Cluster A
(Odd or Eccentric Behaviors)
1. Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD)
• Characterized by pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of
others.
• Individuals interpret others’ actions as deliberately threatening
or demeaning.
Symptoms:
a. Constant suspicion and distrust toward others
b. Belief that others are against them; always seeking evidence to confirm
suspicions
c. Hostility and angry reactions to perceived insults
2. Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD)
• Characterized by detachment from social relationships and
limited emotional expression.
• Individuals often appear emotionally cold and prefer
solitude.

Symptoms:
a. Social isolation and lack of desire for close relationships
b. Preference for being alone; withdrawn and emotionally detached
c. Indifference to praise or criticism
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (STPD)
• Characterized by social and interpersonal deficits,
eccentric behavior, and cognitive distortions.
• Individuals often have odd beliefs and experience
discomfort in close relationships.
Symptoms:
a. Odd thinking, speech, and behavior
b. Rambling or unusual use of words and phrases
c. Magical thinking or belief in having control over others
d. Discomfort in close relationships; suspiciousness of others
 Cluster B
Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Behaviors
1. Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)
• Characterized by disregard for the rights of others, violation
of societal norms, and lack of empathy or remorse.
Symptoms:
a. Disregard for others’ feelings and rights
b. Frequent law-breaking
c. Repeated lying, impulsivity, and physical aggression
d. Mistreatment of spouse, children, or employees
e. Possible violent behavior, including killing
f. Often referred to as sociopaths or psychopaths
2. Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
• Characterized by instability in relationships, self-image,
and emotions, often with intense and rapidly shifting moods.

Symptoms:
a. Intense emotional instability in relationships
b. Frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment
c. Minor problems perceived as major crises
d. Anger and distress expressed through suicidal gestures or self-
destructive acts
3. Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NPD)
• Characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and
lack of empathy.
• Individuals have an exaggerated sense of self-importance.

Symptoms:
a. Grandiose sense of self-importance
b. Desire for excessive admiration and fantasies of unlimited success
or power
c. Belief in being special or superior; fragile self-esteem
4. Histrionic Personality Disorder (HPD)
• Characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-
seeking behavior.
• Individuals desire to be the center of attention.

Symptoms:
a. Strive to be the center of attention
b. Overly flirtatious or attention-seeking behavior
c. Dramatic, theatrical speech and exaggerated emotional reactions
 Cluster C
Anxious or Fearful Behaviors
1. Avoidant Personality Disorder (AvPD)
• Characterized by social inhibition, feelings of
inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.

Symptoms:
a. Intense shyness and social inhibition
b. Reluctance to interact unless sure of being liked
c. Fear of criticism and rejection
d. Feelings of inferiority and social ineptitude
2. Dependent Personality Disorder (DPD)
• Characterized by excessive need to be taken care of,
leading to clinging and submissive behavior.

Symptoms:
a. Severe emotional dependency on others
b. Difficulty making decisions without reassurance
c. Urgent need to seek new relationships after one ends
d. Discomfort when alone
3. Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)
• (Also called Anankastic Personality Disorder)
• Characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfection,
and control at the expense of flexibility and efficiency.
Example (Case: Olivia):
Olivia is meticulous and detail-oriented, creating elaborate plans and insisting
on strict protocols. She struggles to delegate tasks and feels distress when
things deviate from her standards.
Symptoms:
a. Preoccupation with details, orderliness, perfection, and control
b. Excessive devotion to work, neglecting leisure and relationships
c. Rigid, formal, stubborn, and serious demeanor
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 19
 Schizophrenia
What is Schizophrenia?
➢ Schizo – split and Phrenia – mind
• A disorder characterized by severely impaired cognitive
processes, personality disintegration, mood disturbances, and
social withdrawal.
• This is characterized by:
➢ loss of contact with reality,
➢ marked disturbances of thought and perception, and
➢ bizarre behavior
• At some phase delusions or hallucinations almost always occur.
1. Schizophrenic Hallucinations
• Hallucinations are false sensory perceptions that occur without
an external stimulus.
• Individuals experiencing schizophrenia may perceive things that
are not real.
• These hallucinations can affect any of the senses

Hallucinations can be broken down into the following

categories:
1. Auditory (Hearing) Hallucinations
2. Visual (Sight) Hallucinations
3. Tactile (Touch) Hallucinations
4. Command (Hearing) Hallucinations
5. Olfactory (Smell) Hallucinations
 Schizophrenic Hallucinations
Example / Common
Type of Hallucination Description
Experience

The most common type of hallucination

Hearing voices commenting,
1. Auditory (Hearing) where the person hears voices or whispering, or arguing.
sounds that others cannot hear.

A type of auditory hallucination where

A voice instructing the person to
2. Command (Hearing) voices command the person to perform harm themselves or others.
certain actions.
The person sees things, people, or Seeing shadows, people, or
3. Visual (Sight)
lights that are not really there. flashing lights that do not exist.
Feeling bugs crawling or
The person feels sensations on or under
4. Tactile (Touch) someone touching them when
the skin without a physical source. no one is there.
Smelling smoke, rotten food, or
The person smells odors that others do
5. Olfactory (Smell) chemicals when there is no
not detect, often unpleasant or foul. source.
 Symptoms of Schizophrenia
• Schizophrenia is characterized by a range of
cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dysfunctions.
• Its symptoms are commonly categorized into:
➢ Positive, and
➢ Negative
A. Positive Symptoms
• Positive symptoms are those that involve the presence
of abnormal thoughts, perceptions, or behaviors not
seen in healthy individuals.
• These include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized
thinking, and bizarre behavior.
1. Delusions
• Delusions are false beliefs that are firmly held despite
clear or reasonable evidence that they are untrue.
• They often reflect distorted thinking or interpretations
of reality.
 Common Delusional Themes:
Type of Delusion Description
• Belief of being someone famous, powerful, or exceptional
a. Delusions of Grandeur
(from the present or past).
• Belief that other people, animals, or objects are controlling
b. Delusions of Control
one’s thoughts or actions.
c. Delusions of Thought • Belief that one’s thoughts are being broadcast or heard
Broadcasting by others.
• Belief that others are plotting against, mistreating, or
d. Delusions of Persecution
trying to harm or kill the individual.

• Belief that ordinary events, objects, or people have special

e. Delusions of Reference
meaning or are directed toward oneself.

f. Delusions of Thought • Belief that thoughts are being removed or stolen from
Withdrawal one’s mind.
2. Hallucinations
• Hallucinations are false sensory perceptions without
any external stimulus.
• It may involve a single sensory or a combination of which
includes hearing, seeing, smelling, touching, or
tasting.
3. Disorganized Thinking (Formal Thought Disorder)
• This symptom is often observed through speech patterns.
• Individuals may have trouble organizing thoughts logically,
leading to communication difficulties.

Examples:
▪ Derailment or Loose Associations: Switching from one topic to another
unrelated one
▪ Tangentiality: Giving answers that are only slightly or not at all related to the
question
▪ Incoherence or “Word Salad”: Speech that is so disorganized it becomes
incomprehensible
B. Negative Symptoms
• Negative symptoms involve a reduction or loss of
normal functions or behaviors.
• They reflect diminished emotional expression,
motivation, or social engagement.
 Major Negative Symptoms:
Symptom Description
Inability or lack of motivation to initiate and
a. Avolition
persist in goal-directed activities.

Poverty or lack of meaningful speech; limited

b. Alogia
verbal output.

Minimal interest in forming or maintaining social

c. Asociality
relationships.

Reduced ability to experience pleasure from

d. Anhedonia
positive events.

e. Diminished Limited facial expressions, vocal tone, and

Emotional Expression gestures even in emotional situations.
 Kinds of Schizophrenia
• Schizophrenia is a complex mental disorder that can
present in various forms.
• Although modern diagnostic systems no longer use
these subtypes, understanding them helps in
recognizing the different patterns of symptoms that can
occur.
1. Paranoid Schizophrenia
• A subtype characterized by prominent paranoid delusions and
auditory hallucinations.
• Individuals often believe that others are spying on, persecuting,
or conspiring against them.
He or she is:
• Very suspicious and mistrustful of others
• Has delusions of persecution (believing others are plotting harm)
• Experiences hallucinations and delusions, which are the main symptoms
of this type
• Displays psychotic symptoms such as irrational beliefs and distorted
perceptions
➢Example Behavior:
A person may believe their phone is being tapped or that they are constantly
watched by secret agents.
2. Disorganized Schizophrenia (Hebephrenic Type)
• Involves disorganized thinking, speech, and behavior, often
accompanied by inappropriate or flat emotional responses.

He or she:
• Difficulty performing routine tasks (e.g., dressing, bathing, brushing teeth)
• Incoherent verbal expression and disorganized thoughts
• Inappropriate emotional reactions (e.g., laughing at sad news)
• Blunted or flat affect — limited emotional expression

➢Example Behavior:
A person may laugh uncontrollably during serious moments or fail
to maintain basic hygiene.
3. Catatonic Schizophrenia
• Catatonic Schizophrenia is marked by extreme
disturbances in movement and behavior.
• Individuals may alternate between immobility and excessive,
purposeless activity.
He or she:
• Extremely withdrawn, negative, and isolated
• May remain immobile or mute for long periods (catatonic stupor)
• May exhibit waxy flexibility (remaining in a fixed position when moved)
• Periods of agitated, purposeless movement may also occur

➢Example Behavior:
A person might stay in one position for hours or suddenly become
hyperactive and restless without reason.
4. Residual Schizophrenia
• Occurs when an individual has had at least one past episode
of schizophrenia but currently shows no active symptoms
(such as hallucinations or delusions).
• However, negative symptoms remain.
He or she:
• Lack of motivation or interest in everyday activities
• Emotional flatness or withdrawal from social interaction
• Typically diagnosed after at least six months of previous schizophrenic
symptoms

➢Example Behavior:
A person may appear apathetic, unmotivated, and emotionally distant
after recovering from an acute episode.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
• Undifferentiated Schizophrenia is diagnosed when an individual
exhibits symptoms of multiple subtypes of schizophrenia, but no
single set of features dominates.
• Displays mixed symptoms (e.g., delusions, disorganized speech,
and catatonia)
• Symptoms clearly indicate schizophrenia but do not fit neatly into
other categories
• Diagnosis is made when classification into a specific type is
difficult

➢Example Behavior:
A person may show both paranoid delusions and disorganized speech without
one being more prominent.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 21
 Coping Mechanism
vs.
Defense Mechanism
 Defense Mechanisms
• Defense Mechanisms refer to an individual’s unconscious ways of
reacting to frustration or emotional conflict.
• They are psychological strategies used by a person to cope with
reality, reduce anxiety, and maintain a positive self-image.

According to Sigmund Freud

• Defense mechanisms are methods used by the ego to avoid recognizing
ideas, feelings, or impulses that may cause personal anxiety or
distress.
• These are unrealistic strategies employed by the ego to discharge
internal tension and protect the individual from emotional pain.
• They operate unconsciously, meaning the person is often unaware that
they are using them.
 Types of Defense Mechanisms
Defense Mechanism Definition Example

Coping with stress by engaging in actions rather • Instead of telling someone you are
Acting Out than acknowledging and expressing certain angry with them, you might yell or
feelings. throw something against the wall.

Unconsciously staying away from any person,

• A female college student with an
Avoidance situation, or place that might trigger unwanted
abusive father avoids dating.
feelings or memories.

Refusal to believe or accept an unpleasant or • An alcoholic person denies having a

Denial painful reality, often used to protect oneself from drinking problem even though their
emotional distress. family notices clear signs.

Transferring emotions or reactions associated • A person punches a punching bag

Displacement with one person or situation to another that is after having an argument with their
less threatening. boss.

Coping with stress or emotional conflict by • A person talks about a traumatic

Dissociation detaching from reality or separating oneself from event and suddenly goes into a
painful experiences. trance-like state/zone out.
Defense Mechanism Definition Example

Unconscious modeling of another • An adolescent’s talks and acts are

Identification similar to a teacher she admires.
person's values, attitudes, or behavior.

Involves using reason and logic to avoid • For example, if Person A is rude to
Person B, Person B may think about
Intellectualization uncomfortable or anxiety-provoking the possible reasons for Person A's
emotions. behavior instead of feeling hurt.

Avoiding the experience of an emotion • A rape victim talks about her rape
Isolation without showing any emotions.
associated with a person, idea, or situation.
• A person who is cheating is under
Attributing one’s own feelings, thoughts,
Projection the impression that their partner is
or motives onto someone else. cheating on them.

Attempting to justify one’s behavior by • A person treated for drug addiction

presenting reasons that sound logical, often claims an inability to stop taking
Rationalization drugs because of a "bad
creating false but plausible excuses to
justify irrational or unacceptable behavior. marriage."
 Defense Mechanism Definition Example
• A woman who has intense sexual
Adopting behavior or feelings that are feelings toward her husband’s friend
Reaction Formation exactly the opposite of one’s true emotions. treats him rudely and keeps him at a
safe distance.

Dealing with emotional conflict or stress by

forcing out thoughts, impulses, experiences, or • A mother seems unaware of the date or
events surrounding her child’s death.
Repression memories from conscious awareness. • A victim of a car accident does not
It involves pushing or burying distressing remember anything about the accident.
feelings into the subconscious.

Substituting constructive and socially • A mother who lost a child in a drunk-

driving accident joins an organization
Sublimation acceptable behavior for strong impulses that are that educates the public about the
not acceptable in their original form. dangers of drunk driving.

A form of identification that involves accepting • A 7-year-old tells his little sister, “Don’t
the norms and values of others into oneself, talk to strangers,” having internalized
Introjection even when they contradict one’s previous this lesson from parents and
beliefs. teachers.

Failing to acknowledge the true significance or • A person says, “Don’t believe everything
Minimization seriousness of one’s behavior.
my wife tells you,” downplaying his
actions.
Defense Mechanism Definition Example
Resorting to an earlier, more comfortable
level of functioning that is less mature or • An adult throws a temper
Regression responsible; tantrum when he does not get
Reverting to childlike patterns of his own way.
behavior.

• A woman who wants to marry

Replacing a highly valued,
a man exactly like her
unacceptable, or unavailable object with
Substitution a less valuable but more acceptable or
deceased father settles for
someone who resembles him
available one.
slightly.

Performing actions or saying words

• A father spanks his child and
intended to cancel out or make amends
Undoing for disapproved thoughts, impulses, or
later brings home a present for
him.
acts; relieving guilt by making reparation.
Human Behavior and
Victimology

CRI 177
Module 22
 INTRODUCTION TO VICTIMOLOGY
Origin of the Term
• The term Victimology first appeared in 1949 in a book about murderers written
by forensic psychiatrist Fredric Wertham.
• It was used to describe the study of individuals harmed by criminals
(Karmen, 2007).
Modern Definition
Victimology refers to the scientific study of victims and victimization, including
the relationships between:
Victims and offenders
Victims and investigators
Victims and the courts, corrections, media, and social movements (Karmen, 1990).
From the victim’s perspective, victimology is the discipline that scientifically
studies all types of victims, especially crime victims.
TYPES OF VICTIMOLOGY (Jan Van Dijk)
General Victimology
• Studies victimity in the broadest sense, including those harmed by:
• Accidents
• Natural disasters
• War, etc.
• Focus: Treatment, prevention, and alleviation of victimization
consequences, regardless of cause.
Penal Victimology
• Approaches victimization from a criminological or legal perspective.
• Study scope is defined by Criminal Law.
• Advocates for victims’ rights and focuses on their role in prosecution
and justice.
 DYNAMICS OF VICTIMIZATION
1. Victims of Crime Model (Bard and Sangrey)
• Describes three stages of victimization:
a. Impact & Disorganization Stage – occurs during and immediately after the
crime.
b. Recoil Stage – victim deals with emotions of guilt, anger, acceptance, and
revenge (lasts 3–8 months).
c. Reorganization Stage – victim restores normal daily living; some may
develop maladaptive patterns lasting years.
2. Disaster Victim’s Model
• Explains coping behavior of disaster victims through four stages:
a. Pre-impact – condition prior to victimization.
b. Impact – moment of victimization.
c. Post-impact – duration of personal and social disorganization after the
event.
d. Behavioral Outcome – victim’s adjustment to the experience.
FACTORS OF VICTIMIZATION
• Hedonism
• Materialistic Culture
• Sex Values
• Decay of Discipline
• Public Morality

IMPORTANT TERMS
• Victim – a person who suffered physical, emotional, or economic harm
due to a crime.
• Victimologists – professionals who study and focus on victims’
experiences and harm.
• Penal Couple – relationship between the victim and the offender.
• Victimity – state or quality of being a victim.
• Victimizer – person who victimizes others.
 TYPES OF VICTIMS
• According to Benjamin Mendelsohn
a. Completely Innocent Victim – no contribution to victimization; wrong
place, wrong time.
b. Victim with Minor Guilt – indirectly contributes, e.g., being in high-
crime areas.
c. Voluntary Victim – offender and victim engage in crime together.
d. Victim More Guilty Than Offender – primary attacker but loses the
fight.
e. Guilty Victim – instigates a conflict but is harmed or killed in self-
defense.
f. Imaginary Victim – fabricates victimization or falsifies reports.
• According to Hans Von Hentig
a. The Young
b. Females
c. The Old
d. Mentally Ill or Intellectually Disabled
e. Immigrants
f. Minorities
g. Dull Normals
h. The Depressed
i. The Acquisitive
j. The Lonesome and Broken-Hearted
k. Tormentors
l. Blocked, Exempted, and Fighting Victims
 VICTIMIZATION
Victimization – the process of being victimized.

Types of Victimization
• Primary/Direct Victimization – personal or individual
victimization where a specific person is targeted.
• Secondary/Indirect Victimization – impersonal targets, such
as institutions or symbolic victims.
• Tertiary Victimization – society or the public becomes the
victim.
 VICTIMOLOGY AND DAMAGES
“If there is a complainant, there must be a defendant.”
There can be no victim without an offender, except in victimless
crimes.

➢Logomacy – the idea that crime would not exist without

criminal law; crime disappears if laws defining it are abolished.

➢Civil Damages- Compensation ordered by the court for

harm or loss to a person’s health, business, or property.
 Types of Civil Damages
❑ Moral Damages – compensation for physical suffering, mental
anguish, humiliation, or social embarrassment.
❑ Actual/Compensatory Damages – compensation for proven

pecuniary loss.
❑ Nominal Damages – recognition that a right was violated, even

without substantial loss.

❑ Temperate Damages – moderate damages when loss occurred but

cannot be precisely quantified.

❑ Liquidated Damages – pre-agreed amount in case of breach of

contract.
❑ Exemplary Damages – corrective or punitive damages awarded to

set an example for public good.