PHY0101 and PHY/PEN 101

Mechanics,
Chapter 1: Physics and
Measurement
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fulya Bağcı

Book: Serway Physics 9th Edition

(Serway, Jewett)
 Mechanics: “Classical” Mechanics
“Classical” Physics:
“Classical”   Before the 20th Century
The foundation of pure and applied
macroscopic physics and engineering!
– Newton’s Laws + Boltzmann’s Statistical Mechanics
(and Thermodynamics):  Describe most of macroscopic
world!
– However, at high speeds (v ~ c) we need
Special Relativity: (Early 20th Century: 1905)
– Also, for small sizes (atomic and smaller) we need
Quantum Mechanics: (1900 through ~ 1930)
“Classical” Mechanics: (17th and 18th Centuries)
©[Link]
/Prof. Charles W. Myles Still useful today!
 “Classical” Mechanics
The physics in this course is limited to macroscopic objects
moving at speeds v much, much smaller than the speed of light
c = 3  108 m/s. As long as v << c, our discussion will be valid.

So, we will work

exclusively in the
gray region in the
figure.

©[Link]
/Prof. Charles W. Myles
 Mechanics
• The science of HOW objects move
(behave) under given forces.
• (Usually) Does not deal with the
sources of forces.
• Answers the question:
“Given the forces, how
do objects move”?
 Theory
• A Quantitative (mathematical)description
of experimental observations.
• Not just WHAT is observed but WHY it is
observed as it is and HOW it works the way it does.

Tests of Theories:
–Experimental observations:
More experiments, more observation.
–Predictions:
Made before observations & experiments.
 Chapter 1 Measurement
• 1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time
• 1.2 Matter and Model Building
• 1.3 Density and Atomic Mass
• 1.4 Dimensional Analysis
• 1.5 Conversion of Units
• 1.6 Estimates and Order-of-Magnitude
Calculations
• 1.7 Significant Figures
 1.1 Standards of Length, Mass,
and Time
• In mechanics, the three basic quantities are length,
mass and time. All other quantities in mechanics
can be expressed in terms of these three.
• If we are to report the results of a measurement to
someone who wishes to reproduce this
measurement, a standard must be defined.
• In 1960, an international committee established a
set of standards for the fundamental quantities of
science. It is called the SI (Système International)
Fundamental Quantities and Their
Units
Quantity SI Unit Abbreviation
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Luminous candela cd
Intensity
Amount of mole mol
Substance
 Length
• Length is the distance between two points in
space
• Units
– SI – meter, m
• Defined in terms of a meter – the distance
traveled by light in a vacuum during during
a time of 1/299 792 458 second
In October 1983, the meter (m) was redefined as
the distance traveled by light in vacuum during a
time of 1/299 792 458 second.
Virus: 10-7 m Height of
Everest: 104 m
 Mass
• Units
– SI – kilogram, kg
• Previously defined in terms of a kilogram,
based on the mass of a specific platinum–
iridium alloy cylinder kept at the
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Sèvres, France.
• In 20 Mayıs 2019 the definition has
changed.
Standard Kilogram at Sèvres, France

© Brooks/Cole Thomson
2006 College Physics
• The problem with this definition was its
imprecision. It was not based on
unchanging properties of the universe.
• Light speed, on the other hand, is
unchanging. By 1983, physicists had gotten
really good at measuring the speed of light.
• Every unit in the Planck constant is defined
by an unchanging force of nature. Planck's
constant is equal to 6.626069934 x 10-34
kg.m2/s and uncertainty was just 13 parts
per billion.
• The new definition relates the kilogram to
the equivalent mass of the energy of a
photon given its frequency, via the Planck
constant.
• kg is defined by taking the fixed numerical
value of the Planck constant h to be
6.62607015×10−34 when expressed in the
unit J s, which is equal to kg m2 s−1, where
the metre and the second are defined in
terms of c and ΔvCs.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fulya Bağcı
 Time
• Units
– seconds, s
• Defined in terms of the oscillation of
radiation from a cesium atom
• In 1967 the second (s) is defined as 9 192
631 770 times the period of vibration of
radiation from the cesium atom.
 Standard Second
A cesium fountain atomic
clock. This clock will
neither gain nor
lose a second in
20 million years!
Source of figure: NIST Primary
Frequency Standards and the
Realization of the SI Second
 Similar Information on Typical Times

© Serway Physics
 US Customary System
• Still used in the US, but we will use SI

Quantity Unit

Length foot

Mass slug

Time second
 Models of Matter
• Some Greeks thought matter
is made of atoms
– In Greek, atomos means “not
sliceable.”
– JJ Thomson (1897) found
electrons and showed
atoms had structure
• Rutherford (1911) central
nucleus surrounded by
electrons
 Models of Matter, cont
• Nucleus has structure, containing protons
and neutrons
– Number of protons gives atomic number
– Number of protons and neutrons gives mass
number
• Protons and neutrons are made up of quarks
 1.3 Density and Mass
• Density: mass per unit volume

For example, aluminum has a density of 2.70 g/cm3,

and lead has a density of 11.3 g/cm3. Therefore, a
piece of aluminum of volume 10.0 cm3 has a mass of
27.0 g, whereas an equivalent volume of lead has a
mass of 113 g.
An atomic mass unit is a physical constant equal to one-twelfth of
the mass of an unbound atom of carbon-12.
1 atomic mass unit (u): 1 u =1.660 538 7 x 10-27 kg.
Example How many Atoms in the Cube? A solid cube of aluminum (density
2.70 g/cm3) has a volume of 0.200 cm3. It is known that 27.0 g of aluminum
contains 6.02x1023 atoms. How many aluminum atoms are contained in the
cube?
 1.4 Dimensional Analysis
• Technique to check the correctness of an equation or
to assist in deriving an equation
• Dimensions (length, mass, time, combinations) can be
treated as algebraic quantities
– add, subtract, multiply, divide
• Both sides of equation must have the same dimensions
• Any relationship can be correct only if the dimensions
on both sides of the equation are the same
• Cannot give numerical factors: this is its limitation
 Dimensional Analysis, example
• Given the equation: x = ½ at 2
• Check dimensions on each side:
L
L  2  T2  L
T
• The T2’s cancel, leaving L for the
dimensions of each side
– The equation is dimensionally correct
– There are no dimensions for the constant
 Dimensional analysis to
determine a power law
• Determine powers in a proportionality
– Example: find the exponents in the expression x  a m t n

n=1
Example 3 Analysis of Power Law
 1.5 Conversion of Units
• Sometimes it is necessary to convert units from
one measurement system to another, or to convert
within a system, for example, from kilometers to
meters.

[Link]. Fulya Bağcı

1.6 Estimates and Order-of-Magnitude
Calculations
• It is often useful to compute an approximate
answer to a given physical problem even
when little information is available.
– may need to modify assumptions if more
precise results are needed
• Order of magnitude is the power of 10 that
applies
 10x Prefix Symbol
x=18 exa E
x=15 peta P
x=12 tera T
x=9 giga G
x=6 Mega M
x=3 kilo k
x=2 hecto h
x=1 deca da
 Powers of 10 (Scientific Notation)
• It is common to express very large or very
small numbers using powers of 10 notation.
Examples
39,600 = 3.96  104
(moved decimal 4 places to left)
0.0021 = 2.1  10-3
(moved decimal 3 places to right)
PLEASE USE SCIENTIFIC NOTATION!
The number of minutes in a year is approximately

Thus, in 70 years there will be

At a rate of 10 breaths/min, an individual would take

 Measurement Uncertainty;
Significant Figures
No measurement is exact; there is always some uncertainty due to
limited instrument accuracy & difficulty reading results.

It is common to state this precision (when known).

The photograph to the

left illustrates this – it
would be difficult to
measure the width of
this.
• Consider a simple measurement of the
width of a board. Find 23.2 cm.
• However, measurement is only accurate
to 0.1 cm (estimated).
We write the width as
(23.2  0.1) cm
 0.1 cm  Experimental uncertainty
• Percent Uncertainty:
 (0.1/23.2)  100   0.4%
 Significant Figures
Significant Figures (“sig figs”) 
The number of significant figures is the
number of reliably known digits in a number.
It is usually possible to tell the number of significant
figures by the way the number is written:
23.21 cm has 4 significant figures
0.062 cm has 2 significant figures
(initial zeroes don’t count)
80 km is ambiguous:
it could have 1 or 2 significant figures.
If it has 3, it should be written 80.0 km.
• If we were to claim the area of a book is
(5.5 cm)(6.4 cm)=35.2 cm2, our answer
would be unjustifiable because it contains
three significant figures, which is greater
than the number of significant figures in
either of the measured quantities.
When multiplying or dividing numbers:
The number of sig figs in the result  the
same number of sig figs as the number used
in the calculation with the fewest sig figs.

When adding or subtracting numbers:

The answer is no more accurate than
the least accurate number used.
 Rounding
• Last retained digit is increased by 1 if the last digit
dropped is greater than 5
• Last retained digit remains as it is if the last digit
dropped is less than 5
• If the last digit dropped is equal to 5, the retained digit
should be rounded to the nearest high even number
• Saving rounding until the final result will help
eliminate accumulation of errors
• Example

–Area of a board:
dimensions 11.3 cm  6.8 cm
–Area = (11.3)  (6.8) = 76.84 cm2
11.3 has 3 sig figs , 6.8 has 2 sig figs
 76.84 has too many sig figs!
Proper number of sig figs in answer = 2
 Round off 76.84 and keep only 2 sig figs
 Reliable answer for area = 77 cm
©[Link]
2
/Prof. Charles W. Myles
 Summary
• The three fundamental physical quantities of mechanics
are length, mass and time, which in the SI system have
the units meter (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s),
respectively.
• The method of dimensional analysis is very powerful
for solving physics problems.
 Units in physical equations should always be consistent.
 When you compute a result from several measured
numbers, each of which has a certain accuracy, you
should give the result with the correct number of
significant figures.
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Fulya Bağcı