Hasitha Sandaruwan 078 1417868

SCIENCE

Natural Disasters: Cyclones,

Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and
Wildfires
Summary
This document provides a comprehensive synthesis of the causes, characteristics, and
impacts of major natural disasters, with a particular focus on their occurrence in Sri
Lanka. Natural disasters are defined as losses to humans, animals, and property
resulting from natural processes without human interference. The primary disasters
examined are cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis, and wildfires.

Cyclones are formed from atmospheric low-pressure systems over large, warm
oceanic areas and are characterized by a central "eye" of calm, an "eye wall" with
heavy rains and high winds, and spiral rainbands. Sri Lanka is most affected by
cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal, typically in November and December,
approaching from the Eastern coast. Earthquakes result from the release of energy
stored in the Earth's crust, primarily due to the movement of tectonic plates at
convergent, divergent, or slip borders. The intensity is measured on the Richter scale,
and the majority of seismic activity occurs along plate boundaries, notably the
"Pacific Ring of Fire."

Tsunamis are catastrophic sea waves most often generated by undersea earthquakes,
but also by volcanic eruptions, earth slips, or meteorite impacts. The 2004 Indian
Ocean tsunami, caused by a 9.1 magnitude earthquake, resulted in approximately
40,000 deaths in Sri Lanka alone. Tsunami waves have a long wavelength and low
amplitude in deep water, making them hard to detect, but they increase dramatically
in height as they approach shallow coastal areas. Wildfires require fuel, oxygen, and
an ignition source and are exacerbated by dry conditions, high temperatures, and wind.
While often natural elsewhere, most wildfires in Sri Lanka are attributed to human
activities.

A significant theme is the link between the increasing frequency of natural disasters
and global warming. The rise in average global temperatures, driven by an enhanced
greenhouse effect from increased concentrations of gases like carbon dioxide,
correlates with a documented increase in meteorological, hydrological, and
climatological disasters since the late 20th century.

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1. Cyclones
A cyclone is a powerful weather system that develops from a low-pressure area in the
atmosphere near the Earth's surface. When this low-pressure situation intensifies, it
becomes a depression, which can further develop into a cyclone.

1.1. Conditions for Formation

The formation of cyclones is dependent on a specific set of environmental conditions,

which restricts their development to certain oceanic regions. These factors include:

 A large oceanic area with a water temperature above 27°C to a depth of 60 meters.
 The presence of convection currents in the atmosphere.
 Minimal tendency for horizontally blowing winds to sweep vertically.
 The location of the initial depression being close to, but not on, the equator.
 Increasing atmospheric humidity (higher than 60%) from the ocean surface to higher
atmospheric levels.

1.2. Global Terminology

Cyclones are known by different names depending on their region of origin:

 Tropical Cyclones: Formed in the North and South Asian oceans.

 Typhoons: Generated in the Northern Pacific Ocean.
 Hurricanes: Produced in the North Atlantic Ocean.

1.3. Structure of a Cyclone

A cyclone has a distinct structure characterized by a central calm region and

surrounding bands of severe weather.

 Eye: The central part of the whirlwind, typically spanning 30-60 km. It is a region with little
wind and is free of rain and clouds, appearing as a black circle in satellite images.
 Eye Wall: A cylindrical cluster of clouds surrounding the eye. This region experiences the
most intense conditions, with heavy rains and fast-blowing winds.
 Rainbands: Spiral bands of clouds extending from the eye wall, which also feature heavy rain
and speedy winds.

The passage of a cyclone over an area is marked by a sequence of events: first, a

strong wind blows from one direction; this is followed by a period of tranquility as the
eye passes over; finally, an equally strong wind blows from the opposite direction as
the other side of the eye wall moves through.

1.4. Cyclones in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka is frequently affected by cyclones, most of which originate in the Bay of
Bengal and enter the country from the Eastern coast. Historical data reveals a pattern
of occurrence and impact.

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An Experience of a Cyclone (Trincomalee, 26 December 2000): This event serves

as a case study for the destructive power of cyclones. Although weather forecasts had
issued a warning, the day began sunny. A fast-blowing wind and heavy rain swept the
town, uprooting trees and tearing roofs from buildings. After a period of calm (the eye
passing over), the wind and rain returned with equal ferocity from the opposite
direction, devastating remaining structures. The quantifiable losses were significant:

 Families Hit: 170,419

 Houses Fully Damaged: 57,273
 Houses Partly Damaged: 20,860
 Cultivated Land Destroyed: 20,810 acres
 Deaths: 17
 Loss to National Economy: Rs. 1500 million

Historical Cyclone Data for Sri Lanka (Past 50 Years):

Year Date Entry Point Number of Deaths

1964 22 December Trincomalee More than 1000
1978 22 November Batticaloa 915
1992 12 November Pottuvil 04
2000 26 December Trincomalee 17
2008 25 November Eastern coast 15
2016 15 May Eastern coast 101

Analysis of this data shows that most cyclones affecting Sri Lanka occurred in
November and December, entering from the Eastern coast. While the 1978 cyclone
caused 915 deaths, the development of technology and early warning systems has
helped reduce the death toll in subsequent events. Over the last century, 13 cyclones
have entered Sri Lanka from its Eastern coast.

2. Earthquakes
An earthquake is a jolt or movement of the Earth's surface caused by the release of
energy stored within the Earth's crust. Less violent movements are known as tremors.

2.1. Earth's Structure and Tectonic Plates

To understand earthquakes, one must understand the Earth's internal structure, which
consists of three main layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core. The crust, the
planet's topmost layer, is not a single piece but is composed of several large, moving
sections called tectonic plates. These plates float on the semi-solid magma in the
upper mantle.

2.2. Tectonic Plate Boundaries

The movement of tectonic plates relative to one another occurs at their boundaries in
three primary ways:

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 Divergent Border: Two plates move away from each other. Magma rises to create a new
crust. An example is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
 Convergent Border: Two plates collide, and one moves underneath the other (subduction).
This process often creates volcanoes, such as St. Helen's mount.
 Slip Border: Two plates move away from each other while in contact, sliding past one
another. Energy can build up when the plates get stuck, leading to violent earthquakes upon
release. An example is the San Andreas fault.

2.3. Earthquake Mechanics and Measurement

 Focus: The point within the Earth where the rock layers break and release energy.
 Epicenter: The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus.
 Seismic Waves: Energy released from the focus travels in all directions as seismic waves.
These are measured by seismometers, and the recordings are made by a seismograph.
 Richter Scale: Introduced by Charles F. Richter in 1953, this scale measures the intensity of
an earthquake based on seismograph data and the resulting damage.

Richter Scale Values and Their Effects:

Richter Scale Value Result

2.0 - 3.5 Not felt by humans but recorded by seismographs
3.5 - 5.5 Felt by everybody
5.5 - 7.3 Buildings may be destroyed
7.4 - 8.0 A big damage may be caused
Above 8.0 Can cause complete destruction

2.4. Global Distribution and Human Causes

Most earthquakes occur along the borders of tectonic plates. The "Pacific Ring of
Fire," which marks the border of the large Pacific tectonic plate, is a particularly
active region.

While most earthquakes are natural, certain human activities have been identified as
potential causes:

 Testing nuclear weapons underground.

 Drilling to great depths for oil and minerals.
 Erecting dams and constructing large reservoirs.
 Constructing very large and heavy buildings.

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3. Tsunamis
A tsunami is a series of powerful ocean waves capable of causing immense
destruction along coastlines.

3.1. Causes of Tsunamis

Tsunamis are triggered by large-scale disturbances of the ocean floor. The primary
causes are:

 Earthquakes occurring on the oceanic bed.

 Volcanic eruptions on the ocean floor.
 Earth slips (underwater landslides).
 The fall of a large meteorite into the sea.

3.2. The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

The most devastating natural disaster to affect Sri Lanka in recent history was the
tsunami of December 26, 2004.

 Cause: An earthquake with a Richter scale value of 9.1 occurred on the sea bed near Sumatra,
Indonesia, at 6:58 a.m. Sri Lankan time.
 Mechanism: At a convergent plate boundary, the Indian tectonic plate moved underneath
the Burmese tectonic plate, causing an upward movement of the ocean floor and displacing
a massive volume of water.
 Propagation: The resulting tsunami wave spread across the Indian Ocean at a speed
exceeding 800 kilometers per hour.
 Impact: The disaster caused the deaths of 250,000 people in countries bordering the Indian
Ocean, with approximately 40,000 of those deaths occurring in Sri Lanka.

3.3. Characteristics of a Tsunami Wave

A tsunami's behavior changes drastically as it travels from deep to shallow water.

 In Deep Sea: The speed and wavelength of the waves are high, but the amplitude (height) is
low. This makes them difficult to detect, and ships in deep water are often undamaged.
 In Shallow Sea: As the waves approach the coast, their speed and wavelength decrease,
while their amplitude increases dramatically, resulting in destructive waves.

A key warning sign of an approaching tsunami is the initial arrival of the wave's
trough, which causes the sea to recede or draw backwards from the shore. Natural
barriers like coral reefs and mangroves can help retard the speed and impact of
tsunami waves, highlighting the importance of their conservation.

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3.4. Recent Tsunami Occurrences (1994-2016)

Date Region/Country Wave Height

1994.06.03 Indonesia 5m
1998.07.17 Papua New Guinea 10.5 m
2004.12.26 Sumatra Islands 50 m
2006.07.17 Java Islands 21 m
2006.11.15 Kuril Islands 2m
2007.04.02 Solomon Islands 12 m
2009.09.29 Samoa Islands 14 m
2010.02.27 Chile, Argentina 2m
2010.10.25 Sumatra Islands 3m
2011.03.11 Japan 2m
2013.02.06 Solomon Islands 1m
2014.04.02 Chile 2m
2015.09.16 Chile 4m
2016.11.13 New Zealand 2m

4. Wildfires
A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire in a combustible vegetated area. While they can
occur naturally due to events like lightning, most wildfires in Sri Lanka are caused by
human activities, either deliberate or accidental.

4.1. Conditions for Wildfires

Three essential factors must be present for a fire to start:

1. A combustible substance (e.g., dry plants).

2. A supporter of combustion (oxygen).
3. Heating the substance to its ignition temperature.

Several factors contribute to the rapid spread of wildfires:

 The presence of dry plant leaves and tree stems as fuel.

 High ambient temperatures.
 Low atmospheric humidity.
 Strong winds providing a profuse supply of oxygen.
 Sloped land, which helps the fire spread upwards.

The smoke from wildfires can rise thousands of meters and poses a significant health
risk, causing respiratory difficulties and even death. In 2016 alone, approximately
4,000 acres of land in Sri Lanka were destroyed by wildfires.

5. Global Warming and Natural Disasters

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There is a clear relationship between the increase in global warming and the
frequency of natural disasters. Global warming refers to the increase in the average
temperature of the world, a trend observed over the last century.

5.1. The Greenhouse Effect

The primary driver of this temperature increase is the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Naturally, gases like carbon dioxide and water vapor in the atmosphere trap heat
radiated from the Earth, keeping the planet warm enough for life. However, human
activities have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases, including:

 Carbon Dioxide (CO2): From volcanic eruptions, thermal power plants, and burning fossil
fuels.
 Methane: From garbage heaps and marshes.
 Nitrogen dioxide and Sulfur dioxide.
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs): From refrigerators and air conditioners.
 Ozone.

This increased concentration traps more heat, leading to a gradual rise in global
temperatures.

5.2. Correlation with Disaster Frequency

Data shows a significant increase in the occurrence of natural disasters that correlates
with the period of rising global temperatures.

 The number of cyclones worldwide gradually increased between 1850 and 2015.
 The number of geophysical, meteorological, hydrological, and climatological disasters
showed a steady increase between 1980 and 2010.
 Natural disasters were three times more frequent in the period 2000-2009 than in 1980-1989.
 The number of reported natural disasters rose from 78 in 1970 to 348 in 2004.
 Weather-related natural disasters increased by 80% between 1980 and 2009.

5.3. Mitigating Global Warming

To prevent the acceleration of global warming and the associated increase in natural
disasters, several actions can be taken:

 Forestation and conservation of existing forests.

 Using public transport instead of private vehicles.
 Consuming plant-based foods sourced locally.
 Economizing electricity and using energy-saving appliances.
 Reducing daily consumption and adopting a simpler lifestyle.
 Raising awareness about these issues among others.