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Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain electronics embedded within
their architecture in order to communicate and sense interactions amongst each other or with respect
to the external environment. In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer advanced levels of
services and practically change the way people lead their daily lives. Advancements in medicine, power,
gene therapies, agriculture, smart cities, and smart homes are just a few of the categorical examples
where IoT is strongly established.

IOT is a system of interrelated things, computing devices, mechanical and digital machines, objects,
animals, or people that are provided with unique identifiers. And the ability to transfer the data over a
network requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.

Key Elements of IoT:

1. Devices/Things: These are the physical objects, such as wearable, cameras, or even
connected vehicles.
2. Connectivity: This refers to the network or communication methods including Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, 5G, Zigbee, and others that enable devices to share data.
3. Data Processing: Once data is collected, it is processed by servers or cloud computing
systems and insights or actions are generated.
4. Action: Based on the insights from the data, actions are triggered, such as sending
notifications, controlling other devices, or even triggering automated processes.

Examples of IoT:

 Smart Homes: smart lights, smart locks, voice assistants (like Alexa or Google
Assistant).
 Wearable Devices: Fitness trackers or smartwatches that monitor your health metrics
(e.g., Fitbit, Apple Watch).
 Connected Vehicles: Cars that communicate with other cars or infrastructure for
navigation, safety.
 Industrial IoT (IIoT): Machines in factories that monitor themselves for predictive
maintenance and efficiency.
 Healthcare IoT: Devices that monitor health conditions (e.g., glucose monitors or
connected hospital equipment).

Main Components Used in IoT

 Low-power embedded systems: Less battery consumption, high performance are the
inverse factors that play a significant role during the design of electronic systems.

 Sensors: Sensors are the major part of any IoT application. It is a physical device that
measures and detects certain physical quantities and converts it into signal which can be
provided as an input to processing or control unit for analysis purpose.

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Different types of Sensors

 Temperature Sensors (measure how hot or cold an object is)

 Image Sensors
 Gyro Sensors (Sensors that detect the direction of rotation, rotation angle, and
vibration. Gyro sensors, also known as angular velocity sensors, can detect changes in
rotation angle per unit of time. This makes it possible to detect quantities such as the
direction of rotation, rotation angle, and vibration.)
 Obstacle Sensors (These sensors can measure the distance between your car and
nearby obstacles directly around the front or rear bumper. The driver is alerted by beeps
or the dashboard display.)
 RF Sensor (Radio Frequency sensors , Radio frequencies are used in communication devices
such as transmitters, receivers, computers, televisions, and mobile phones, to name a few. Radio
frequencies are also applied in carrier current systems including telephony and control circuits.)
 Gas Sensor (Environmental Monitoring: Monitoring air quality by detecting
pollutants. Healthcare: Oxygen sensors in respiratory equipment or anesthesia monitoring
systems)
 LDR Sensor (Light Dependent Resistor working in the automated lighting system
efficiently adjusts the brightness based on the ambient light conditions.)
 Ultrasonic Distance Sensor (an instrument that measures the distance to an object
using ultrasonic sound waves).
Characteristics OF IoT:-
1. Intelligence IoT comes with the combination of algorithms and computation, software &
hardware that makes it smart. Ambient intelligence in IoT enhances its capabilities which
facilitate the things to respond in an intelligent way to a particular situation and supports them in
carrying out specific tasks. In spite of all the popularity of smart technologies, intelligence in IoT
is only concerned as means of interaction between devices, while user and device interaction is
achieved by standard input methods and graphical user interface.

2. Connectivity Connectivity empowers Internet of Things by bringing together everyday

objects. Connectivity of these objects is pivotal because simple object level interactions
contribute towards collective intelligence in IoT network. It enables network accessibility and
compatibility in the things. With this connectivity, new market opportunities for Internet of
things can be created by the networking of smart things and applications.

3. Dynamic Nature The primary activity of Internet of Things is to collect data from its
environment, this is achieved with the dynamic changes that take place around the devices. The
state of these devices change dynamically, example sleeping and waking up, connected and/or
disconnected as well as the context of devices including temperature, location and speed. In
addition to the state of the device, the number of devices also changes dynamically with a
person, place and time.

4. Enormous scale The number of devices that need to be managed and that communicate with
each other will be much larger than the devices connected to the current Internet. The

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management of data generated from these devices and their interpretation for application
purposes becomes more critical. Gartner (2015) confirms the enormous scale of IoT in the
estimated report where it stated that 5.5 million new things will get connected every day and 6.4
billion connected things will be in use worldwide in 2016, which is up by 30 percent from 2015.
The report also forecasts that the number of connected devices will reach 20.8 billion by 2020.

5. Sensing IoT wouldn’t be possible without sensors which will detect or measure any changes
in the environment to generate data that can report on their status or even interact with the
environment. Sensing technologies provide the means to create capabilities that reflect a true
awareness of the physical world and the people in it. The sensing information is simply the
analogue input from the physical world, but it can provide the rich understanding of our complex
world.

6. Heterogeneity Heterogeneity in Internet of Things as one of the key characteristics. Devices

in IoT are based on different hardware platforms and networks and can interact with other
devices or service platforms through different networks. IoT architecture should support direct
network connectivity between heterogeneous networks. The key design requirements for
heterogeneous things and their environments in IoT are scalabilities, modularity, extensibility
and interoperability.

7. Security IoT devices are naturally vulnerable to security threats. As we gain efficiencies,
novel experiences, and other benefits from the IoT, it would be a mistake to forget about security
concerns associated with it. There is a high level of transparency and privacy issues with IoT. It
is important to secure the endpoints, the networks, and the data that is transferred across all of it
means creating a security paradigm.

Applications of IoT:

1. Wearables
2. Connected cars/smart cars
3. Smart cities
4. Smart industries
5. Smart agriculture
6. Smart retail
7. Energy management
8. Smart healthcare
9. Smart poultry and farming
10. Smart dust

PHYSICAL DESIGN OF IOT:

The physical design of IoT (internet of things) includes things and different protocols.
Things can exchange data with other connected devices and applications, collect data from other devices,
and process the data either locally or send it to centralized servers or cloud. IoT devices can have several
interfaces like:

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 I/O interfaces for sensors
 Interface for Internet connectivity
 Memory and storage connectivity interfaces
 Audio/video interfaces

An IoT thing or device is made up of different components. The generic block diagram of an IoT thing or
device is given below:

IOT CATEGORIES
Defining IoT with a consumer part and an industrial/business segment
The first distinction people started to make was between a consumer IoT and an Internet of
Things for industrial applications or Industrial IoT as a way to distinguish between many
types of IoT use cases and applications. Yet, as said and as with all terminology there were
certainly overlaps in the definitions of these forms of IoT.
This is why some organizations and individuals, for instance, rather talk about the Internet
of Everything, while others opt to drop the term IoT alltogether and mention it in terms of
specific use cases and contexts such as smart cities, smart metering, smart buildings, smart
office, smart wearables, Industrial Internet or smart homes, all of course with their own
meaning and, again, with more subdivisions.

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Consumer IoT (CIoT)

The Consumer Internet of Things or CIoT is where you will find applications and use cases
to track your personal ‘assets’ (asset tracking), from your pet to your skateboard. Or where
you will find the connected ‘smart appliances’ such as connected refrigerators, washing
machines, light bulbs, etc.
Also wearables for consumer use (wearables are also used in healthcare and in factories, to
name just two) and all sorts of consumer electronics such as smart wristwear belong to this
category, along with all sorts of smart home appliances like thermostats or connected
parking door openers
The applications get better and smarter. They also get more independent from other
devices such as smartphones. This is certainly the case with smart wearables.
A simple definition of the Consumer Internet of Things is all we need: the Internet of Things
as it’s used for consumer applications and consumer-oriented services.
What is Consumer Internet of Things (CIoT)?
Consumer IoT (CIoT) refers to the use of IoT for consumer applications and devices.
Common CIoT products include smartphones, wearables, smart assistants, home
appliances, etc.
Typically, CIoT solutions leverage Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and ZigBee to facilitate connectivity.
These technologies offer short-range communication suitable for deployments in smaller
venues, such as homes and offices.
Typically, in Consumer IoT, data volumes and data communication needs are low and
limited. That’s why there are many technologies of which some are specifically designed for
consumer applications, ranging from smart home connectivity standards to special
operating systems for wearables.
IIoT (Industry 4.0)
The Industrial Internet of Things or IIoT describes typical industry use cases across a range
of sectors. Two examples of Industrial IoT use cases: predictive maintenance and asset
management. Some people see the Industrial Internet of Things more in a context of ‘heavy’
industries like manufacturing or utilities. But it is also used for use cases in, for example
smart cities.
If we look at it as a sort of ‘Business Internet of Things’ it is clear that there are some
overlaps with the Consumer Internet of Things. For instance: if you have a smart thermostat

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and smart energy consumption meter in your house they are on one hand consumer
applications because they are for personal usage.
But from the perspective of the company that uses it to send you invoices and to help
optimize energy consumption it is a business matter (e.g., ‘smart grid‘). So, the terms are
not that good but that’s how it is and it’s better to look at use cases than at these broad
categories because just as there are many different applications in the Consumer Internet of
Things, there are also many in IIoT and some are hard to compare. Most industrial IoT
applications relate to the digital transformation of manufacturing or to the rise of smart
industry though.
Sensor
Generally, sensors are used in the architecture of IOT devices. Sensors are used for
sensing things and devices etc. A device that provides a usable output in response to a
specified measurement. The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a
signal suitable for processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any
device or material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity. The output of the
sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like changes in
characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance etc.
Sensors characteristics :
1. Static
2. Dynamic

1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady
state condition.
 Accuracy – Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to
the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and
relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a higher prior system.
Absolute error = Measured value – True value Relative error = Measured value/True value
 Range – Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the
sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
 Resolution – Resolution is an important specification towards selection of sensors. The
higher the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called
threshold. Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
 Precision – It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively

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measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions. It implies agreement
between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value. It is related to the variance
of a set of measurements. It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
 Sensitivity – Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from the
slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference
in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
 Linearity – The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particular straight line.
Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the output
amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions. A curve’s slope resemblance
to a straight line describes the linearity.
 Drift – The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when
kept at that value for a long period of time.
 Repeatability – The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as
not to allow significant long-term drift.

[Link] Characteristics : Properties of the systems

 Zero-order system – The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It
does not include energy-storing elements. Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary
displacements.
 First-order system – When the output approaches its final value gradually. Consists of
an energy storage and dissipation element.
 Second-order system – Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.

Sensor Classification :
 Passive & Active
 Analog & digital
 Scalar & vector
1. Passive Sensor – Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil
moisture, water level and temperature sensors.
2. Active Sensor – Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser
altimeter sensors.
3. Analog Sensor – The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its
input parameter. Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall
effect.
4. Digital sensor – Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of
analog sensors. Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit
conversion. Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature
sensor(DS1620).
5. Scalar sensor – Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer
for the sensor is a function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the
direction of input parameters. Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.

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6. Vector sensor – The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction
and orientation of input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field
and motion detector sensors.

The common IoT sensors that will be employed include:

 Temperature sensors
 Pressure sensors
 Motion sensors
 Level sensors
 Image sensors
 Proximity sensors
 Water quality sensors
 Chemical sensors
 Gas sensors
 Smoke sensors
 Infrared (IR) sensors
 Acceleration sensors
 Gyroscopic sensors
 Humidity sensors
 Optical sensors

IoT Protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communication between two or more devices. A protocol
defines the rules, syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery
methods. An overview of different protocols used in IoT with respect to TCP/IP protocol stack is given
below:

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Link Layer Protocols
The link layer is responsible for establishing and terminating links between the nodes. The packets or
datagrams travel through these links. The link layer also defines the format of packet that is to be
communicated across the link and is responsible for physical addressing. The link layer also handles error
detection, retransmission, flow control and access of the link. Protocols generally used at this layer are
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, WiMax, LR-WPAN, cellular technologies, etc.
The summary of link layer protocols is as shown below:

Network Layer Protocols

The main role of the network layer is transfer the packet from sender to receiving host. The network layer
also handles routing, which involves selecting the next node and forwarding the packets across the
communication path. The network layer is also responsible for logical addressing (like IP address) and for
congestion control which prevents the network from being overloaded with traffic.
Different protocols at network layer are:
 IPv4 (32-bit addresses)
 IPv6 (128-bit addresses)
 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low power Wireless Personal Area Network)
 Transport Layer Protocols

The main role of transport layer is providing end-to-end communication between the applications running
on hosts. The transport layer provides a logical communication channel through which the end
applications can communicate with each other. The transport layer is implemented on the end hosts. It is
not present in the routers. The transport layer is also responsible for the reliable delivery of the message
across the end nodes, flow control and multiplexing and demultiplexing of the channels at end nodes.

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Different protocols at transport layer are:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 Application Layer Protocols

The application layer is where the users of an IoT application interact with the IoT application/system.
The application layer allows the users to interact with the IoT sensors and access other services provided
by the communication network. The application layer provides services like authentication, naming,
message formatting, email, etc, to the users.
Different protocols at transport layer are:
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Uses TCP, Stateless, Request-Response Model

 CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol): Uses UDP, Request-Response Model

 MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport):

– Follows publish-subscribe model

– No security
– Used with low power devices
 XMPP (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol): Real-time communication, For sending XML
data
 AMQP (Advanced Message Queuing Protocol)

-Supports both point-to-point and publisher-subscriber models

-High performance and secure protocol
-Uses TCP
 WebSocket

-Full-duplex connection over a single socket connection

-Uses TCP
 DDS (Data Distribution Service)

– Middleware standard, Reliable than MQTT

– Follows publish-subscribe model
– Uses UDP

Types of IoT Protocols

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1. IoT Nework Protocols
IoT network protocols are used to connect devices over the network. These are the set of
communication protocols
typically used over the Internet. Using IoT network protocols, end-to-end data communication within
the scope of the network is allowed. Following are the various IoT Network protocols:
• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
HyperText Transfer Protocol is the best example of IoT network protocol. This protocol has formed the
foundation of data communication over the web. It is the most common protocol that is used for IoT
devices when there is a lot of data to be published. However, the HTTP protocol is not preferred
because of its cost, battery-life, energy saving, and more constraints.
Additive manufacturing/3D printing is one of the use cases of the HTTP protocol. It enables computers
to connect 3D printers in the network and print three-dimensional objects and pre-determined process
prototypes.
• LoRaWan (Long Range Wide Area Network)

It is a long-range low power protocol that provides signal detection below the noise level. LoRaWan
connects battery operated things wirelessly to the Internet in either private or global networks. This
communication protocol is mainly used by smart cities, where there are millions of devices that function
with less power and memory.
Smart street lighting is the practical use case of LoRaWan IoT protocol. The street lights can be
connected to a LoRa gateway using this protocol. The gateway, in turn, connects to the cloud application
that controls the intensity of light bulbs automatically based on the ambient lighting, which helps in
reducing the power consumption during day-times.
• Bluetooth

Bluetooth is one of the most widely used protocols for short-range communication. It is a standard IoT
protocol for wireless data transmission. This communication protocol is secure and perfect for short-
range, low-power, low-cost, and wireless transmission between electronic devices. BLE (Bluetooth Low
Energy) is a low-energy version of Bluetooth protocol that reduces the power consumption and plays an
important role in connecting IoT devices.
Bluetooth protocol is mostly used in smart wearables, smartphones, and other mobile devices, where
small fragments of data can be exchanged without high power and memory. Offering ease of usage,
Bluetooth tops the list of IoT device connectivity protocols.
• ZigBee

ZigBee is an IoT protocol that allows smart objects to work together. It is commonly used in home
automation. More famous for industrial settings, ZigBee is used with apps that support low-rate data
transfer between short distances. Street lighting and electric meters in urban areas, which provides low
power consumption, use the ZigBee communication protocol. It is also used with security systems and in
smart homes.
2. IoT Data Protocols
IoT data protocols are used to connect low power IoT devices. These protocols provide point-to-point
communication with the hardware at the user side without any Internet connection. Connectivity in IoT
data protocols is through a wired or a cellular network. Some of the IoT data protocols are:
• Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT)

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One of the most preferred protocols for IoT devices, MQTT collects data from various electronic devices
and supports remote device monitoring. It is a subscribe/publish protocol that runs over Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), which means it supports event-driven message exchange through wireless
networks. MQTT is mainly used in devices which are economical and requires less power and memory.
For instance, fire detectors, car sensors, smart watches, and apps for text-based messaging.
• Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP)

CoAP is an internet-utility protocol for restricted gadgets. Using this protocol, the client can send a
request to the server and the server can send back the response to the client in HTTP. For light-weight
implementation, it makes use of UDP (User Datagram Protocol) and reduces space usage. The protocol
uses binary data format EXL (Efficient XML Interchanges).
CoAP protocol is used mainly in automation, mobiles, and microcontrollers. The protocol sends a
request to the application endpoints such as appliances at homes and sends back the response of
services and resources in the application.
• Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP)

AMQP is a software layer protocol for message-oriented middleware environment that provides routing
and queuing. It is used for reliable point-to-point connection and supports the seamless and secure
exchange of data between the connected devices and the cloud. AMQP consists of three separate
components namely Exchange, Message Queue, and Binding. All these three components ensure a
secure and successful exchange and storage of messages. It also helps in establishing the relationship of
one message with the other.
AMQP protocol is mainly used in the banking industry. Whenever a message is sent by a server, the
protocol tracks the message until each message is delivered to the intended users/destinations without
failure.
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communication Protocol

It is an open industry protocol built to provide remote application management of IoT devices. M2M
communication protocols are cost-effective and use public networks. It creates an environment where
two machines communicate and exchange data. This protocol supports the self-monitoring of machines
and allows the systems to adapt according to the changing environment.
M2M communication protocols are used for smart homes, automated vehicle authentication, vending
machines, and ATM machines.
• Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP)

The XMPP is uniquely designed. It uses a push mechanism to exchange messages in real-time. XMPP is
flexible and can integrate with the changes seamlessly. Developed using open XML (Extensible Markup
Language), XMPP works as a presence indicator showing the availability status of the servers or devices
transmitting or receiving messages.
Other than the instant messaging apps such as Google Talk and WhatsApp, XMPP is also used in online
gaming, news websites, and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP).
Application Layer
An application layer protocol defines how application processes (clients and servers), running on
different end systems, pass messages to each other. In particular, an application layer protocol defines:
 The types of messages, e.g., request messages and response messages.
 The syntax of the various message types, i.e., the fields in the message and how the fields are
delineated.

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 The meaning of the information that the field is supposed to contain.
 Rules for determining when and how a process sends messages and responds to messages.

Application layer protocol enables process to process connection using ports.

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