UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAM PLANNING & C PROGRAMMING

History of C
1. Origins in the 1970s:
o Developed by Dennis Ritchie: C was developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs between 1969 and
1973. It evolved from the B programming language, which was an earlier language developed by Ken
Thompson and others.
o First Use in UNIX: The language was initially used to rewrite the UNIX operating system, which had
previously been written in assembly language. This transition demonstrated C's efficiency and
portability.

2. Publication and Standardization:

o K&R C: The first widely distributed version of C, known as "K&R C" (after Kernighan and Ritchie),
was described in the 1978 book "The C Programming Language" by Brian Kernighan and Dennis
Ritchie. This book is often referred to as "K&R" and was instrumental in popularizing C.
o ANSI C: In 1989, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standardized C, resulting in ANSI
C, also known as C89 or C90. This standardization helped ensure compatibility across different
compilers and platforms.
o ISO C: In 1990, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) adopted ANSI C as an
international standard, further promoting its global use.
o Updates: The language has seen several updates, including C99 (standardized in 1999), C11
(standardized in 2011), and C18 (standardized in 2018), each adding new features and improvements.

3. Influence and Legacy:

o Foundation for Other Languages: C has been foundational for many other programming languages,
including C++, C#, and Objective-C. Its syntax and concepts have influenced the design of many
modern languages.
o Educational Use: C is widely taught in computer science courses due to its simplicity and efficiency.
Understanding C provides a strong foundation for learning other languages and understanding computer
systems.

Year Language Developed by Remarks

1960 ALGOL International Too general, too abstract
committee
1967 BCPL Martin Richards Could deal with only
specificproblems
1970 B Ken Thompson at AT Could deal with only
&T specificproblems
1972 C Dennis Ritche at AT & Lost generality of BCPL
T and Brestored

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What is C?
C is a programming language developed at AT & T‟s Bell Laboratories of USA in
1972. It was designed and written by Dennis Ritche. Dennis Ritchie is known as
the founder of c language.

It was developed to overcome the problems of previous languages such as B, BCPL etc.

Initially, C language was developed to be used in UNIX operating system.

Importance of C
1 Portability:
o Cross-Platform Compatibility: C programs can be compiled and run on different types of computer
systems with minimal changes. This portability was a key factor in C's adoption for system
programming and operating systems.

2 Efficiency:
o Low-Level Access: C provides low-level access to memory and hardware, allowing for efficient use of
resources. This feature is particularly valuable in system programming and embedded systems where
performance and resource management are critical.

3 Foundation for System Software:

o Operating Systems: C was used to develop major operating systems like UNIX and its derivatives
(Linux, BSD), demonstrating its effectiveness in system-level programming.
o Compilers and Tools: Many compilers, interpreters, and development tools are written in C,
underscoring its importance in the software development ecosystem.

4 Flexibility and Control:

o Manual Memory Management: C gives programmers direct control over memory allocation and
deallocation, allowing for fine-tuned performance and efficiency. However, this also requires careful
management to avoid issues like memory leaks and buffer overflows.

5 Wide Usage:
o Embedded Systems: C is extensively used in embedded systems, including microcontrollers and real-
time operating systems, due to its efficiency and close-to-hardware capabilities.
o Software Development: C remains a popular choice for developing various applications, from desktop
software to high-performance computing applications.

6 Rich Ecosystem:
o Libraries and Tools: A vast number of libraries and development tools are available for C, enhancing
its capabilities and making development more efficient.

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Creating and Running Programs:

There are four steps in this process.

1. Writing and editing the program using Text editor (source code).
2. Compile the program using any C compiler.(.bak file)
3. Linking the program with the required library modules(object file)
4. Executing the program. (.Exe file)

Creating and Editing a C Program in C Programming Language compiler: Writing or

creating and editing source program is a first step in c language. Source code is written in c
programming language according to the type of problem or requirement, in any text editor.

Saving C Program in C Programming Language: Source code is saved on the secondary

storage. Source code is saved as text file. The extension of file must be".c". Example the file name
is "learn c programming language.c"

Compiling C program in C Programming Language: Computer does not understand c

programming language. It understands only 0 and 1 means machine language. So c programming
language code is converted into machine language. The process of converting source code in to
machine code is called compiling.
Compiler is a program that compiles source code. Compiler also detects errors in source program.
If compiling is successful source program is converted into object program. Object program is
saved on disk. The extension of file is ".obj"
Linking in C programming Language: There are many built in functions available in c
programming language. These functions are also called libraryfunctions. These functions are stored
in different header files.

Loading program: The process of transferring a program from secondary storage to main memory
for execution is called loading a program. A program called loader does loading.

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Executing program: Execution is the last step. In this step program starts
execution. Its instructions start working and output of the program display on the
screen.

Pseudocode: is an artificial and informal language that helps programmers develop

algorithms. Pseudocode is very similar to everyday English.

Algorithm:
An algorithm is a description of a procedure which terminates with a result. Algorithm is a
step-by-step method of solving a problem.

Properties of an Algorithm:
1) Finiteness: - An algorithm terminates after a finite numbers of steps.
2) Definiteness: - Each step in algorithm is unambiguous. This means that the action
specified by the step cannot be interpreted (explain the meaning of) in multiple ways & can
be performed without any confusion.
3) Input: - An algorithm accepts zero or more inputs
4) Output:- An algorithm should produce at least one output.

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5) Effectiveness: - It consists of basic instructions that are realizable. This means that the
instructions can be performed by using the given inputs in a finite amount of time.

Writing an algorithm
An algorithm can be written in English, like sentences and using mathematical
formulas. Sometimes algorithm written in English like language is Pseudo code.
Examples
1) Finding the average of three numbers
1. Let a,b,c are three integers
2. Let d is float
3. Display the message “Enter any three integers:”
4. Read three integers and stores in a,b,c
5. Compute the d = (a+b+c)/3.0
6. Display “The avg is:” , d
7. End.

 Example 1: Write an algorithm to determine a student‟s final grade and indicate whether
it is passing or failing. The final grade is calculated as the average of four marks.

Pseudocode::
 Input a set of 4 marks
 Calculate their average by summing and dividing by 4
 if average is below 50
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”

 Detailed Algorithm :
Step 1: Input M1,M2,M3,M4
Step 2: GRADE  (M1+M2+M3+M4)/4
Step 3: if (GRADE < 50) then
Print “FAIL”
else
Print “PASS”
endif

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Algorithm to find whether a number even or odd:

Step1: Begin Step1: START

Step2: Take a number Step2: Read num
Step3: if the number is divisible by2 then Step3: if(num%2=0) then
print that number is even print num is even
otherwise print that number is odd otherwise

print num is odd

Step4: End Step4: STOP
(Algorithm in natural language) (Algorithm by using pseudo code)

Flowcharts

The pictorial representation of algorithm is called flowchart.

Uses of flow chart:

1 : flow chart helps to understand the program easily.

2 : as different symbols are used to specify the type of operation performed, it is

easier tounderstand the complex programs with the help of flowcharts.

Basic elements of a flowchart:

 Start/End symbol: An oval shape indicating the beginning and end of the process.
 Process/Action symbol: A rectangle outlining a specific action or step taken.
 Decision symbol: A diamond shape representing a point where a decision needs to be made,
usually with two or more arrows leading out based on the possible outcomes.
 Input/Output symbol: A parallelogram signifying either data entering the process (input) or data
leaving the process (output).
 Connector: Lines and arrows connecting the different symbols, showing the direction of the
flow.

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 Flowchart Symbols

S.NO Description Symbols

1 Flowlines : These are the left to right or top to

bottom lines connection symbols. These lines
shows the flow of control through the program.

2 Terminal Symbol : The oval shaped symbol

Start
always begins and ends the flowchart. Every
flow chart starting and ending symbol is End
terminal symbol.

3 Input / Output symbol : The parallelogram is

used for both input (Read) and Output (Write)
is called I/O symbol. This symbol is used to
denote any function of an I/O device in the
program.

4 Process Symbol : The rectangle symbol is called

process symbol. It is used for calculations and
initialization of memory locations.

5 Decision symbol : The diamond shaped symbol

is called decision symbol. This box is used for
decision making. There will be always two
exists from a decision symbol one is labeled YES
and other labeled NO.

6 Connectors : The connector symbol is

represented by a circle. Whenever a complex
flowchart is morethan one page, in such a
situation, the connector symbols are used to
connect the flowchart.

Flowchart Symbols: Each flowchart represents a solution to a given problem definition. It is

prepared using following common symbols:

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 Figure: Flowchart Symbols

Basic Flowchart Template

Figure: Basic Flowchart

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Explanation of Basic Flowchart Template

Step-1: Start
Step-2: Begin your process 1
Step-3: Take decision (Check some condition)
Step-4: Based on answer from Step-3, execute Process 2 or Process 3. If answer of step 3 is No,
execute Process 2 and repeat Step-2, 3 and 4; otherwise execute Process 3
Step-5: End

Flowchart to add two numbers

Flowchart to find area of rectangle

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CHARACTER SET IN C
In the C programming language, the character set refers to the collection of characters that are used to write C
programs. These characters are essential for defining variables, writing functions, and structuring the code. The
character set of C includes alphabetic characters, digits, special characters, escape sequences, white space
characters, and comments. Understanding these components is crucial for writing and reading C programs
effectively, as they form the basic building blocks of the language.

The C character set can be divided into several categories:

1. Alphabetic Characters

 Uppercase Letters: A to Z
 Lowercase Letters: a to z

These characters are used to define identifiers (such as variable names and function names) and to write
literals.

2. Digits

Digits: 0 to 9

Digits are used in numeric literals and to define numerical values.

3. Special Characters
These characters have special meanings in C and are used for various syntactical purposes:

 Operators: +, -, *, /, %, ++, --, ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=, &&, ||, !, &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>, +=, -=, *=, /=, %= etc.
 Punctuation: ,, ., ;, :, (), {}, [], #, @, |, ?, !
 Assignment: =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %= etc.
 Comparison: ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=
 Logical: &&, ||, !
 Bitwise: &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>
 Others: ~ (bitwise NOT), . (member access), -> (pointer access), :: (scope resolution)

4. Escape Sequences
Escape sequences are used to represent special characters in string literals and character constants:

 \n: Newline
 \t: Horizontal tab
 \r: Carriage return
 \b: Backspace
 \f: Form feed
 \v: Vertical tab

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 \\: Backslash
 \": Double quote
 `'': Single quote
 \0: Null character (used to terminate strings)

5. White Space Characters

White space characters are used to separate tokens in a C program and include:

 Space: ' ' (ASCII 32)

 Tab: '\t' (ASCII 9)
 Newline: '\n' (ASCII 10)
 Carriage Return: '\r' (ASCII 13)
 Form Feed: '\f' (ASCII 12)

White space characters are ignored by the compiler, but they are important for formatting code and

separating tokens.

6. Comments

Comments are used to include explanatory notes in the code. They are ignored by the compiler but are
useful for documentation:

 Single-Line Comment: // This is a comment

 Multi-Line Comment: /* This is a multi-line comment */

Character Encoding

The C language uses character encoding standards to represent characters:

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange): In many C environments, characters are
encoded using ASCII, which defines 128 characters including letters, digits, and symbols.
 Extended ASCII: Extends ASCII to include additional characters.
 Unicode: Modern environments might use Unicode (such as UTF-8) to represent a wider range of characters,
especially for internationalization.

Character Constants
In C, character constants are enclosed in single quotes:

Example: 'a', '1', '%'

Character constants are of type char and represent individual characters

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C TOKENS:
The smallest individual units are known as tokens. C has six types of tokens.

1: Identifiers
2: Keywords

3: Constants

4: Strings

5: Special Symbols

6: Operators

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Identifiers:
Identifiers refer to the names of variables, constants, functions and arrays. These are user-defined
names is called Identifiers. These identifier are defined against a set of rules.
Rules for an Identifier
1. An Identifier can only have alphanumeric characters( a-z , A-Z , 0-9 ) and underscore( _
).

2. The first character of an identifier can only contain alphabet( a-z , A-Z ) or underscore ( _
).

3. Identifiers are also case sensitive in C. For example name and Name are two different
identifier in C.

4. Keywords are not allowed to be used as Identifiers.

5. No special characters, such as semicolon, period, whitespaces, slash or comma are

permitted to be used in or as Identifier.

6. C‟ compiler recognizes only the first 31 characters of an identifiers.

Ex : Valid Invalid

STDNAME Return

SUB $stay

TOT_MARKS 1RECORD

_TEMP STD NAME.

Y2K

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Keywords:
A keyword is a reserved word. All keywords have fixed meaning that means we cannot
change. Keywords serve as basic building blocks for program statements. All keywords must be
written in lowercase. A list of 32 keywords in c language is given below:

auto break case char

const continue default do

double enum else extern

float for goto if

int long return register

signed short static sizeof

struct switch typedef union

unsigned void volatile while

Note: Keywords we cannot use it as a variable name, constant name etc.

Data Types/Types:
 To store data the program must reserve space which is done using datatype. A datatype is a
keyword/predefined instruction used for allocating memory for data. A data type specifies
the type of data that a variable can store such as integer, floating, character etc . It used for
declaring/defining variables or functions of different types before to use in a program. 

There are 4 types of data types in C language.

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 Types Data Types

Basic Data Type int, char, float, double

Derived Data Type array, pointer, structure, union

Enumeration Data Type enum

Void Data Type void

Note: We call Basic or Primary data type.

The basic data types are integer-based and floating-point based. C language supports both signed
and unsigned literals. The memory size of basic data types may change according to 32 or 64 bit
operating system. Let‟s see the basic data types. Its size is given according to 32 bit
architecture.

Size and Ranges of Data Types with Type Qualifiers

Type Size (bytes) Range Control String

char or signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c

unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c

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 int or signed int 2 -32768 to 32767 %d or %i

unsigned int 2 0 to 65535 %u

short int or signed short 1 -128 to 127 %d or %i

int

unsigned short int 1 0 to 255 %d or %i

long int or signed long 4 -2147483648 to 2147483647 %ld

int

unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295 %lu

float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 %f or %g

double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 %lf

long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 %Lf

Variables
A variable is a name of memory location. It is used to store data. Variables are changeable,
we can change value of a variable during execution of a program. . It can be reused many
times.

Note: Variable are nothing but identifiers.

Rules to write variable names:

1. A variable name contains maximum of 30 characters/ Variable
name must be upto 8 characters.
2. A variable name includes alphabets and numbers, but it must start
with an alphabet.
3. It cannot accept any special characters, blank spaces except under
score( _ ).
4. It should not be a reserved word.

Ex : i rank1 MAX min Student_name

StudentName class_mark

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Declaration of Variables: A variable can be used to store a value of any data type. The
declaration of variables must be done before they are used in the program. The general format
for declaring a variable.

Syntax : data_type variable-1,variable-2, ----- , variable-n;

Variables are separated by commas and declaration statement ends with a semicolon.

Ex : int x,y,z;
float a,b;
char m,n;

Assigning values to variables: values can be assigned to variables using the assignment
operator (=). The general format statement is :

Syntax : variable = constant;

Ex : x=100;
a= 12.25;
m=‟f‟;

we can also assign a value to a variable at the time of the variable is declared. The general format
of declaring and assigning value to a variable is :

Syntax : data_type variable = constant;

Ex ; int x=100;
float a=12.25;
char m=‟f‟;

Types of Variables in C

There are many types of variables in c:

1. local variable
2. global variable
3. static variable

Constants
Constants refer to fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program.

Note: constants are also called literals.

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 C supports several kinds of constants.

CONSTANTS

Numeric Constants Character Constants

Integer Constants Real Constants Single Character Constants String Constants

TYPES OF C CONSTANT:
1. Integer constants
2. Real or Floating point constants
3. Character constants
4. String constants
5. Backslash character constants

Integer constants:
An integer constant is a numeric constant (associated with number) without any fractional or
exponential part. There are three types of integer constants in C programming:

 decimal constant(base 10)

 octal constant(base 8)
 hexadecimal constant(base 16)

For example:

 Decimal constants: 0, -9, 22 etc

 Octal constants: 021, 077, 033 etc
 Hexadecimal constants: 0x7f, 0x2a, 0x521 etc

 In C programming, octal constant starts with a 0 and hexadecimal constant starts with a
0x.

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1: Decimal Integer : the rules for represent decimal integer.
a) Decimal Integer value which consist of digits from 0-9.
b) Decimal Integer value with base 10.
c) Decimal Integer should not prefix with 0.
d) It allows only sign (+,-).
e) No special character allowed in this integer.

Ex : valid invalid

7 $77

77 077

+77 7,777

-77

2 : Octal : An integer constants with base 8 is called octal. These rules are :
a) it consist of digits from 0 to 7.
b) It should prefix with 0.
c) It allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.

EX : VALID INVALID
0123 123 -> it because no prefix with 0
+0123 0128 -> because digits from 0 to 7.
-0123

3 : Hexadecimal : An integer constant with base value 16 is called Hexadecimal.

a) It consist of digits from 0-9,a-f(capital letters & small leters.

Ex : 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b) it should prefix with 0X or 0x.
c) it allows sign (+,-).
d) No special character is allowed.

EX : OX1a, ox2f

Floating point/Real constants:

A floating point constant is a numeric constant that has either a fractional form or an exponent
form. For example:

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-2.0

0.0000234

-0.22E-5

Note: E-5 = 10-5

Real Constants : Real constant is base 10 number, which is represented in decimal 0r

scientific/exponential notation.

Real Notation : The real notation is represented by an integer followed by a decimal point and
the fractional(decimal) part. It is possible to omit digits before or after the decimal point.

Ex : 15.25
.75
30
-9.52
-92
+.94

Scientific/Exponential Notation: The general form of Scientific/Exponential notation is

mantisha e exponent

The mantisha is either a real/floating point number expressed in decimal notation or an integer
and the exponent is an integer number with an optional sign. The character e separating the
mantisha and the exponent can be written in either lowercase or uppercase.

Ex : 1.5E-2
100e+3
-2.05e2

Character Constant:
Single Character Constant : A character constant is either a single alphabet, a single digit, a
single special symbol enclosed within single inverted commas.

a) it is value represent in „ „ (single quote).

b) The maximam length of a character constant can be 1 character.
EX : VALID INVALID
„a‟ “12”

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 „A‟ „ab‟

String constant : A string constant is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quote, the
characters may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space etc

EX : “rama” , “a” , “+123” , “1-/a”

"good" //string constant

"" //null string constant

" " //string constant of six white space

"x" //string constant having single character.

"Earth is round\n" //prints string with newline

Escape characters or backslash characters:

a) \n newline
b) \r carriage return
c) \t tab
d) \v vertical tab
e) \b backspace
f) \f form feed (page feed)
g) \a alert (beep)
h) \‟ single quote(„)
i) \” double quote(“)
j) \? Question mark (?)
k) \\ backslash (\)

Two ways to define constant in C

There are two ways to define constant in C programming.
1. const keyword
2. #define preprocessor
3.
1) C const keyword
The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.
1. const float PI=3.14;
Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.
1. #include <stdio.h>
2. #include <conio.h>
3. void main(){
4. const float PI=3.14;
5. clrscr();
6. printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);

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 7. getch();
8. }
Output:
The value of PI is: 3.140000

2) C #define preprocessor
The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.
C#define
The #define preprocessor directive is used to define constant or micro substitution. It can use any
basic data type.
Syntax:
#define token value
Let's see an example of #define to define a constant.
#include <stdio.h>
1. #define PI 3.14
2. main() {
3. printf("%f",PI);
4. }
Output:
3.140000

Formatted and Unformatted Console I/O Functions.

Input / Output (I/O) Functions : In „C‟ language, two types of Input/Output functions are
available, and all input and output operations are carried out through function calls. Several
functions are available for input / output operations in „C‟. These functions are collectively
known as the standard i/o library.
Input: In any programming language input means to feed some data into program. This can be
given in the form of file or from command line.
Output: In any programming language output means to display some data on screen, printer or
in any file.
The Standard Files
C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in the
same way as files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program
executes to provide access to the keyboard and screen.

Standard File File Pointer Device

Standard input stdin Keyboard

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Standard output stdout Screen

Standard error stderr Your screen

Input / Output functions are classified into two types

I / O Functions

Formated I/O Functions Unformated I/O Functions

Input Output
Input Output

scanf() print() getc() putc()

fscanf() fprintf() getchar() putchar()

gets() puts()

getch()

getche()

. Formated I/O Functions : formatted I/O functions operates on various types of data.

1 : printf() : output data or result of an operation can be displayed from the computer to a
standard output device using the library function printf(). This function is used to print any
combination of data.

Syntax : printf(“control string “, variable1, variable2, ----------- , variablen);

Ex : printf(“%d”,3977); // Output: 3977

printf() statement another syntax :

Syntax : printf(“fomating string”);

Formating string : it prints all the character given in doublequotes (“ “) except formatting
specifier.

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Ex : printf(“ hello “);-> hello
printf(“a”); -> a
printf(“%d”, a); -> a value
printf(“%d”); -> no display

scanf() : input data can be entered into the computer using the standard input „C‟ library
function called scanf(). This function is used to enter any combination of input.

Syntax : scanf(“control string “,&var1, &var2, --- , &varn);

The scanf() function is used to read information from the standard input device (keyboard).

Ex : scanf(“ %d “,&a);-> hello

Each variable name (argument) must be preceeded by an ampersand (&). The (&) symbol gives
the meaning “address of “ the variable.

Unformatted I/O functions:

a) Character I/O
b) String I/O

a) character I/O:

1. getchar(): Used to read a character from the standard input

2. putchar(): Used to display a character to standard output
3. getch() and getche(): these are used to take the any alpha numeric characters
from the standard input
getche() read and display the character
getch() only read the single character but not display
4. putch(): Used to display any alpha numeric characters to standard output

c) String I/O:

1. gets(): Used for accepting any string from the standard input(stdin)
eg:gets()

2. puts(): Used to display a string or character array Eg:puts()

3. Cgets():read a string from the console eg; cgets(char *st)
4. Cputs():display the string to the console eg; cputs(char *st)

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General Structure of a C program:
/* Documentation section */
/* Link section */
/* Definition section */
/* Global declaration section */
main()
{
Declaration part
Executable part (statements)
}
/* Sub-program section */

 The documentation section is used for displaying any information about the
program like the purpose of the program, name of the author, date and time written
etc, and this section should be enclosed within comment lines. The statements in
the documentation section are ignored by the compiler.
 The link section consists of the inclusion of header files.
 The definition section consists of macro definitions, defining constants etc,.
 Anything declared in the global declaration section is accessible throughout
the program, i.e. accessible to all the functions in the program.
 main() function is mandatory for any program and it includes two parts, the
declaration part and the executable part.

 The last section, i.e. sub-program section is optional and used when we require
including user defined functions in the program.

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 First C Program
Before starting the abcd of C language, you need to learn how to write, compile and run the first
c program.

To write the first c program, open the C console and write the following code:

2. #include <stdio.h>
3. #include <conio.h>
4. void main(){
5. printf("Hello C Language");
6. getch();
6. }

#include <stdio.h> includes the standard input output library functions. The printf() function
is defined in stdio.h .

#include <conio.h> includes the console input output library functions. The getch() function is
defined in conio.h file.

void main() The main() function is the entry point of every program in c language. The void
keyword specifies that it returns no value.

printf() The printf() function is used to print data on the console.

getch() The getch() function asks for a single character. Until you press any key, it blocks the
screen.

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 Operators and Expressions:

Expressions, Types of Operators, Precedence of Operators, Type

Conversion

Expressions:

An expression is a combination of operands (variables, constants, etc.) and operators that

results in a value.

Examples:

 a+b
 x * (y - 2)
 3.14 * r * r

There are different types of expressions:

 Arithmetic expressions: involve arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /)

 Relational expressions: use comparison operators (>, <, ==, etc.)
 Logical expressions: use logical operators (&&, ||,!)
 Assignment expressions: assign values using =, +=, etc.
 Conditional expressions: use ternary operator: condition? expr1: expr2

Types of Operators:

1. Arithmetic Operators
 +, -, *, /, % (modulus)
 Example: a + b, x % 2

✅ 2. Relational (Comparison) Operators

 ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=
 Example: a > b, x == 10

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 ✅ 3. Logical Operators
 && (AND), || (OR), ! (NOT)
 Example: (a > 5 && b < 10)

✅ 4. Assignment Operators
 =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
 Example: x += 5 is same as x = x + 5

✅ 5. Bitwise Operators (used in low-level programming)

 &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>

✅ 6. Unary Operators
 +, -, ++, --, !
 Example: ++x, --y

✅ 7. Ternary Operator
 Syntax: condition ? value_if_true : value_if_false
 Example: max = (a > b) ? a : b;

✅ 8. Special Operators (language-specific)

 Type cast operator: (int), (float)
 sizeof (C/C++)
 instanceof (Java)

Precedence of Operators:
Operator precedence determines which operator is evaluated first in an expression.

E.g.

a+b*c

* has higher precedence than +, so b * c is evaluated first.

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General Precedence (from highest to lowest):

Precedence Level Operators Description

1 (Highest) (), [], . Parentheses, array, member access

2 ++, --, +, - (unary), ! Unary operators
3 *, /, % Multiplication, division, modulus
4 +, - Addition, subtraction
5 <, <=, >, >= Relational
6 ==, != Equality operators
7 && Logical AND
8 `
9 =, +=, etc. Assignment
10 (Lowest) , Comma operator

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Type Conversion:

Type conversion changes one data type to another. Two types:

1. Implicit Type Conversion (Type Promotion)

 Automatically done by the compiler.
 Smaller types are converted to larger types.

Example:

int a = 5;

float b = 6.2;

float c = a + b; // 'a' is promoted to float

2. Explicit Type Conversion (Type Casting)

 Manually done by the programmer using cast operator.
 Syntax: (type) expression

Example:

float f = 7.5;

int i = (int)f; // i = 7

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