FUNDAMENTALS OF QUANTUM COMPUTING

UNIT-I: QUANTUM PHYSICS

Q1)Define the blackbody radiation and explain the
construction of the blackbody with the three classical laws.
Definition of Black body:
A perfect black body, one that observes and emits all the
wavelengths of incident radiation on it. The radiation emitted
by the black body is known as blackbody radiation.
Construction of Black body:
A blackbody is a copper hollow sphere, its inner surface is
coated with lamp black, and a hole is made in it for entering
the radiation.
 When the radiation entered through this hole into copper
hallow sphere due to multiple reflections, all the
wavelength of radiation is observed.
 When the copper hallow sphere heated to a particular
temperature (or) at thermal equilibrium it will be emit the
all the wavelength of radiation.

The three laws are:

 Stephen – Boltzmann law
 Wein’s law(Wein’s displacement law)
  Rayleigh-Jean’s law
 Stephen - Boltzmann law:
The Stephen-Boltzmann law is the relation between the
radiation emitted by the black body to the temperature.
 The total radiation emitted by the black body is directly
proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature
of black body.
i.e., E α T4
E = σT4
σ = 5.67 x 10 -8
w/m 2
– K4 .

 Wein's law (Wein's displacement law):

 It explains a shifting of peak wavelength with the
temperature.
 The peak wavelength emitted by the black body a
temperature is inversely proportional to the absolute
temperature of black body.
1
i .e . , λ m α .
T
−3 mK
λ m=2.87 ×10 .
T

 Rayleigh-Jean's law:
According to Rayleigh-jean's the radiation emitted by the black
body at a temperature is directly proportional to absolute
temperature of black body and inversely proportional to fourth
power of the wavelength.
E ∝T
1
E ( u) ∝ 4
λ
8 πkT
E ( u )= 4
λ
Q2)Derive Planck's equation for a blackbody radiation.

 Energy emitted or observed is due to vibration of micro

particle (e).
 According to Max-Planck the energy radiated in the form
of Quanta. The energy of Quanta E=hv in discrete
manner.
 The emitted energy is integer multiple of energy of
Quanta ( E=hv ).

Let us consider blackbody with large no. of particles N (N0, N1,

N2, N3-----)
with discrete energies E (0E, 1E, 2E, 3E----------)
N (N0, N1, N2, N3----------)
E (0E, 1E, 2E, 3E----------)
Total no. of Blackbody
N = N0 + N1 + N2 + N3 + ①
Boltzmann relation
Nr = N0e-r E/KT
r= 0,1,2,3,-------
By substituting “r” value in
r=0
−0.E / KT
N 0=N 0 e

¿ N 0 (1)
N 0=N 0

r =1
 −1 E ¿
N 1=N 0 e
−E / KT
¿ N0 e
r =2
−2 E/ KT
N 2=N 0 e

N0, N1, N2, N3 …………… in equation ❶

−E / KT −2 E / KT −3 E / KT
N=N 0+ N 0 e +N0 e + N0 e −−−−−−−¿
¿ N0 ¿
− E/ KT
let x=e
N0 ¿
−1 2 3
∴ ( 1−x ) =1+ x + x + x +−−−−¿
−1
N=N 0 ( 1−x )
N0
N= ❷
(1−x)

Energy of the system

E=N 0 ( 0 E ) + N 1 ( 1 E ) + N 2 ( 2 E ) + N 3 (3 E )+−−−−¿

¿ N 1 ( 1 E )+ N 2 ( 2 E ) + N 3 ( 3 E ) ❸
Substitute N 1 , N 2 , N 3 values∈above
−E / KT
¿ N0 e ( E ) + N 0 e−2 E / KT ( 2 E )+ N 0 e−3 E / KT ( 3 E ) +−−−−¿

=N 0 e
−E / KT
(E)¿
−E / KT
Let x=e
¿ N 0 xE ¿

¿
−2
¿ N 0 xE ( 1−x )
N 0 xE
E= ❹
( 1−x )2

Total energy of system

Average energy of system=
Total no . of particles
 N 0 xE
( 1−x )2
⋶ Ē=
N0
(1−x)
N 0 xE 1−x
Ē= 2
×
( 1−x ) N0

xE
Ē=
(1−x )

E
1−x
¿
x
E
1 x
−
x x
E
Ē= −1
x −1
− E / KT
∴ x=e
E
Ē= hv / KT
[∴ E=hu]
(e −1)
hv
Ē= ❺
hv / KT
e −1

Black body absorbed and emit all the wavelength (from

minimum wavelength to maximum) in the range λ to λ + dλ.
The no. of photons per unit volume
8π
¿ 4
dλ ❻
λ

By multiplying equation 5 with 6 we can get total energy

emitted or absorbed by black body.
hv
Edλ=
8π
(e¿ ¿ hυ/ KT −1)× 4
dλ ¿
λ
8 πhυ
E= 4 hv / KT
❼
λ (e −1)
Equation 7 is known as Planck’s law for Black body radiation.
It explained blackbody radiation for every wavelength.

Q3)Explain the de Broglie wave, derive the de-Broglie

wavelength for a moving electron .

Let us consider an electron with charge `e’ and mass ‘m’

moving with velocity ‘ʋ’ applied potential `V'
The energy gained by the electron due to potential ‘V'
E = ev ❶
The energy gained by the electron due to motion
1 2
E= mv ❷
2

From 1 and 2
1 2
ev = mv
2
2
mv =2 ev

Multiplying with 'm' on both sides

2
m ×mv =m2 ev
2 2
m × v =2 mev mv = p
2
p =2 mev
p= √2 mev
h
we know that λ=
p
h
λ=
√2 mev
h - Plank’s constant 6.625 × 10 -34
J. sec.
m - Mass of e— 9.1 × 10 -31
Kg.
e – Charge of an e— 1.602 × 10 -19
columb.
V – Potential difference.
−34
6.625× 10 J . sec
λ=
√2 × 9.1×10−31 Kg ×1.602 ×10−19 V

A°= 10 -8
cm, 1 = 10 -10
m
12.26
λ= A°
√V
Unit for wavelength is A°.
De-Broglie wavelength associate for the energy of the particle
h
λ=
√2 mE

Q4)Explain photoelectric effect.

When the electromagnetic radiation (light) is incident on a
photo sensitive metal if the electrons are emitted/ejected from
the surface of metal then that phenomenon is called photo
electric effect.

Einstein explained photo electric effect phenomena by using

Max-Planck quantum theory.

Q5)Explain the Davison and Germer experiment.

 Davisson and Germer experiment is the practical
evidence for the wave nature of the matter.
  This was explained by CH. Davisson and LH. Germer
 The experimental set up of Davisson and Germer
experiment is.
Davisson-Germer experiment consist of three parts
1) Electron gun.
2) Target set-up (Ni-crystal).
3) Circular scale arrangement.

1) Electron gun:
Electron gun produces Electron beam it consist of filament,
low tension battery, High tension battery, pin hole cylindrical
arrangement to get fine single beam of electron.
 When filament get heated electron gun produces electron
beam these
 electrons are accelerated by providing sufficient potential
from High tension battery.
2) Target set-up (Ni-crystal):
 The fast moving of electron beam from electron gun is
made incident on
 Ni-crystal, due to Atomic planes of Ni-crystal electrons
get diffracted in all possible directions.
3) Circular scale arrangement:
 It is used to collect the diffracted electron beam. It
consists of one electron collector which is, movable on
circular scale, the electron collector is connected to
sensitive galvanometer to measure the intensity of
diffracted electron beam.
6Q)Explain the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
 According to Heisenberg it is difficult to find the position
and momentum simultaneously.
 x is the exact position of a particle ‘p’ is the exact
momentum of a particle.
 ∆ x is the error to find the position of a particle, ∆ P is the
error to find the momentum of a particle. Then the
relation between ∆ x∧∆ P from the Heisenberg can be
written as
h h
∆ x ∙∆P≥ ∨∆ x ∙ ∆ P≥
4π 2
h
∴ h=
2π

Case(i) if ∆ x=0 (no error to find the position of particle)

h
∆ x ∙∆P≥
4π
h
∆ P≥
4 π∙∆ x
K
∆ P≥
4 π (0)
 ∆ P=∞

i.e., cannot identify the momentum of the particle.

case(ii) ∆ P=0 (no error to find momentum of the particle)
h
¿∆ x ∙∆P≥
4π
h
∆x≥
4 π (∆P)
∆ x=∞

i.e., cannot identify the position of the particle similar relation

exist between energy and time.
h h
∆ E∙∆t≥ ∨∆ E∙ ∆t ≥
4π 2

Q7) Derive the time-independent Schrodinger’s wavelength

 Schrodinger wave equation is the fundamental wave
equation in Quantum physics to explain the motion of
microscopic particles.
 To derive the Schrodinger wave equation
Let us consider an electron with mass ‘m’ moving with velocity
‘v’ in positive ‘x’ direction under the potential ‘V’.
The general wave equation for the electron can be represented
as

ψ ( x )=A sin ( 2λπ ) x ❶

Differentiate above with r to “x”.
dψ ( x )
dx
2
= A cos ( 2λπ ) x × 2λπ
Again differentiate above with respect to “x”

( ) ( )( 2λπ )
2
d ψ (x) 2π 2π
2
=−A sin x∙
dx λ λ

( )
2
d ψ ( x ) −4 π 2 2π
2
= 2 A sin x
dx λ λ
From equation 1
2
d ψ ( x ) −4 π 2
= 2 ψ (x)
d x2 λ
2
d ψ ( x ) 4 π2
¿ + 2 ψ ( x )=0 ❷
d x2 λ

From the De-Broglie

h
∴ λ=
mv

λ substitute in equation 2
2
d ψ ( x ) 4 π2
+ ψ ( x )=0
d x2 h 2
mυ ( )
2
d ψ ( x ) 4 π 2 m2 υ 2
+ ψ ( x ) =0 ❸
d x2 h2

Total energy of particle = K.E + P.E.

1 2
E= m v +V
2
1 2
E−V = m v
2
2
2 ( E−V )=m v .

Multiply with “m” on both sides.

2
m ×2 ( E−V )=m× mV
2 2
2 m ( E−V )=m υ substitute∈eqn 3

d 2 ψ ( x ) 4 π ( 2 m ( E−V ) )
2

2
+ 2
ψ ( x )=0
dx h
2 2
d ψ ( x ) 8 π m ( E−V )
+ ψ ( x )=0❹
d x2 h2

ψ (x ) ➜Wave function.

x ➜ Propagation of wave.

m ➜Mass of the particle.

E ➜Total Energy of the particle.

V ➜Applied potential.

h ➜Planck’s constant.

Equation 4 is known as Schrodinger wave equation (or)

Schrodinger 1-D wave equation (or) Time independent wave
equation.

Since ∴ k = 2 π
h

➜h=k 2 π
Substitute in equation 4
2 2
d ψ ( x ) 8 π m ( E−V )
+ ψ ( x )=0
d x2 k2 4 π2
2
d ψ ( x ) 2 m ( E−V )
+ ψ ( x ) =0
d x2 k2

This is also Schrodinger wave equation in terms of ‘h’

Schrodinger wave equation in 3-Dimension can be represented
as
2 2 2 2
d ψ ( x ) d ψ ( y ) d ψ ( z ) 8 π m ( E−V )
+ + + ψ ( x , y , z )=0
d x2 d y2 d z2 h2

Q8) Derive the time-dependent Schrodinger’s wavelength

2
d ψ ( x ) 2 m ( E−V )
+ ψ ( x ) =0 ❶
d x2 h2

Multiply on both sides

2
h
2m
 2
h2 d ψ ( x ) h2 2m ( E−V ) h2
+ ( )
ψ x= 0
2m d x 2 2m h2 2m

2
h2 d ψ ( x )
+ Eψ ( x )−Vψ ( x )=0
2m d x 2

2
h2 d ψ ( x )
−Vψ ( x )=Eψ ( x )
2m d x 2

( ) [ H= ( −V ]
)
2 2 2 2
h d h d
−V ψ ( x ) =Eψ ( x )
2 m d x2 2 m d x2

Eψ ( x )=Hψ ( x ) ❷

The above equation is known as the time-dependent

Schrödinger wave equation.

Q9) Max Born’s interpretation of wave function

 Wave function is a mathematical expression represented
in complex number. It has no direct physical meaning.
 square of the wave function [ ψ 2 ( x ) =ψ ( x ) ψ (x) ]
 is called probability density
 It gives finding the position of a particle in a given region.
 If the particle is presented in a given region then
probability density maximum this condition is known as
normalization Condition.
Mathematically we can represent as.
∫ ψ 2 ( x ) d ( x )=1[¿ 1−D]

∫ ψ 2 ( x , y , z ) dv=1 [¿ 3−D]

If the particle is not existed in a given region, then probability

density minimum
this condition is known as orthogonal condition.
Mathematically represented as.
∫ ψ ( x ) dx =0 [ ¿ 1−D ]
2

2
∫ ψ ( x , y , z ) dv=0[¿ 3−D]

Q 10)The equation for energy and wave function by trapping

an electron in a one-dimensional potential box
Let us consider a one-dimensional potential box of width ‘a’
Let us consider an electron with mass is ‘m moving with
velocity υ in positive x direction.

The motion of microscopic particle is explained by Schrodinger

wave equation.
d 2 ψ ( x ) 8 π m ( E−V ( x ) )
2
+ ψ ( x )=0 ❶

Potential :
2 2
dx h

Inside of the box

V ( x )=0 ; 0< x <a

Outside of box
V ( x )=∞ ; x< 0 ( ¿ ) x > a

Apply Schrodinger wave equation inside box of

d 2 ψ ( x ) 8 π m ( E−V ( x ) )
2

2
+ 2
ψ ( x )=0 [∴ V ( x )=0]
dx h
2 2
d ψ ( x ) 8 π m ( E−0 )
+ ψ ( x ) =0
d x2 h2

(
d 2 ψ ( x ) 8 π 2 mE
)
2
2 8 π mE
2
+ 2
ψ ( x ) =0[∴ K = 2
]
dx h h
2
d ψ (x)
2
+ K 2 ψ ( x )=0❷
dx

The solution of equation 2 from the second order

differentiation can be written as
ψ ( x )=A sinkx +B coskx ❸

Boundary conditions for 1-D potential box.

At I-Boundary the wave function is 0
At x=0 ⟹ ψ ( x )=0

At II-Boundary the wave function 0

At x=a ⇒ ψ ( x )=0

Apply Boundary condition I & II for equation 3

At x=0 ⇒ ψ ( x )=0
ψ ( α )=A sinkx +B Coskx
0=A sink ( 0 ) + B cos ⁡(0)
⇒ 0+ B=0
B=0
At x=a ⇒ ψ ( x )=0

0=A sink ( a ) + B cosk (a)

¿ A sinka+ Bcoska (∴ B=0)
⇒ A sinka=0
Sinka=0
−1
ka=sin (0)
 −1
¿ Sin (Sinπ)
ka=nπ .
nπ
k= [k ➜ wave vector ]
a
2
8 π mE
2
∴k = 2
h

Substitute “k” value.

( )
2 2
nπ 8 π mE
= 2
a h
2 2
n π 8 π mE
2
= 2
a h
2 2
n h
En = 2
8ma

n ➜No. of Quantum energy.

E ➜Energy of electron.
m➜Planck’s constant.
m➜Mass of electron.
a➜Width of box.
If n=1
( 1 )2 h 2 h2
E 1= = (Ground state of electron)
8 m a2 8 ma 2

If n=2
2
4h
E 2= 2
(1 st excited state)
8ma

If n=3
2
9h
E3 = 2
(2 nd excited state)
8ma

Energy of electron is Quantized and emit in discrete manner.