CEREALS

Cereals are seeds of the grass family Gramineae. They are the world’s major food crops that
are grown mainly for their starchy seeds. The wide spread use of cereals as staple food in the
diet of the most population group is because of the ease to which grains can be produced,
stored at relatively low cost and because of its nutritional contribution. The most common
cereals are maize (corn), rice, wheat and barley which account for 95% of the world’s grain
production. The remaining 5% consist of sorghum, millet, oats and rye.
Cereal products are any food made from cereal grains e.g. bread, pasta, oatmeal, breakfast
cereals e.g. Weetabix.
Cereal products are divided into two groups;
i. Whole grains- containing the entire grain kernel (bran, endosperm and the germ)
ii. Refined grain products which have been stripped of their bran and germ during
milling.

The structure of a cereal grain; A cereal grain is also known as kernel, berry or
caryopses.

Source; [Link]
The structure of all cereal grains consists of:
 The husk also called “chaff” is a rough outer covering made of cellulose, which is a
protective structure against frost, wind, rain, extreme temperatures, insects etc. with no
nutritive value for humans
 The pericarp/bran/hull which makes up 14.5% of the total grain. It a hard outer layer or
coat of the cereal under the husk that protect the grains’ soft endosperm. It consists of thin
walled long rectangular cells. It is mainly cellulose (fibre) with much of the minerals and
some vitamins e.g. vitamin B6, Pantothenic acid, niacin and selenium
 The aleurone layer; it is one or more layers of cells that surround the endosperm. It
contains about 20% each of protein, oil, and mineral matter e.g. phosphorus and thiamin.
They are also rich in Nicotinic acid and phytic acid
 Endosperm; It is the largest portion of the kernel (83%) which supplies all of the grain
starch. It is the basis of all flours. It also contains protein, small amounts of vitamins and
trace elements. It consists of cells of various sizes and shape.
 Embryo/Germ- It is the lowest structure at the lower end of the kernel making up 2.5%
of the grain’s weight. It is separated from the endosperm by the scutellum which has the
function of mobilizing the stored food in the endosperm, transmitting them to the embryo
when the grain germinates. The germ and scutellum are rich in protein and fats and also
has vitamin E, Thiamin, potassium, phosphorus, iron, selenium, as well as most of the
riboflavin (vitamin B2).
 N/B Processed/refined grains are generally 75 to 85% carbohydrates. They consist only of
the endosperm. They are rich in starch but lack fiber, vitamin B6, E, mineral, fats,
phytochemicals and vital chemicals found in whole grain. They are normally enriched
with vitamin B1, B2, B3, and iron lost through processing. They are fortified with folic
acid.
Composition and nutritive value of cereal;
a) Energy: cereals are the main source of energy to the body 70 -80% of the requirement
b) Carbohydrates: It makes up to 80% of the dry matter in cereal. It is present in two types
 Crude fibre- Fibre in cereal includes cellulose, hemicelluloses, pentosans, which are
concentrated in bran. Fibre is divided in to soluble form and insoluble form. Soluble
form of fibre is important for lowering blood cholesterol while insoluble fibre is good
for digestion. Of all cereal , whole wheat has higher amount of fibre.
 Soluble carbohydrates (starch); it is the storage form of carbohydrates deposited,
has granule. It is in two fractions;
 Amylose-are polysaccharides of glucose that contribute gelling characteristics and
cool starch.
 Amylopectins- are highly branched polysaccharides of glucose that provide
thickening property not gelling property.
c) Proteins: Proteins content of different cereals varies. Rice contains less amount of
proteins compared to other cereals. Protein content of different varieties of the same
cereal also varies.
Protein are found in all tissue of the cereal grain, higher concentration occurs in the
embryo, the scutellum and the aleurone layer than in the endosperm and the bran. Within
the endosperm, the concentration of protein increases from the center to the peripherals.
 Types of proteins present in different cereals include albumins, globulins, prolamin
(gliadin), and glutennins. Gliadins and glutenins are also known as gluten protein.
Gluten has unique elasticity and flow properties which are used for baking bread and
other products.
Cereals contain 6-12% protein which is generally deficient in lysine amino acid. It is
rich in methionine. Rice contains proteins of better quality than other cereals
d) Lipids; Lipids are present at extent of 1-2% in wheat and rice and 3% in maize. More
lipids are present in the germ and bran than in other parts of the grain. Wheat germ
contains 6-11% and the bran 3-5% while the endosperm is 0.8-1.5%. Maize germ
contains 35% and the bran 1%. Lipids are mostly triglycerides of palmitic, oleic acid and
linoleic acid. Cereals also contain phospholipids and Lecithin
e) Minerals; About 95% of the minerals in cereals are the phosphates and sulphates of
manganese and calcium. Considerable part of phosphorous part in cereals is present in
form of phytin. Calcium and phosphorus in phytin are unavailable for absorption.
Phytates present in cereals decreases the absorption of iron.
N/B Un-refined cereal contains more phytates than refined or polished cereals. When
grains germinate, phytate content reduces due to enzymatic break down and iron
availability improves Zinc, Copper and Manganese are also present in cereals although
in very small quantities. Cereals are poor source of calcium and iron particularly rice.
Millet is rich in minerals. The iron content of wheat is increased during milling when iron
rollers are used
f) Vitamins; Whole grains are important source of B vitamins in the diet. They are mostly
found in the outer bran. Refining or polishing the grains reduces its B vitamin content.
Parboiling which include soaking in water and steaming of paddy (rice) results in seeping
of vitamins present in the outer layer into the grain hence milled parboiled rice retains
much of the B vitamins.
Cereals do not contain vitamin A or C except yellow maize (corn) which contains small
amount of carotene. Oil from cereal grains is rich in vitamin E
g) Enzymes present in cereals; Cereals contain many enzymes including amylases,
proteases, lipase and oxido-redactase. Upon germination, amylase activity increases.
Lipases are responsible for the fatty acids appearing during storage of cereals and their
products
TYPES OF CEREALS AND CEREALS PRODUCTS
Wheat
Wheat belongs to the genius Triticum. About 75% of all harvested wheat is made into flour and the
remaining 25% is used for cereals, pasta products, animal feed, wheat germ and wheat germ oil. It is
a globally important source of dietary carbohydrate and protein and a staple food used to
make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereals,
pasta noodles and for fermentation to make beer.
Common and durum wheat are the main types. Among common wheat, the main varieties
are spring and winter, hard and soft, and red and white.
Hard wheat contain high amounts of proteins and are suitable for bread and pasta production
while soft wheat have lower amounts of proteins and are used to produce flour that is ideal
for cake, cookies and pastry making.
Composition of wheat;
1. Carbohydrates; in form of starch found in the endosperm and soluble sugars mostly
found in the germ. The carbohydrates of the bran are mainly the cellulose and the
hemicelluloses.
2. Protein; proteins in wheat may be divided into 2 major subgroups: - the non-gluten
protein albumins and globulins and gluten proteins mainly gliadins and glutenins.
The two groups differ in their solubility, chemical composition and role in dough
formation and baking.
Gluten protein are rich in glutamic acid, mainly as glutamine and proline but lower in
basic amino acids and tryptophan. Non gluten protein contain higher amounts of lysine,
arginine and tryptophan and lower in glutamine and proline
Gluten is a protein composite found in foods processed from egg and related grain
species, including wheat, barley, oats and rye. It gives elasticity to dough, helping it to
rise and to keep its shape, and often giving the final product a chewy texture. Gluten is
extracted from flour by kneading the flour, agglomerating the gluten into an elastic
network, in the dough, and then washing out the starch.
Factors/conditions and Ingredients that Influence Gluten Development
i. Fat- it coats flours and prevents water from being taken up. Fat/oil added to the dough in
large quantities hinders the development of gluten. A small amount should be added to the
dough. Refined oil, butter or margarine is used in cakes and biscuits
ii. Sugar- Sugar limits gluten development because it attracts water and thus competes with the
flour for liquids. A small amount should be added to the flour.
iii. Ascorbic Acid- It is a flour improver and thus gluten formation enhancer
iv. Salt- It influences both the rate and degree of flour hydration and thus the formation and the
development of gluten
v. Amount of water- Gluten should be well hydrated to develop completely. If the liquid is
insufficient, it will be hard dough and gluten development will be poor. Addition of excess
water makes a runny batter which may be difficult to manipulate.
 vi. Kneading time and keeping time-The greater the kneading or manipulation of dough or
batter the greater is the gluten development. However over manipulation may break the gluten
network. In cake and muffin batter and in preparation of biscuits, manipulation is minimal as
gluten development is undesirable whereas bread and chapatti dough is manipulated well.
Keeping time ensures complete hydration of the gluten in the dough. Chapatti and bread
dough should be allowed to rest after kneading.
vii. Fineness of milling- Wheat flour that has been milled finely has a greater gluten development
capacity than coarsely milled flour. Coarsely milled grains have less surface area than finely
milled flour and thus hydrate to a lesser extent.
viii. Variety of the wheat- Hard wheat is better suited because it has more gluten than soft wheat.
Other Factors that Affect Gluten Formation

ix. Proteolytic Enzymes- There are a group of enzymes present in wheat flour which catalyzes
the hydrolysis of protein. Since the strength of gluten depends on intact proteins, any reaction
which hydrolyses part of the protein reduces the amount of gluten. If too much of enzymes
are present, too much hydrolysis occur and the dough become sticky difficult to machine in
the mixers and yield bread of poor volume. Dough with low enzyme activity is tough and
inelastic. The quantity of proteolytic enzyme must be balanced so that enough hydrolysis
occurs to produce elastic gluten but not so much that the gluten is sticky.
x. Oxidizing Agents-Potassium bromate and Potassium iodide are dough conditioners, chlorine
dioxide and Nitrogen chloride bleach, mature and improves the flour. If these are added to the
flour, the strength of gluten becomes tough with little elasticity.
Reducing agent on the other hand has opposite effect. They reduce the strength of gluten
making it more extensive and sticky
xi. Raw Milk-Raw milk decreases the proteolytic enzymes and makes gluten sticky therefore
milk should be heat treated before adding to the flour mixture.
xii. Calcium Salts-Calcium salts present in hard water tends to increase the elasticity of gluten
xiii. Acids-Acids alter gluten strength. Too much acid diminishes gas retention.

3. Lipids; the lipid content of endosperm (1-2%) is less than that of bran (5-6%) or germ (8-
15%) but the proportion of compound lipids in the endosperm is much higher. Wheat
germ oil is produced commercially and is rich in vitamin E.
4. Minerals; It contains a significant amount of iron, phosphorus, magnesium, manganese,
copper and zinc. The mineral constituents are mainly distributed in the outer layer and the
embryo of the kernel. When wheat is refined during the producing white flour the
minerals from most parts pass on to the by-products of milling.
5. Vitamins; Whole wheat is a good source of thiamine and nicotinic acid, but is relatively
poor in riboflavin. Other members of B group vitamins are present in small quantities.
Types of wheat flours;
Flour is classified based on the following criteria;

1. Extraction rate: It means the percentage of the wheat grain found in the flour. The higher the
extraction rate, the more the bran and germ that is present in the flour
i. 100% extraction flour: This consists of whole grain and flour is light brown in color and its
referred to as whole wheat/whole meal flour
ii. 85- 90% extraction flour: This is light brown in color and it is referred to as wheat meal or
brown flour
iii. 70- 72% extraction flour: This is flour that is white in color and referred to as refined
flour/white flour
N/B The higher extraction flours have more dietary fibre e.g.

 White flours contains 3.1g of dietary fibre/ 100g

 Whole meal contain 9.0g of dietary fibre per 100g
2. Protein Quality: It depends on the type of wheat used to make the flour, It includes;
 Wheat/soft flour- It contain about 8% proteins is well suited for cake making which
produces cake with a fine crumb and for short crust pastry biscuits
 Strong or bread flour- This is much higher in proteins. It contains about 17% proteins. This
is recommended for bread making yeast, cakes and buns and puff pastry
 Medium, plain or all-purpose flour-This contain about 10% protein and suitable for most
purposes in food preparation
Wheat products;
 Macaroni Products -These products are also called pasta or alimentary pastes. These
products include macaroni, spaghetti, vermicelli and noodles. The main ingredient in the
macaroni group of products is a special durum flour of high gluten content. Pasta made
from semolina, or flour, that is mixed with water and kneaded into dough. Other
ingredients may be included as well. The dough is then shaped into various forms. This
heading is limited to macaroni that is not cooked, stuffed or otherwise prepared
 Germ of Wheat-The seed embryo. Whole or rolled germ is used for oil extraction by
solvents. Flaked or ground germ is used in bakers' wares, dietetic preparations, feed
supplements and in pharmaceutical preparations
 Bread-A baked product of flour or meal of cereals, especially wheat. Includes ordinary,
unleavened, crackers, rusks, etc
 Pastry-All baked products excluding those listed under bread. Pastry products may
contain ingredients other than wheat flour, such as milk, eggs, sugar, honey, starch, fats,
fruit, seeds, etc.
 Starch of Wheat- Starch is the carbohydrate component in many plant cells. A white,
odourless powder that is insoluble in cold water, it forms a paste in hot water. Wheat
 starch is used for human consumption and animal feed, and is processed into glucose and
dextrine for industrial use. It is usually obtained from low-quality flour.
Rice
Rice is the staple diet for more than half of the world’s population. 94% of it is produced in
Asia. It is an important symbol of life and fertility that is why it is sometimes thrown t the
bride and groom at a wedding. Rice forms up to 80 per cent of the food intake in some
countries. It is cooked in boiling water and eaten mostly with cooked pulses, vegetables, fish
or meat. By products of rice, such as bran, rice polishing and paddy straws are used for
feeding livestock.
Brown rice has its outer husk removed, and white rice is milled and polished further to
remove the bran and germ. There are many different types of rice, categorized by grain
length, width and the region where they are grown.
Based on the length and the width, rice may be divided into; long-grain, medium-grain and
short-grain rice.
Long-grain rice are four times longer than they are wide, cook to drier, fluffier consistency
which allows the grains to separate since they contain more amylose. Medium- and short-
grain rice have less amylose and more amylopectin which make them stickier when cooked.
Short grains include Arborio rice used in risotto and rice pudding production. Short grains
with oval shape are preferred by Chinese and Japanese because it is easier to handle using
chopsticks and when preparing sushi.
Composition of rice;
It is influenced by genetic and environmental factors. Its germ, the pericarp and aleurone
layers are richer than endosperm in nutrients like protein, minerals and vitamins are separated
from the grain during milling along with the husk.
 Carbohydrates: the major carbohydrate of rice is starch which is 72-75%. The amylase
content of starch varies according to the grain type. Rice also contains some free sugars
like glucose, sucrose, dextrin, fructose and raffinose. Fibre of rice is hemi-cellulose made
up of pentoses, arabinose and xylose.
 Protein: the protein content of rice is 7%. It is much lower than that of the wheat.
Glutelin is the principal protein of rice. Rice also contains small quantities of albumin,
globulin and prolamines. The proteins of polished rice have a lower biological value (is
deficient in lysine and threonine) but a higher digestibility than those of rice bran and
rice polishing. Parboiling has no effect on the biological value or digestibility of the
proteins. The nutritive value of rice proteins is superior to that of wheat and other cereal
products.
 Minerals: Most of the minerals present in the rice are located in the pericarp and germ.
Polished rice is poor in calcium and iron. Brown rice contain more iron than the white
rice. The phosphorous content is high, about 4% of which is present as phytic acid.
 Enzymes: Rice contains amylases, proteases, lipases, oxidases, perixodases and
phenolases. On storage the oxidase activity of rice remains constant but the amylased in
fresh rice is probably responsible for its sticky consistency after cooking.
 The pigment of coloured rice are the anthocyanins and carotenoids.

Rice Products
 Rice Flour: Produced by milling broken or milled rice. Finely ground rice flour is widely
used in infant foods and in noodles. It is not used in bread because it lacks the necessary
gluten-forming protein.
 Rice Bran: stabilized or parboiled food grade rice bran is normally finely granulated light
tan in colour and it has bland flavor and can be used in preparation of breads, snack,
cookies, and biscuits. In addition rice bran is a very rich source of dietary fibre so it an
effective stool bulking agent. Bran is also a good source of antioxidants
 Rice Starch: rice starch is used as food, especially in puddings, ice creams, pies and
custard powder. It forms a tender opaque gel.
 Rice Bran Oil: bran oil is obtained by extraction from rice bran with solvents. The oil
contains a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids and quite stable because of the
presence of natural antioxidants. When refined, bleached and deodourized, it is used for
salad dressing and cooking oil.
Parboiling of rice
Parboiling is particularly good in the case of the coarse and medium rice of soft structure
because such rice suffer excessive breakage when milled raw. It involves soaking paddy in
water for a short time followed by heating once or twice in steam and drying before milling.
Advantages of parboiling
 Dehusking of parboiled rice is easy
 Grain becomes tougher resulting in reduced losses during milling.
 Milled parboiled rice has a greater resistance to insects and fungus
 Loss of nutrients due to removal of husk and bran in milling are decreased.
 Loss of water soluble nutrients due to washing of rice is less in parboiled rice compared
to raw rice
 Parboiling improves digestibility and protein efficiency ratio is higher compared to raw
rice
 Parboiled rice will not turn into glutenous mass when cooked
 Parboiled rice swells more when cooked to the desired softness
 Parboiling stabilizes the oil content of the bran.
Procedure of parboiling
 Take the desired amount of paddy, clean it & weight it.
 Wash the sample properly.
 Soak the sample in water for 3 hours at 80°C till the Moisture Content reaches to 35-40%.
 Drain the excess water & After Soaking, Steam the sample in a Pressure Cooker for 2-3
minutes.
 Sample is then placed in Hot Air Oven at 60°C for 24 hours.
Disadvantages of parboiling;
 The colour changes and sometimes unpleasant smell occur which is not acceptable.
 During steeping, fermentative changes takes place resulting in yellowish colour and off
flavour of rice.
 Because of long the soaking process, mycotoxins may develop in parboiled rice and cause
health hazards.
 Shelled parboiled rice requires more power for polishing.
 Parboiled paddy may choke the polisher because of the higher oil content of the bran.
Maize
Maize (Zea mays) also known as corn, is utilized in more diversified ways than any other
cereal. With its high percentage of carbohydrate, lipid and protein, it is nutritious for human
consumption.
Maize is also used for the manufacture of starch, sugar (corn sugar, dextrin), syrup (corn
syrup), industrial alcohol and alcoholic beverages. It can be milled to produce flour. Its germ
is rich in oil and can be refined to produce corn oil.
Many forms of maize are used for food, sometimes classified as various subspecies related to
the amount of starch each has. This include
a) Popcorn- or 'popping corn' is corn (maize) with thick walled kernels which expands and
puffs up when heated. Corn is able to pop because, unlike other grains, its kernels have a
hard moisture-sealed hull and a dense starchy filling. During popping, the moisture inside
the kernel heats into steam that builds up pressure bursting (popping) the kernel open
exposing the puffy starch. Some strains of corn are now cultivated specifically as popping
corns.
b) Flint corn-Flint corn, (Zea mays indurata; Because each kernel has a hard outer layer to
protect the soft endosperm, it is likened to being hard as flint; hence the name. produces a
good quality cornmeal when milled.
c) Sweet corn-Sweet corn is a variety of maize with a high sugar content and prepared as a
vegetable. It may be yellow or white in colour. Sweet corn is the result of a naturally
occurring recessive mutation in the genes which control conversion of sugar to starch
inside the endosperm of the corn kernel. Sweet corn is picked when immature (milk
stage) and eaten as a vegetable, rather than a grain. Since the process of maturation
involves converting sugar into starch, sweet corn stores poorly and must be eaten fresh,
canned, or frozen before the kernels become tough and starchy.
d) Dent corn- named so since each kernel has a small dent. Mainly used as animal feeds, in
production of corn syrup, alcohol, starch and canned or other processed corn.
e) Waxy corn-this contains only amylopectin and no amylose starch molecule in
opposition to normal dent maize varieties that contain both. Amylopectin or waxy starch
is used mainly in adhesive manufacture.
Composition of maize
 Maize contains around 11% of protein. Maize protein is deficient in amino acids like
tryptophan and lysine.
 Maize is a good source of carotene.
 It also contains thiamine and folic acid in appreciable amounts but lack niacin.
 Maize like any other cereal is rich in calories and is used in supplementary nutrition
programmes and integrated child development services programmes to feed malnourished
children.
Products of Maize
 Degeminated Flour: this consists mainly of the endosperm and has low content of B
vitamins. It is used by brewers as a starch medium for the action of producing barley malt
in the preparation of wort for the production of beer
 Corn germ oil: it can be extracted by solvent extraction. Corn oil has relatively high
level of linolenic fatty acid and has an excellent flavor. The fat content of maize is 3.6%
and oil extracted from it can be refined to produce a high quality vegetable oil for cooking
or food use.
 Popcorn: the popping of corn is a method of starch cookery. As the kernels of popcorn
are heated, the water vapour within them expands, increasing the pressure until it is
sufficient to make the kernels explode or “pop”. Desirable qualities in popcorn are good
flavor, tenderness, the absence of objectionable hulls and high popping expansion.
 Corn Starch: It is most widely used because it is inexpensive, lacks characteristic flavor
and cooks to a smooth and almost clear paste in water or other clear liquid thus superior
to wheat flour or potato starch. Cornstarch has high (>50%) amylose content, thus called
 high amylose starch. Principal uses of amylomaize starch are in making biodegradable
plastics (or bioplastics). It is also used in coatings that are edible and digestible
 Cornmeal: This is flour ground from dried maize. It is a common staple food, and is
ground to fine, medium, and coarse consistencies. Finely ground cornmeal is also referred
to as corn flour or cornstarch.
Sorghum
Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) is of African origin. A large variety of wild and cultivated
sorghums are grown in the tropics and subtropics of the world. Cultivated sorghums are
grown chiefly for their grain which is important staple food in many countries of Africa. It is
usually used in production of porridge and alcoholic beverages in some countries. It is also
used as animal feeds in many other countries.
Composition
Compared to rice, sorghum is richer in protein but the quality is not as good as rice protein.
Lysine, methionine and cysteine are present in low amounts in sorghum. Some varieties
contain excessive amounts of amino acid leucine. The resulting imbalance between leucine
and isoleucine interfere with conversion of tryptophan to niacin causing deficiency niacin.
Sorghum is rich in carbohydrates and B-complex vitamins. It is poor in vitamin A and rich in
dietary fibre. Many infant foods are manufactured commercially using malted sorghum
Barley
Barley was one of the first cereal to be domesticated by man. Its heavy “beards” growing on
the gran made it a symbol of male potency for the ancient Chinese. It is mainly sold as pearl
barley, which is the whole grain with its husk removed.
Barley is primarily used as malt (germinated/sprouted and dried barley= enzymes are
activated that break down starch to maltose), used in bread (as flour), in cereal soups and
ground as porridge in some countries. It is also used in the manufacture of alcoholic
beverages e.g. beer and whiskey and used in soups, salads and stews.
Rye
It contains little starch and proteins (gluten), so produces breads with low volume and a dense
texture. It also has more free sugars and dietary fibre. It is also used to produce crisp bread
and alcohol.
Oat
The common oat is a species of cereal grain grown for its seed. Oats have numerous uses in
food; most commonly, they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into fine oat flour.
Oatmeal is chiefly eaten as porridge, but may also be used in a variety of baked goods, such
as oatcakes, oat meal cookies etc. oatmeal may also be consumed raw. Oats are richer in
protein (gluten) and fat compared to other grains. It is highly valued for its content of soluble
fiber which helps to reduce LDL cholesterol in the blood. Soluble fiber in oats reduces
glycemic index of foods in which it is incorporated in sufficient amounts.
Millet
Is the name used for small grained cereal grasses. It is mainly grown in Africa. It is believed
to be one of the world’s first cultivated crops. It has less amounts of gluten, the protein
required for bread making though it is used in some countries to produced unleavened bread.
The varieties of millet includes; common (Indian/Proso), pearl, finger and foxtail millet

Effect of heat on cereals

Moist heat
Starch granules do not dissolve readily in cold water. When heated with water, the starch
granules gelatinize. Gelatinization is the process whereby starch granules absorb water and
swell increasing the viscosity of the mixture. It is not reversible.
A starch mixture start to thicken between 70o c and 88o c. complete gelatinisation occur at
boiling point. Larger starch granules as found in potatoes swell at a lower temperature. As the
cooked starch mixture cools, there is a marked increase in stiffness of the gel formed.
Factors affecting gelatinisation
 Temperature & time of heating- Starch paste may be prepared most quickly by bringing them to
boiling temperature over direct heat constantly stirring as it thickens and then simmering for 1
minute. Starch paste heated rapidly is more thicker than those heated slowly
 Proportions of starch. More concentrated starch show higher viscosity at lower
temperature than less concentrated mixtures because of larger number of starch granules
can swell in the early stages of gelatinisation
 Types of starch: Wheat starches gelatinize earlier compared to rice, sorghum or corn
starch. Corn and sorghum starch give opaque pastes of higher viscosity than wheat starch
at the same concentration. Waxy corn with more amylopectin does not a gel and remains
clear because of lack of amylose.
 Agitation and stirring- stirring while cooking a starch mixture is desirable in the early
stages for obtaining uniform consistency. However if agitation is too intense or continued
too long, it accelerates the breakdown or rupturing of the starch and decreases viscosity
and may give a pasty mouth feel.
 Addition of sugar- Sugar reduces the thickness of cooked product since it limits the
swelling of starch granules while competing with them for water
 Acid reduces the thickness of starch paste and the firmness of the cooled paste. This is
because acid fragments swollen granules and hydrolyze starch granules to dextrins.
 Fats and proteins. The presence of fats and proteins coat starch granules and delay
absorption of water and also delay rate of viscosity development.
Changes in cooked starch
As starch mixture cools after cooking, additional changes take place.
 Gel formation-Gel formation or gelation takes place as the mixture cools. The starch
mixture becomes rigid.
 Retro gradation- As starch mixture becomes rigid, more changes occur during storage.
The starch becomes less soluble and reverts to a more crystalline structure upon cooling.
Baked products like bread and chapatti become hard and brittle.
 Syneresis-When gelation takes place, amylose molecules pull tightly. The gel shrinks and
water is pushed out of the gel (weeping). This process of weeping is called syneresis.
Effect of dry heat
Dry heat brings changes to starch granules through a process known as dextrinization. When
starch is heated, carbohydrate compounds called dextrins are formed. Colour and taste
changes occur. Extensive dextrinisation reduces the thickening power of starch.
Non-enzymic browning also referred to as the Maillard reaction occurs due to the
interaction of glucose and amino acids in the heated product. This results in the brown
colour observed in bread crusts and cakes. This reaction improves the flavour of baked
products. The dry dextrins on the crust of bread are known as pyrometries.
Effect of cooking on nutritive value of cereals
 Baking causes 30% loss of B-vitamins
 Washing rice before cooking leads to loss of thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. Excessive
washing should be avoided.
Uses of cereals in cookery
 Being comparatively inexpensive, cereals form the staple diet and contribute to most of
the calorie requirement and half of the protein requirement. Cereals improve the quality
of pulse protein and are excellent source of starch and B vitamins.
 Cereals contribute to satiety and are used to prepare the main dish. No meal can be made
without cereals
 They are used as coating agents e.g. bread crumbs
 Cereals are used as thickening agents e.g. corn flour in custards and white sauce,
macaroni in soups.
 Cereals are used as beverage e.g. malted beverage and alcoholic beverages
 Cereals are used in making easy to cook products like noodles, macaroni, cornflakes, and
rice flakes
 Cereals are used as desserts e.g. rice kheer
 They are used as covering for stuffing samosas etc.
 Fermented foods made from cereals are used as breakfast foods or snacks