Course Material

NSCI Training Programme

On

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

NATIONAL SAFETY COUNCIL

Plot No.98A, Institutional Area
Sector 15, CBD Belapur,
Navi Mumbai – 400 614
Phone : 022 – 2757 9924 ‐ 27
Fax : 022 – 2757 7351
Email : trainingnational@nsc.org.in; nsci@mtnl.net.in
Web Site : www.nsc.org.in
Sl. Chapter Title Page
No. No.

1. Electrical Safety – An Overview 1

2. Statutory Requirements (under Electricity Act, 2003 and Electricity Rules, 2005) 6
– Salient Aspects

3. Electrical Safety in Power Generation, Transmission and Distribution 22

4. Safety Features in Electrical Control & Switchgears 27

5. Selection and Installation of Electrical Equipment 31

6. Earthing for Electrical Installations 43

7. Temporary Electrical Installations 47

8. Portable Electrical Tools / Apparatus 51

9. Electrical Equipment In Hazardous Locations 56

10. Causes of Electrical Fires 69

11. Basic Guide for Arc Flash Assessment 71

12. Arc Flash Hazards Assessment 73

13. Static Electricity 75

14. Electrical Shock and Burns Treatment 80

15. First-Aid and Artificial Respiration for Electrical Shock & CPR 87

16. List of Standards 98

17. List of References on HSE 103

 1. ELECTRICAL SAFETY – AN OVERVIEW

Life without electricity is unthinkable. There are no two opinions about the fact that the quality of
human life has improved vastly with the advent of electricity. However, we often hear of people
dying due to electrocution particularly in heavy rains, fatally struck by lightning, etc. These show
that electricity can be dangerous if not harnessed in a safe way with sound engineering
practices applying all the statutory provisions as well as codes of practice.

Effect of Accidental contact – human being with live part

Hold-on type: Generally the Hold-on type of accidents occur above 10 mA. In this the muscles
of the forearm contract and as the flexor muscles are more powerful than the extensor muscles
the hand tightens into the conductor. The Hold-on type of accidents are very dangerous since
due to continuous passage of current the chest muscles may contract and the circulation of
blood may stop.

Ventricular Fibrillation: Ventricular fibrillation occurs when the co-ordinated action of the
ventricle is disturbed. When the current passes through the chest and affects the heart,
ventricular fibrillation is caused. It is fatal because it is extremely difficult for the heart to recover
its normal rhythm spontaneously. Even a current of the order of 20 micro amps passing through
the chest can cause ventricular fibrillation. The relation between the chest current and the body
current is not precisely known but the probability of ventricular fibrillation is estimated to be high
when the body current flowing through the extremities is of the order of 40 mA.

Respiratory Arrest: Another effect of electric current is the respiratory arrest in which the
respiration is stopped and does not restart again after the shock. For this to occur the current
must pass through very near to the respiratory centre which lies near the base of the brain. This
requires that the current pathway should be from the head to one of the limbs. However, the
current usually passes from one arm to another limb and hence the probability of respiratory
arrest after the shock under normal circumstances of electrical shock is less. In those
uncommon cases where the current passes through the respiratory centre such respiratory
arrest takes place and breathing may be affected for considerable time.

The following sections explain the hazards involved while working with electricity and also
indicate safe practices while working with electricity.

Electrical installations may be any one of the following categories:

• Installation in workshops, offices, or residential buildings.

• Equipment inside sub-stations and powerhouses.
• Overhead lines.
• Underground cables

Whatever may be the type of installation, the broad principles of precaution are the same, the
object being to ensure the safety of personnel and equipment.

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Electric Shock: Shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electric circuit. The current
must enter the body at one point and leave at another. Shock may occur in one of the three
ways:

1. With both wires of the electric circuit.

2. With one wire of an energized circuit and the ground.
3. With a metallic part that has become live by itself in contact with an energized wire.
The severity of the shock depends on the following factors:

a. The rate of flow of current through the body measured in amperes.

b. The path of the current through the body.
c. The length of time the body is in the circuit.

Effects of Electric Current on Human Body

a. Table I gives the effects of electric current on men and women

b. Table II gives the human resistance to electric current.

TABLE-I: Effects of Electric Current on Men and Women

CURRENT IN MILLIAMPERES

DIRECT 60 HZ 1000HZ

MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN MEN WOMEN

Slight sensation on hand 1 0.6 0.4 0.3 7 5

Perception threshold 5.2 3.5 1.1 0.7 12 8

Shock not painful, muscular 9 6 1.8 1.2 17 11

control no lost
Shock painful, muscular 62 41 9 6 55 7
control not lost
Shock painful , let go 76 51 15 10.5 75 50
threshold
Shock painful and severe, 500 500 100 100 - -
muscular contractions ,
breathing difficult
Shock possible ventricular 500 500 100 100 - -
fibrillation effect from 8
seconds shock
Short shocks lasting seconds - - 165 165 - -

High voltage surges 50 50 18.6 18.6 - -

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 TABLE-II: Human Resistance to Electrical Current

Body area Resistance in ohms

Dry skin 1,00,000 to 6,00,000
Wet skin 1000
Internal Body-hand to foot 400 to 600
Ear to Ear (about) 100

Reasons for Shock

• Victim touches bare live conductor.

• Victim touches poorly insulated conductor.
• Open and short circuit due to equipment failure.
• Static Electricity.
• Lightning.
Comparison Between AC and DC

Even 18 V of AC has been known to be fatal. DC even more than 140 V have not caused
death. Three times DC is equal to AC in effect. Currents between frequencies of 20-100 HZ are
very dangerous. A shock at 60 HZ may start ventricular fibrillation.

High Voltage Hazards

High Voltage equipment should have secure enclosures and these enclosures must be locked.
Keys for these locks should be with responsible persons and with those authorized to enter.
Small enclosure doors, panels, drawers should be locked or with interlock which will stop the
current when enclosure is opened. Additional shielding around bus bars and live contact should
be provided. Caution boards should be placed on both access to area and on machine to warn
people.

Whenever work is to be carried out due precautions must be taken, such as employing only a
qualified and authorized person, and a person trained in artificial respiration must be present.

Insulation Failure

Insulation failure has been the cause of electrical accidents. Following are the reasons for it:

• Due to non-uniform material, there are localized specific heats and resistance. Hence
deterioration due to heat from current, destruction of chemical bonds in insulation by
electrons in conductor. Electrical resistance is reduced. Current produces heat which
degrades the polymer.

3
• Moisture increases conductivity e.g. Nylon absorbs 8% moisture. Hence in damp
locations do not use electrical tools and extension chords. The reduced resistance causes
the current to pass to the earth through the user.
• In enclosed spaces (rotating electrical machinery) ozone presents a problem. Electric
discharge due to sparking produces ozone, which attacks insulation.
• Ultra violet and nuclear radiation degrade insulation
• Mechanical damage resulting from aberration, cutting, flexing and crimping causes
insulation failure.
• High voltage causes sparking or corona effect which breaks down insulation.
• Sometime insulation failure occurs due to insects, rodents and fungi eating away the
insulation.
Other factors, which may affect the degree of shock, are the frequency of the current, phase of
the heart cycle when the shock occurs and the physical and psychological condition of the
person. .

Burns

Joules Burns: The passage of an electric current along any conductor is accompanied by the
dissipation of heat. According to Joule’s law the heat dissipated is directly proportional to C2 RT
where C is the current in amperes, R is the resistance in ohms and T is the time in seconds. As
the skin is the site of the highest resistance in the body it is here that burning is most likely to
occur when contact is made with live conductor. Such burns may be deeper than may first
appear on clinical examination. Heating is often slow and may be accompanied by much
scarring.

Flashover Burns: If an earthed conductor is brought close to another conductor at a high

voltage, the insulation of the air between them (dielectric) may break down giving rise to a
spark. This ionizes the air considerably lowering the resistance, which in turn allows the current
to increase. An electric arc is set up. If the earthed conductor is a human being too close to a
high voltage line, he or she will be burnt by the arc without actually coming in contact with the
conductor. Because of the reduced electrical resistance of the air and the large area of the skin
burning (which reduces the skin resistance) large currents may flow. The victim therefore
becomes subject to a double event, a flame burn from the arc and an electric shock from the
current, which passes. The burns are often made worse by the clothes catching fire. As flash
burn accidents are usually associated with high voltages the current, which flows, are often too
great to cause ventricular fibrillation. Also, because the victim does not usually touch the
conductor he is practically never “held on” but falls away from the conductor thus extinguishing
the arc. The current therefore usually passes through the victim only for a brief time.

Shock Protection Methods

Isolation: High Voltage Electrical equipment should be isolated from approach by untrained
and unauthorized persons. Large transformers with exposed terminals can be located in vaults

4
or fenced enclosures to which only authorized persons can enter. Panel boards, generators,
large motors, batteries busbars etc should be grounded and preferably enclosed.

Marking: Access to dangerous electrical equipment should have warning signs. The following
general shock protection methods can also be employed:

• Insulation of parts routinely or accidentally touched by persons(knobs,dials handles etc)

• Rheostat and potentio-meter control shafts can be coupled to non-conductive rods and
knobs.
• Rubber mats must be provided near switchboards.
• Rubber gloves and non-conductive shoes must be worn while working.

Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI)

GFCI interrupts current to load when current to ground exceeds some predetermined value,
which is less than that required to operate the over-current protective device of the circuit.
Circuit breakers and fuses will open under comparatively large current, which is fatal to man.

BASIC ELECTRICAL SAFETY RULES

• Only qualified person should do electrical work

• Use protective equipments / buddy system for work on live circuits
• Take electrical circuits as live unless proved otherwise
• Verify a circuit is open either from terminal box or switch box
• Enclose uninsulated conductors
• Use rubber mats in front of electrical panel
• Do not touch / operate switches in wet hand / wet condition
• Protect overhead live lines against crane boom movement
• Remove metal chain, bangle, watch ring etc. from body before working on
electrical system
• Ensure proper grounding / earthing of equipments
• Use three pin plugs for portable tools
• Never try to test circuit by touching use tester / test lamp
• Ensure Tag Out / Lock Out procedure before taking up electrical maintenance
work
• Ensure use of Work Permit System on electrical maintenance work
• Message should be written down
• Comply with Electrical Act / Rules
• Do not use umbrella in substation / receiving station
• Know the voltage of circuit
• Check suitability of fuses and circuit breakers
• Inspect chords of portable tools

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 2. STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS UNDER ELECTRICITY ACT, 2003
AND
ELECTRICITY RULES, 2005 and Central Electricity Authority
(Measures related to Safety and Electric Supply) Regulations, 2010

In India mostly State Electricity Boards, private licensees and Local Bodies are engaged in the
business of generation, transmission, conversion, transformation and distribution of energy.
They supply energy to all categories of consumers. It is therefore absolutely necessary to see
that:

• The interest of supplier and consumer as well is protected.

• Safety precautions are taken while constructing, operating and maintaining the electrical
installations.

The Electricity Act, 2003 and The Electricity Rules, 2005

The Electricity Act and Rules have been formulated to cover above aspects. The Electricity act
was first promulgated in 1903 and then amended in 1910. Similarly the Electricity rules were
first framed in 1922 and amended in 1937, 1956 and 1980, 2002 and 2005.

The intention of the Act is to impose certain duties and liabilities on State Electricity Boards,
Private Licensees, and other Local Bodies to supply electrical energy in an area for which a
license or permission is granted. The powers granted to them are confirmed and imposed for
the purpose of enabling them to construct their works, install their plants and service mains etc.
and to maintain them properly. This is for the safety of the public and consumers who purchase
energy from them. The undertaking being for the benefit of the public, a duty is imposed on the
licensee to supply energy to any person who wants it subject to the conditions laid down in the
license granted by the Government. The licensee is not permitted to impose any conditions
against the Act or Rules.

The Act and Rules together ensure that, if not violated , the consumer and the supplier can
enjoy the benefits of electrical energy without any harmful effects of Electricity such as shock,
fire, burn, which needless to say, may bring death of human life and damage to property. Some
of the acts and a few of the rules may not be directly associated with safety. Nevertheless, they
are indirectly associated and hence for the information of the reader they are reproduced here

The Electricity Act has been broadly divided into eighteen parts:

Part I: Preliminary
This part deals with short title, extent, commencement and definitions of various expressions
used in the act. Some important definitions are reproduced below:

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Definitions

• “Accessible” means within physical reach without the use of any appliance or special
effort.
• “Authorised Person” means a person authorised under Rule 3
• “Installation” means any composite electrical unit used for the purpose of generating,
transforming, transmitting, converting, distributing or utilising energy.
• “Supplier” means a licensee, a non-licensee or any other supplier of energy including the
government.
• “Low voltage” means where the voltage does not exceed 250v under normal conditions
subject however to the percentage variation allowed by the IE Rules.
• “Medium voltage” means where the voltage does not exceed 650 volts under normal
conditions subject however to the percentage variation allowed by the IE Rules.
• “High voltage” means where the voltage does not exceed 33,000 volts under normal
conditions subject however to the percentage variation allowed by the IE Rules.
• “Extra high voltage” means where the voltage exceeds 33,000 volts under normal
conditions subject however to the percentage variation allowed by the IE Rules.
Electrical Installations of the above categories of voltages consist of transformer, sub-
station, HT, LT switchgear, operating devices, panel boards, electric motors, portable
equipment, pumps, lights, fans, ventilation system, air-conditioning system, electrical
distribution, etc.

Part II: National Electricity Plan and Policy

• Security and accounts: Licensee has to show Security to Government for discharging their
duties. Licensee to give security of works to Government.
• Audit of accounts of licensee: Government has to appoint auditors to check the accounts
of Licensee or Government may accept auditors appointed by the licensee.
• Separate accounts: Licensee shall keep separate accounts on direction of the Government
for supply of energy if undertaking is engaged in more than one business.
• Compulsory work and supply: Execution of all work as mentioned in the license within
three years after commencement of license.
• Provision to lay further distribution mains: Obligation on licensee to lay distributing
mains after two and half years of license when two or more persons requisition for supply.
• Requisition for supply to owners or occupiers in vicinity: Obligation of licensee to
supply energy to person applying for it.
• Further provisions as to laying of service lines: License to give 21 days notice before
laying service lines.
• Supply for public lamp: To give supply to public lamp when distributing mains are laid, if
demanded by Government or Local authority.
• Special provisions applying to supply of bulk licenses.
• Method of charging: Government to decide the method of charging.

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• Charge for supply for public lamp: Government to decide the method of charging
• Licensee to establish testing station and keep instruments for testing: To test their
equipment to the satisfaction of the Electrical Inspector and to keep the record for
verification, When demanded by the Electrical Inspector.
• Facilities for testing: Licensee to give facility to Electrical Inspector to test his work and
equipment.
• Plan of area of supply to be made and kept open for inspection: Licensee to keep up-
to-date plan of his work
• Notice to electrical inspector: Licensee to give notice to Electrical Inspector before
starting work as per section 13.
Procedure to grant and revoke of license to the licensee has been discussed under sections 4,
4A, and 5 of the Act. Procedure of purchase of undertaking, etc. has been discussed under
sections 6,7, 8,9 and 10 of the Electricity Act, 2003. The Chapter on works deals with
procedure to be adopted by the licensee before starting the work in the area of vicinity of supply.
It also gives the obligation and power of the licensee while doing such work in the area of
supply.

The Electricity Rules, 2005

Electricity Rules have been covered in Eleven chapters in all. Chapters IV for general safety
requirements and Chapter V cover the general rules applicable to all class of installation
.Chapter VI covers the rules applicable to low and medium voltage installations supply and use
while chapter VII covers the rules applicable to high and extra high voltage installations.

Chapter VIII deals with the provision of rules applicable to over head lines and underground
cables. Chapter X deals with the provision of rules applicable to mines and oilfield. The topics
covered in other chapters are as follows:

Chapter I

Preliminary –Rules 1 to 3
Preliminaries, such as definitions of different expressions used in rules, authorization to person
to work on live mains, etc.

Chapter II

Inspectors – Rules 4 to 10
Appointment of Electrical Inspector, his qualification, experience, powers, of Electrical Inspector
to enter the premises and to serve order for compliance of defects, provision of appeals against
the order of Electrical Inspector, etc.

Chapter III
License – Rules 11 to 28
Procedure for application of a license.

8
Chapter IV
General Safety Requirements – Rules 29 to 46

Power of Government and Power of Electrical Inspector to relax certain provision of rules, mode
of entry and penalty for breach of rules have been discussed in this chapter.

One of the most important provisions of the IE Rules is as under.

SAILENT FEATURES OF THE ELECTRICITY RULES 2005

RULE 3 : Authorised persons for working in electrical installations of supplier
or consumer.

RULE 3 (2A)(a) : Training requirement for persons working in generating stations of

capacity 100 MW and above.

RULE 3(2B) : Training requirement for persons working in substations of 132KV

and above.

RULE 3(4) : Mandatory to maintain a list of authorised persons and produced

before Electrical Inspector on demand.

RULE 3(6) : In every register factory load exceeding 250 KW there shall be a
person authorised by the management for ensuring electrical
safety.

RULE 4 : Qualification of Inspectors

RULE 4A : Appointment of officers to assist an Electrical Inspector

RULE 4B : Qualification of assisting officers.

RULE 5 : Empowers inspecting officials to inspect and test any electrical

installation of the Supplier, Consumer, Owner and Occupier at any
time.

RULE 6 : Right to appeal.

RULE 7 : Levy of testing and inspection fees and generally for the services of
the Inspector by the Central Government and the State Government
as the case may be.

RULE 8 : Electrical Inspector to decide on remittance of fee in case of

dispute.

RULE 29 : Construction, installation, protection, operation and maintenance of

electric supply lines and apparatus.

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RULE 29(1) : Electric supply line and apparatus shall be of sufficient rating,
insulation and estimated fault current level and of sufficient
mechanical strength, so as to ensure safety of human beings,
animal and property.

RULE 29(2) : Relevant code of practices of BIS, National Electrical Code may be
followed to ensure safety of human beings, animals and property.

RULE 29(3) : The material and apparatus used shall conform to the relevant
specification.

RULE 30 : Supplier to ensure safety of his equipment in consumer’s premises.

RULE 31 : Supplier to provide cutouts at consumer’s premises and a cutout

shall also be provided by the owner.

RULE 32 : Proper distinction between live, neutral and earth conductors.

RULE 33 : Supplier to provide and maintain earthing terminal at consumer

premises. In case of MV, HV or EHV installations the consumer
shall, in addition to supplier earthing arrangement provide his own
earthing system with an independent earth electrode.

RULE 34 : Owner shall ensure that bare conductors used in the buildings are
inaccessible as well as to provide in readily accessible position
suitable switches for rendering them dead.

RULE 35 : Danger notice in Hindi or English and local language.

RULE 36 : Before any conductor or apparatus is handled adequate

precautions shall be taken, by earthing or other suitable means to
discharge electrically such conductor.

• Working persons shall be provided with all necessary safety

devices and tools.
• No persons shall work or shall assist any person to work on
electrical apparatus unless he is authorized in that behalf.
RULE 41 : Electrical circuit must be identified/labeled.

RULE 43 : Provision of fire buckets filled with clean dry sand, fire
extinguishers, first aid boxes, gas masks etc.

RULE 44 : Refers to instructions for restoration of persons suffering from

shock.

RULE 44A : Intimation of electrical accidents which could have resulted in loss
of life are to be reported to the Electrical Inspector.

10
RULE 45 : No person other than Licensed Electrical Contractors and
Supervisors having certificate of competency shall carry out
electrical installation work, including addition and alternation,
repairs etc. on the premises of or on behalf of any consumer,
supplier, owner or occupier.

RULE 46 : Periodical inspection of electrical installation word “Consumer” has

been deleted from the title w.e.f. 11th November, 2000. Also
periodical inspection of HV and EHV installations of Supplier have
been included.

RULE 47 : Supplier to test the installations before connecting the supply or

reconnecting.

RULE 47 A : Approval is required for DG sets of capacity exceeding 10KW.

RULE 48 : The minimum insulation resistance values before charging shall be

as follows :

LV and MV – At least 1MEGA-Ohm or as specified in the relevant

BIS specification, at a pressure of 500 V DC applied between live
conductor and earth for a period of 1 minute.

HV – At least 5 MEGA-Ohm or as specified in the relevant BIS

specification, at a pressure of 2.5KV DC applied between each live
conductor and earth for a period of 1 minute.

RULE 50 : (i) Circuit breaker shall be provided on primary side of all

transformers having a capacity of 5000 KVA and above and
installed before the commencement o the I.E.(Amendment-1)
Rule, 2000 and having capacity 1000 KVA and above and
installed on or after the commencement of the I.E.
(Amendment – 1) Rule, 2000.

(ii) Circuit breakers of adequate rating shall be installed on the

secondary side o all the Transformers transforming HV to
EHV, MV or LV, installed on or after the commencement of
I.E. (Amendment – 1) Rule, 2000.

In respect o suppliers transformers of capacity above 630 KVA

shall be provided with circuit breakers on the secondary side.

11
RULE : Minimum safety working clearances shall be maintained for bare
64(2)(a)(ii) conductors excluding overhead lines,

Highest system voltage Safety working Clearance

(metres)
12KV 2.6
36KV 2.8
72.5KV 3.1
145KV 3.7
245KV 4.3
420KV 6.4
800KV 10.3

RULE for :

Transformer IS : 10028 (Part III) 1981

Maintenance

Switchgear : IS : 10118 (Part IV) 1982

Maintenance

RULE 64(2)(e)(iv) : Only dry transformer shall be installed indoors at

residential/commercial buildings.
RULE 64(2)(f) : Substation installation at basement

¾ Room shall be at the first basement at the periphery of the

basement
¾ Fire proof door or fire check door with 2 hours fire resistance

¾ Curb to prevent flow of oil and direct access to transformer

from outside
¾ Nitrogen injection and drain method in addition to other
options like water spray or CO2 or BCF or BTM
¾ Oil filled transformers not above ground or below first
basement.

RULE 64A : Additional safety provision for use of energy at HV and EHV
(Interlocking and protective relays)

RULE 64(A)(2)(e) : With effect from Nov. 2000 in addition to Buchholz (Gas
pressure type) protection, oil temperature and winding
temperature protection to give alarm and trip protection has
been made mandatory for transformers of rating 1000 KVA
and above.

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RULE 64(A)(2)(f) : High speed busbar differential protection and local breaker
back up protection has been made mandatory at all 220KV
substation/switchyard w.e.f. Nov.2000.

RULE 67(5)(b) : Earthing systems are to be tested once a year on a dry day in
a dry season.
RULE 70 : Condensers

RULE 71 : Additional provisions for supply to high voltage luminous tube

sigh installation.
RULE 72 : Additional provisions for supply to high voltage electrode
boilers.
RULE 73 : Additional provisions for supply to X-ray and high frequency
installation
RULE 77 : Clearance of lowest conductor above ground.
across street
¾ Low and Medium voltage lines 5.8m
¾ High voltage lines 6.1m

along a street

¾ Low and Medium voltage lines 5.5m

¾ High voltage lines 5.8m
any where else.

¾ Low, medium and high voltage lines 4.6m

upto11kv if bare
¾ Low, medium and high if insulated 4.0m
¾ High voltage above 11 kv. 5.2m

For extra high voltage lines clearance shall not be less than
5.2m plus 0.3m for every 33 kv or part thereof subject to a
minimum of 6.1m

RULE 79 : Clearances of OH lines from buildings

¾ Horizontal clearance of 1.2 metres
¾ Vertical clearance of 2.5 metres

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 RULE 80 : Clearances of HV & EHV lines from buildings

Clearances > 11KV upto 33KV EHV > 33 KV

Vertical 3.7 3.7 + 0.3 for every 33KV
Horizontal 2.0 2.0 + 0.3 for every 33KV

RULE 81 : Conductors at different voltages on same support.

RULE 82 : Errection of or alteration to buildings, structures, flood banks

and elevation of roads.
: Contravention of Rules 77, 79 or 80 Person/Contractor is
responsible, penalty under Rule 140A.

RULE 85 : Maximum interval between supports

It shall not exceed 65 m except by prior approval of Inspector.

NB: For details refer IE Act 2003 and The Electricity Rules 2005

FORM FOR REPORTING ELECTRICAL ACCIDENT

(Under Rule 44A - The Electricity Rules 2005)

1 Date and time of accident :

2 Place of accident and district :
3 System and voltage of supply :
4 Name of the Licensee or person /
persons or supplier or user of energy in
whose premises or jurisdiction the
accident occurred:
5 a) (i) Name of person :
(ii) Animal (Pl. specify name and address
of owner)
Names of persons Killed or injured
b) Address of such /each person(s) :
:
:
:

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6 Occupation and designation of such :
person / persons (and in particular
whether employed in electrical works or
elsewhere
7 Brief description of job undertaken if any :
8 Authority under which such person / :
persons was / were allowed to work on
the job. State also whether he/they was /
were authorised person/persons
9 Describe fully nature and extent of :
injuries, e.g. fatal, disablement of any
portion of body or other injuries etc
10 Detailed causes leading to the accident :
11 Action taken regarding First Aid, medical :
attendance etc, immediately after the
occurrence of the accident
12 Whether appropriate Government, District :
Magistrate and Police Station informed. (if
so give the address)
13 Steps taken to preserve the evidence in :
connection with the accident, to the
extent possible
14 Name and designation/s of the person/s :
assisting the person/s killed or injured
15 What safety equipment were give to and :
used by the person/s who met with this
accident (e.g. rubber gloves, rubber mats
safety belts and ladders etc)
16 Whether isolating devices and other :
sectionalizing devices were employed to
deaden the section for working on the
same. If so whether these were earthed
17 Whether the work on live lines were :
undertaken by an authorized person/s. If
so the name and designations of such
person/s may be given

18 Whether artificial resuscitation was given :

to the person who met with electric
accident. If yes how long was it continued
before abandonment
19 Steps proposed to be taken to avoid :
recurrence
20 Names and designations of persons :
present at the time of the accident

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21 Any other remarks :

Statutory Requirements
• All the switchgear panels should be labeled with voltage level indicating caution
boards.
• Rubber mat should be placed in front of all electrical panels.
• Proper and clear nomenclature indicating the identity of the feeder, line or equipment
should be marked on each equipments conspicuously.
• In the event of indoor switchgears, adequate level of illumination and ventilation
should be maintained.
• All the indoor switchgear rooms should be kept clean and tidy. Unwanted and
unnecessary accumulation of materials should be avoided.
• No explosive. Inflammable substances should be stored within the enclosed
compartment.
• All the metallic equipment supporting structures, switchgear panels and metallic
enclosures should be solidly earthed with at least two distinct conductors.
• Smoke detectors should be installed at all indoor units and should be checked on
regular basis. Sufficient portable type of fire extinguishers should be installed.
• All the switchgear panels should have a firm enclosure. Any cut outs or opening
should be properly sealed and prevent entry of dust or vermin within the panels
which are potential sources of electrical short circuits.
Leakage
All insulation is intended to achieve one purpose, namely, to cause the electric current to
flow along a pre-determined path. When due to failure of the insulation the current goes
astray, it is called “leakage”. Fault current is the general name given to such current , when
instead of flowing along the desired path it flows to earth or another conductor. a leakage
current is usually of small value. The test under Rule 48 is to ensure that such leakage
currents are well within limits so as to be safe. Leakage protection systems such as ELCBs
are available which are responsive to very small leakage currents.

16
 CENTRAL ELECTRICITY AUTHORITY
(MEASURES RELATING TO SAFETY AND ELECTRIC SUPPLY)
REGULATIONS, 2010
Chapter I: Rule 1 to 2: Preliminaries, such as definitions of different expressions used
in rules,
Chapter II
Rule 3: Designating person(s) to operate and carry out the work on electrical lines and
apparatus
Rule 4: Inspection of designated officers and other safety measures
Rule 5: Electrical Safety Officer
Rule 6: Safety measures for operation and maintenance of electric plants
Rule 7: Safety measures for operation and maintenance of transmission, distribution
systems
Rule 8: Keeping of records and inspection there of
Rule 9: Deposit of maps
Rule 10:Deposit of printed copies
Rule 11: Plan for area of supply to be made and kept open for inspection

Chapter III: General safety requirements

Rule 12: General safety requirements, pertaining to construction, installation,

protection, operation and maintenance of electric supply lines apparatus
Rule 13: Service lines and apparatus on consumer’s premises
Rule 14: Switchgear on consumer’s premises
Rule 15: Identification of earthed and earthed neutral conductors and position of
switches and switchgear therein
Rule 16: Earthed terminal on consumer’s premises
Rule 17: Accessibility of bare conductors
Rule 18: Danger Notices
Rule 19: Handling of electric supply lines and apparatus
Rule 20: Supply to vehicles and cranes
Rule 21: Cables for portable or transportable apparatus
Rule 22: Cables protected by bituminous materials
Rule 23: Street boxes
Rule 24: Distinction of different circuits
Rule 25: Distinction of the installations having more than one feed

17
Rule 26: Accidental charging
Rule 27: Provisions applicable to protective equipment.
Rule 28: Display of instructions for resuscitation of persons suffering from electric shock
Rule 29:Precautions to be adopted by consumers, owners, occupiers, electrical
contractors, electrical workmen and suppliers
Rule 30: Periodical inspection and testing of Installations
Rule 31: Testing of consumer's installation
Rule 32: Installation and testing of generating units

Chapter IV : General conditions relating to supply and use of electricity

Rule 33: Precautions against leakage before connection.
Rule 34: Leakage on consumer's premises.
Rule 35:Supply and use of electricity.
Rule 36: Provisions for supply and use of electricity in multi-storied building more than
15 meters in height.
Rule 37: Conditions applicable to installations of voltage exceeding 250 Volts.
Rule 38: Appeal to Electrical Inspector in regard to defects.
Rule 39: Precautions against failure of supply and notice of failures.

Chapter V : Safety provisions for electrical installations and apparatus of voltage

not exceeding 650 volts

Rule 40: Test for resistance of insulation.

Rule 41: Connection with earth.
Rule 42: Earth leakage protective device.

Chapter VI: Safety provisions for electrical installations and apparatus of voltage
exceeding 650 volts

Rule 43: Approval by Electrical Inspector.

Rule 44: Use of electricity at voltage exceeding 650 Volts.
Rule 45: Inter-locks and protection for use of electricity at voltage exceeding 650 Volts.
Rule 46: Testing, Operation and Maintenance.

Rule 47: Precautions to be taken against excess leakage in case of metal sheathed
electric supply lines.
Rule 48: Connection with earth for apparatus exceeding 650V.
Rule 49: General conditions as to transformation and control of electricity.
Rule 50: Pole type sub-stations .
Rule 51: Condensers.

18
Rule 52: Supply to luminous tube sign installations of voltage exceeding 650 Volts but
not exceeding 33 k.
Rule 53: Supply to electrode boilers of voltage exceeding 650 Volt but not exceeding 33
kV.
Rule 54: Supply to X-ray and high frequency installations.

Chapter VII : Safety requirements for overhead lines, underground cables and
generating stations
Rule 55: Material and strength.
Rule 56: Joints.
Rule 57: Maximum stresses and factors of safety.
Rule 58: Clearance above ground of the lowest conductor of overhead lines.
Rule 59: Clearance between conductors and trolley wires.
Rule 60: Clearance from buildings of lines of voltage and service lines not exceeding
650 Volts.
Rule 61: Clearances from buildings of lines of voltage exceeding 650 V.
Rule 62: Conductors at different voltages on same supports.
Rule 63:Erection or alteration of buildings, structures, flood banks and elevation of
roads.
Rule 64: Transporting and storing of material near overhead lines.
Rule 65: General clearances.
Rule 66:Routes proximity to aerodromes.
Rule 67: Maximum interval between supports.
Rule 68: Conditions to apply where telecommunication lines and power lines are carried
on same supports.
Rule 69: Lines crossing or approaching each other and lines crossing street and road.
Rule 70: Guarding.
Rule 71:Service lines from overhead lines.
Rule 72: Earthing.
Rule 73: Safety and protective devices.
Rule 74: Protection against lightning.
Rule 75: Unused overhead lines.
Rule 76: Laying of cables.
Rule 77: Protection against electromagnetic interference.

19
 Chapter VIII
Safety requirements for Electric Traction
Rule 78: Application of chapter.
Rule 79: Voltage of supply to vehicle.
Rule 80: Insulation of lines.
Rule 81: Insulation of returns.
Rule 82: Proximity to metallic pipes.
Rule 83: Difference of potential on return.
Rule 84: Leakage on conduit system.
Rule 85: Leakage on system other than conduit system.
Rule 86: Passengers not to have access to electric circuit.
Rule 87: Isolation of sections.
Rule 88: Minimum size and strength of trolley wire.
Rule 89: Height of trolley wire and length of span.
Rule 90: Earthing of guard wires.
Rule 91: Proximity to magnetic observatories and laboratories.
Rule 92: Records.

Chapter IX
Safety requirements for mines and oil fields
Rule 93: Application of chapter.
Rule 94: Responsibility for observance.
Rule 95: Notices.
Rule 96: Plans.
Rule 97: Lighting, overhead lines, communication and fire precautions.
Rule 98: Isolation and fixing of transformer and switchgear.
Rule 99: Method of earthing.
Rule 100: Protective equipment.
Rule 101: Earthing metals.
Rule 102: Voltage limits.
Rule 103: Transformers.
Rule 104: Switchgear and terminals.
Rule 105: Disconnection of supply.

20
Rule 106: Cables.
Rule 107: Flexible cables.
Rule 108: Portable and transportable machines.
Rule 109: Sundry precautions.
Rule 110: Precautions where gas exists.
Rule 111: Shot-firing.
Rule 112: Signalling.
Rule 113: Haulage.
Rule 114: Earthing of neutral points .
Rule 115: Supervision.
Chapter X
Miscellaneous
Rule 116: Deviations

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 3. ELECTRICAL SAFETY IN POWER GENERATION,
TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION

There are a number of ways of generating electrical power. The most popular in use are
hydraulic, thermal and nuclear. Power is normally generated at a high voltage, stepped up by
transformers and then transmitted to the receiving stations of the Power supply companies, who
in turn distribute the same to various consumers, after the voltage is suitably stepped down.

Some of the main hazards in Generation and Distribution are:

• Electrical: Discharge in voids leading to erosion, normal and transient over voltages,
switching and lightening surges, overfluxing and underexcitation, over/under voltage
operations.
• Mechanical: Vibrations and differential expansion leading to insulation damage, external
shortcircuits.
• Thermal: Overloading thermal cycles, degradation of insulating oil, insulating mica/resin
bonds.
• Chemical: Oxidation of organic insulation, electro-chemical deterioration.
• Environmental: Pollution, humidity, moisture ingress, high ambient temperature, chemical /
corrosive atmosphere.
Electrical Equipment

Selection: Most items of electrical equipment are designed and built for specific types of
services. They will operate with maximum efficiency and safety only when used for the purposes
and under conditions for which they are intended. In selection of equipment, it is advisable to
follow the recommendations of the engineering consultant services, manufacturers, various
codes and standards, etc.

Installation: Group operated disconnects, circuit breakers, current transformers, potential

transformers, power communication station transformers, power line carrier communication
equipment, rectifier, motor generator sets, capacitors, condensers, generators, bus bars, cable
dividing boxes and other electrical equipment should be so installed that the possibility of
accidental contact with energised parts is totally avoided. When an interlock is used as a safety
device, it should be fail-safe i.e. steps must be taken to ensure that failure of the device will not
jeopardise the safety of personnel doing the operations.

Interlocks selected should meet the following standards: -

• Fail-safe features i.e. failure or malfunction of the interlock mechanism will inhibit the normal
operation.
• Tamper Proof.

22
Where space and operating requirements permit, electrical equipment should be placed in less
congested areas of the plant or, where practicable in the place to which only authorised and
competent persons who have full knowledge about the operating instructions of the equipment
and the plants, have access. If the current carrying parts must be exposed, they should be
made inaccessible by elevating them at least three metres above the work area. Enclosures or
guards should be provided to prevent contact. In addition, warning signs should be displayed
near exposed current carrying parts and particularly in hazardous areas, such as high voltage
installation. These signs should be large enough to attract attention and should be visible from
all approaches to the danger zone.

Group Operated Disconnects

Group operated disconnects are primarily meant for isolation of some equipment. They are not
normally designed to make or break load currents. If attempts are made to interrupt load
current, besides severe arcing, it can create a phase to phase or phase to ground fault, thus
endangering the equipment as well as the operator. Similar hazard can occur while closing the
GOD as well.

Safe Practices in Transmission

The Following Safety Devices shall be used on Overhead Transmission Lines.

• Fuses and Isolating Switches to isolate different parts of the overhead system.
• Lightning arresters are provided at the ends of HT and EHT transmission and distribution
lines and at every point of tapping. Choke coils are also sometimes used (IE rule no.72). A
continuous earth wire running on top of the towers serves as a protection against lightning
discharges.
• IE Rule No.91 stipulates that every un-insulated line erected in a public place shall be
provided with an approved device rendering the line safe if it should break. In order to
comply with this rule, ‘vee’ guards are often provided below bare over-head lines running
along or across public streets, so that if any one of the lines should snap and fall down, it will
come in contact with the earthed guard below, trip the circuit breaker feeding the lines and
thus render them safe.
• Guard wires must be provided above or below power lines when they cross telephone
or telegraph lines. The guard lines must be galvanized and have a minimum breaking
strength of 1400lb which corresponds to SWG galvanized steel wires. ( IE Rule 86 & 88 ).
Minimum vertical clearance between any conductor and guard wire should be 300mm for
low and medium voltages, 600mm for 11 kV, 900mm feet for 33kV, 1.2m for 66kV and 1.8m
for 110kV.
• The guard wires and steel structure must be solidly connected to earth. Cross wires must be
provided, between the main guard wires at frequent intervals. An earth plate should also be
provided to each end of the span.
• Vibration dampers shall be provided.

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Grounding

It is necessary to provide earthing in the Generating / Receiving /sub-stations for safety of

personnel and equipment. Earthing is making connection to the general mass of the earth .
Earthing has the following functions.

• Providing the ground connection for grounded neutral systems.

• Providing the discharge path for lightening arresters.
• Ensuring that non-current carrying parts, such as equipment frames, are always at ground
potential even if the insulation fails.
• Providing the means of discharging / de-energising equipment before releasing it for
maintenance.
The following are the equipment, which are to be grounded safely:

• The neutral point of equipment is earthed to the station grounding grid either directly or
through reactor or through grounding transformers.
• Apparatus, frame work and other non- current carrying metal work associated with power
system e.g. generators, transformers, circuit breakers, control panel frame etc are grounded
safely.
• Metal frame work not associated with the power system e.g. boundary fence, steel structure,
sheaths of communication cables are grounded directly. This is required to provide ground
path for any induction, leakage, direct lightening flash over etc.
• Lightening arrestor shall have independent grounding of their own so as to ensure high
discharge currents are passed on the earth.

Certification of Personnel

The selection of workers for electrical work is highly important. Their training and
attitude towards the responsibility involved are no less important. As in many hazardous
jobs, method employed to work on electrical equipment must conform to Rules and
codes practice laid down. Only appropriately certified personnel must be permitted to
work on electrical equipment and installations and supervisory personnel must ensure
that suitable protective equipment are uses particularly while working on live parts.

DOWN STREAM DISTRIBUTION OF POWER

Down stream distribution of power for various requirements such as industrial power and
lighting is done through distribution and sub- distribution board. Wiring is done through conduits
or open wiring, providing control points at convenient locations as demanded by operational
needs, taking into account appropriate safety aspects and bearing in mind the codes that
govern these aspects as well the statutory regulations.

24
 CHECKLIST

1 Is a single line diagram of the entire network of distribution

beginning from the supplier’s receiving point available?
2 Is the layout drawing starting with the point of receiving supply
room, substation, transformer bay and building floors, shop
floors etc showing wiring either open or conduit available?
3 Are test certificates approved by the supply company available?
4 Have the relevant codes of practice in the manufacture of
Switchgear, transformer, distribution boards, wiring and
terminations and earthing been meticulously followed?
5 When was the unit last inspected by the Electrical Inspector?
Approval / comments of the Inspectorate?
6 Is the pf well above the penalty level?
7 Are suitable capacitors installed to maintain a healthy power
factor?
8 Has the production unit flammable gases emanated in any area-
If so are appropriate flame proof wiring and equipment being
used in that area?
9 Are the personnel in charge of maintenance suitably qualified
with supervisory license?
10 What is the total connected load?
11 Is the consumption being staggered to give a good load factor?
12 Are ELCBs provided at sub distribution points?
13 If the wiring for lighting and small power is above false ceiling is
adequate care taken for earthing and joints to prevent fire
hazard?
14 Are on-the-table power outlets for computers etc adequately
safe?
15 Have there been any accident/incident associated with the
Electrical System provided?

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Internal Electrical Installation in Buildings

The following safety aspects may be borne in mind with regard to electrical installation in
building, offices, workshops etc.

1. It is essential to carry out a thorough inspection of the entire installation in buildings,

offices, and workshops.
2. Every part of the installation should be checked by a responsible official and preferably
recorded in a register or entered in a tabulated form. In brief this consists of the following
inspections.
a. Service connection
b. Main Switch Board
c. Internal wiring and its insulation.
d. Earth tests and bonding.
e. Switches and Fuses.
f. Portable apparatus
g. Fire precautions
If the annual inspections are carried out conscientiously, most of the defects come to light and
could be corrected before they result in a serious breakdown or accident. Some of these defects
would perhaps be installation defects and a few even due to faulty design. Both these aspects
will, therefore, have to be borne in mind, when carrying out inspections.

***

26
 4. SAFETY FEATURES IN ELECTRICAL CONTROL & SWITCHGEARS

A) Supply to Control

Use of DC supply for electrical controls should ensure –

• Achievement of finer voltage control and a steady voltage for control purpose.
• Availability of independent source of supply in the event of failure of AC supply.
• Normal supply of DC to control circuits is through the rectifier units with AC input.
• DC supply standby is obtained from batteries with desired/designed AMP hour
capacity.
• The batteries are always kept trickle charged and the specific gravity of the
electrolite and per cell voltage is monitored on a very daily basis.
• The pilot cells chosen for monitoring the above parameters are regularly
changed.
• Control supply batteries are subjected to discharge tests to ensure their
healthiness and AMP hour capacity.
• DC ground protection is given to prevent draining of the batteries.

DC supply is normally given to incoming lines, high voltage feeders, transformer &
switchgear protections to keep the control supply available in the event of AC failure
such as in grid failures, bus faults, fault in transformer & circuit breakers etc.

• 110 V AC supply is used for the control of 415 V switchgears.

B) Some salient features of switchgear controls

• 220 V DC control supply has fuses which are segregated for closing coil and
tripping coil to increase the reliability of the supply.
• All the wires are properly ferruled and terminated in a terminal box in the
switchgear.
• The wire of the control relay mounted on the breaker are properly bunched and
enrooted on the sides of the breaker.
• Adequate ventilation and illumination is provided in the indoor switchgear
compartment so that working becomes easy and safe.
• Some detectors and fire fighting equipments are also provided in the switchgear
compartment.

27
 Some of the typical protections provided :

Transformers

i) Differential protection
ii) Bucholtz protection
iii) Over current protection
iv) High winding trip
v) Rapid Pressure rise trip
The feeders are provided with protections such as :

i) Over current
ii) Earth fault etc.

The transmission lines, protection is :

i) Distance relay protection

ii) Phase comparison protection

All the indoor switchgears are totally enclosed and indoor buses are segregated and
insulated. Hence chances of flashover and tracking are reduced.

C. Indication provided to the switchgears

• ‘CLOSE’, ‘OPEN’ breaker in service/test position, spring charged, lockout relay

healthy, control supply, supervisory indication.
• Indicating meters such as AMP, Volt, MW meters are provided to monitor the
voltage and current level at all times.
• All faults and abnormalities are annunciated with audible alarm in the control
room.
D. Switch gears
• Normally breaker and control circuit compartments are segregated. Hence while
working on control circuit, the high voltage compartment of the switchgear need
not be opened.
• For SF6 breakers, interrupter, chamber gas pressure is monitored and is wired
for alarm in control room. Also for SF6 breakers tripped is provided at safe
pressure of the SF6 gas. This ensures that the breaker is not called on to
operate dangerously at low pressure. There is also an interlock to prevent
closing of the breaker unless SF6 pressure in adequate.
• Similar features and interlocks are available with low air pressure pneumatically
operated breakers.
• In case of EHV lines ‘SWITCH ON TO FAULT’ protection is provided. When the
breaker is being closed, the over current relay is automatically sensitized and if
closed onto a fault line/feeder, the breaker trips instantaneously.

28
• Anti-pumping feature is provided to prevent repeated close-open operation of the
breaker in case the breaker is closed on fault.
E. Interlocks
• These are provided normally to prevent a wrong operation or an out of sequence
operation of switchgear or equipment.
• To prevent an operation under critical conditions such as low gas pressure or low
oil conditions etc.
• The breaker compartment should not be opened unless the breaker is opened
and isolated.
• The breaker is interlocked with the earth switch such that only one of the two is
closed at a time.
• In case of indoor breakers, an interlock is provided so that the breakers can be
racked in or out in the open condition. If the breaker is racked in closed
condition, the breaker trips automatically. Further, the breaker can be closed
only in the fully racked (service) position or in the test position and not in an
intermediate position.
F. Transformers & Auxiliaries
High capacity Transformers should be provided with

• Rapid pressure relay

• Spring loaded pressure relief devices with alarm/trip arrangement.
• Fire detectors and automatic sprinkler arrangement for as effective cooling and
fire fighting arrangement in case of fire in or around transformer.
• Soak pit arrangement at the base of the transformer to effectively drain and
transfer the burnt oil to a Burnt Oil Tank (BOT) with proper gradient (at least
1:90) of the interconnecting pipeline.
• Submersible pumps installed in BOT to effectively expel the accumulated rain
water in main drain system.
• Fire barrier walls between two successive transformers to restrict the fire from
spreading to adjoining equipment.
• Automatic shut down of cooling arrangement when transformer trips to restrict
the fire
• Sturdy bushings with separate (segregated) oil arrangement.
• Protection under earthquake/seismic disturbances by providing earth quake
locking arrangement by effectively bolting transformer main body with its
foundation.
• OLTC providing separate oil tank and conservator arrangement with Bucholtz
relay.

29
G. Generators & Auxiliaries
i. Generator Stator is protected with -

a) Stator E/F relay

b) Differential relay

ii. Generator Rotor is protected with -

a) Rotor E/F relay

b) –ve sequence relay
c) Loss of excitation relay.
iii. Hydrogen tightness test : Both the stator and rotor should be proved for
adequate tightness.
iv. Seal oil system : DC emergency seal oil pump as a back up protection to
AC seal oil system. This will prevent escape of H2 through bearing thus
protecting the white metal seals.
v. Other auxiliaries : Excitation system with brushes to be regularly
maintained and checked for sparking etc.

H. Plant Electrical System

HT & LT Motors :

i) Should be totally enclosed and cooled by fan.

ii) High bearing/winding temporary alarms along with trip arrangement for
HT motors.
I. DC System
Battery stand should be seismic proof .

J. Switchgear/Panels/Bus bars
• These should be vermin proof.
• Bus bars should be insulated and bus bar ducts should be vermin proof.
• Firm and effective earth bonding to panels and switchgears.
• Provision of CO2 flooding arrangement in Control Panels.
K. Power Cables
• Should be of Fire Resistant Low Smoke (FRLS) type
• Power cables should be segregated from control, instrumentation &
communication cables.
• No earth conductors should neither fall in or cross through the cable trenches.
• Entry points of the cables through building walls/flooring should be effectively
sealed with fireproof sealing material.

***

30
 5. SELECTION AND INSTALLATION OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Selection of the right type of electrical equipment is of utmost importance in achieving the
objective of the installation. The most important criteria in selection of the right equipment are
the following.

• The purpose for which the equipment is to installed.

• The environment under which the equipment will be installed and used

The Purpose for Which the Equipment is to Installed

When selecting an electrical equipment the purpose for which it is selected must be clear in
mind. Some of the parameter in selecting certain important equipment are mentioned below as
an example. However the reader is advised to ascertain the purpose accurately as this will not
only ensure safety but also economy and reliability. The examples given below are only guide
lines and certainly not a complete selection list.

Static Equipments
Transformer

Before selecting a the right transformer the buyer will have to make sure the following points are
taken care of.

• Is it meant for out door or indoor installation

• The power rating of the transformer
• The primary and secondary voltage
• The types of protection required
• On load or off load tap changer
• Certain requirements are statutorily required depending on the power rating. These need to
be checked out with the relevant IS code and Indian electricity Rules.
• Manufacturer’s test certificate for routine as well as type tests.
HT Switch-board

• The HT Switch–board consists:

• The incoming switch gear
• The outgoing switch gears
• The metering devices
• The protective relays
• The metallic enclosure
• The bus bars

31
• The control wiring etc.
• In selecting the kind of switch-gear required a host of choices are available today in the
market. However one needs to know the following before arriving at the exact requirement.
• The rupturing capacity of the system which depends on the highest level of short-circuit fault
level.
• The power and voltage requirement.
• The protections required.
• The type of tripping during the fault.
• Specifications regarding enclosure, including the type of painting.
• Whether it is an OCB, SF6 or Vacuum or any other.
• The metering requirements.
The LT switch board parameters are very similar to the HT and therefore not being repeated
here. However the LT switch board will also contain the out going LT switch fuse units or
breakers which need to be selected depending on the load they cater to downstream.

Again a host of choices are available in selecting the outgoing switch gear on the LT board such
as HRC sw-fuse units, draw out type switch units, MCCBs. Etc etc

Selection will depend purely on the needs.

Panels for down stream distribution

Today a wide choice is available for down stream distribution hardware such as enclosed type
of panels, unit type of distribution boards, miniature circuit breaker mounted sub distribution
board.

Very robust or elegant and aesthetically pleasing sub-distribution and control switch gear
depending on whether required for industrial industrial purpose or office interiors.

Rotary Equipment

Motors

In selecting motors again the following need to be borne in mind:

• The HP rating
• The type of duty whether continuous or otherwise
• HT or LT
• Type of insulation
• The appropriate IS code to which it must conform
• While selecting motors the appropriate starter must also be selected.

32
Environment Criteria in selection

In selecting an electrical equipment the environment in which the equipment is to be installed

also has a bearing. For example as already indicated above the transformer could be out door
type or indoor. Similarly the environment may be dusty, or humid and wet, or could be having
hazardous gases. There is a chapter on equipments for hazardous atmosphere in this course
material. Dust proof and drip proof equipments are also available.

While selecting the equipment for a specific environment, the relevant Indian Standard must be
followed.

Installation
We shall be considering the substation equipments here. It will be appreciated that it will not be
possible to cover every equipment in this treatment. There may be specific requirement unique
to a certain equipment an the reader is advised to go by the manufacturer’s recommendation
for such cases.

Transformer
Transformer is one of the most important equipments in a sub-station. Since they operate
without moving parts, generally a simple foundation is satisfactory, provided it is firm; horizontal
and dry. The transformer should not rock or bed-down unevenly so as to tilt, as this may strain
the connections. The base should be horizontal to keep the oil level correct.

For out door installations, a level concrete plinth above the maximum flood or storm water level
of the site, of correct size to accommodate the transformer in such a way so that no person
may step on the plinth, with if necessary, bearing plates of sufficient size and strength, should
be provided for transformers. Where rollers are fitted, suitable rails or tracks should be provided
and when the transformer is in final position, the wheels should be locked by locks or other
means to prevent accidental movement of the transformer. Where full height partition walls are
built adequate clearances should be provided.

a) Indoor sites
i) The most important thing to be ensured with transformer installed indoors is proper
ventilation, that free movement of air round all the four sides. The level of the
transformer base should be higher than the highest flood and storm water level of
that area.
ii) The transformer should be kept well away from the wall. The minimum
recommended spacing between the walls of the transformer periphery from the point
of proper ventilation.
b) Cabling
i) Cable trenches inside substations and switch stations containing cables shall be
filled with sand, pebbles or similar non-inflammable materials, or completely covered
with non-inflammable slabs.
ii) Cables may also be carried along the walls clamped on the vertical and supports at
suitable intervals depending on the cable sizes. Cross-over of cables should be

33
 minimum. Power and control cables should never be run in the same conduit or
cable tray.
iii) The cables should be exposed to heat from other equipment. Cable trenches should
be given proper slope, so that easy drainage of water takes place.
c) Bushings and Cable Boxes
i) Bushings: If the bushings are removed from the transformer they should be carefully
inspected for cracks or chips before installing them and making sure that gaskets are
in proper places.
ii) Cable boxes: If the transformer is fitted with cable boxes and is to be connected by
paper insulated cables, the cable ends should be sealed to prevent their absorbing
moisture. They should be filled with compound or oil.
d) Connections
i) Medium voltage: Both cables and bare connections may be used. Where metallic
casings are used, no joints should be made in the cable or wire. All metallic casings,
fittings, sheathing and armouring shall be efficiently earthed.
ii) High voltage: The connection by insulated cables for high voltage side of
transformer, if laid in a covered trench inside a building, shall be by suitable paper
insulated lead-sheathed and armoured or aluminium sheathed or other suitable types
of cables.
iii) Bare connections: In medium and high voltage sub-stations particularly where the
magnitudes of currents are large, bare conductors of copper or aluminium may have
to used for connection to the transformer terminals.

Installation of Switch Gear

The switch gear consists of a circuit breaker, bus-bars, potential transformers, current
transformers and other components. Generally for medium voltage and unto 11KV. Draw-out
type indoor switch gear is used. Each unit of this type will consist a cable box. At the time of
opening the circuit breaker the operator, trips the circuit breaker manually, the circuit breaker is
then lowered and truck is drawn out.

Following are the requirements for installing the switch gear of this type:

(a) The floor should be correctly leveled and marked according to the drawing.
(b) During flooring Holes should provide for foundation bolts and trenches and passages
areprovided for cables and other pipe lines.
(c) The assembly is erected vertically, it should be checked by means of level and packing
pieces should be added in the base plate for obtaining proper level.
(d) If there are number of such units, the bus-bars and earthing bus should be connected to
the neighbouring units.
(e) Earthing bus should be connected to the station earthing bus
(f) Checking of polarity of current transformer and potential transformer is required
(g) See that oil is filled unto upto required level; and there are no loose nuts and bolts

34
(h) Checking of rising mechanism by manual operation
(i) Checking movement of draw unit.

Earthing
No installation of an electrical equipment or installation is complete unless proper earthing as
per the relevant code of practice is done. Since earthing forms a separate section in this course
material it is not dealt in detail here.

TRANSFORMERS

Transformers are used either for stepping up or stepping down the voltage level. In the
generating stations they are used for stepping up the voltage and at the receiving stations they
are used for stepping down the voltage. Normally a transformer is sturdy equipment. If it is
operated as per its rating and within the voltage, frequency and temperature limits there are no
hazards.

If a transformer trips out particularly by the action of the Buchholz relay, it should never be test
charged unless it is proved healthy by carrying out other necessary tests. Charging a faulty
transformer may aggravate the fault and may lead to severe damage beyond repair and also
cause fire.

While isolating transformers to which potential transformers are connected, such potential
transformers shall be isolated and low-tension fuses are removed to prevent any possibility of
transformer being made live through synchronising or voltmeter plug. Before commencing any
work on the transformer the transformer winding should be discharged to ground.

Checklist for safety of transformers and operators:

1 Do the transformers have manufacturer’s Test Certificate with tests carried

out as per code of practice.?
2 Do the transformers have protections such as Buchholz relay, E/F relay,
O/C relay, protection against over volatge, undervoltage and Single
phasing.?
3 Are the earhings such as Neutral and Body provided as per IS 3043.? Are
the earthings tested as per code of practice.?
4 Soak pit if warranted is provided or not

5 If there are more than one transformer, are they separated by suitable
brickwalls covering well above the height of the transformer.?
6 If installed outdoors are they fenced fully on all sides.?

35
7 Is the transformer Bay free of all articles such as tins, oil drums, rags, oil
spillage, etc. (potential fire hazards.)?
8 Is adequate number of fire extinguishers of suitable type provided.?

9 Are the drawings of the transformer installation and other installation itself
approved by the Electrical Inspector?
10 Are caution boards indicating voltage and danger provided?

11 Are the HT and LT terminations done properly?

12 On the LT side if bus bar chamber is provided is it done properly?

13 Check on preventive maintenance schedule and procedure.?

14 Are the transformers installed on sufficiently high foundations to allow for oil
drainage and maintenance.?
15 Is there a minimum clearance of 3ft all around the transformers?

The Standard Fittings provided on a Transformer are listed below as a Guide to

Inspection:

Item Fitted with

1 Inspection Cover 1000 kva and above

2 Rating Plate All transformers
3 Terminal Marking Plate All transformers
4 Two Earthing Terminals All transformers
5 Drain valve with plug 25 kva and above
6 Lifting Lugs All transformers
7 Dehydrating Breather For transformers above25 kva if the transformer is
rated less than or equal to 11kv and if the
transformer is rated above 11kv for all transformers.
8 Oil Level Indicator with All transformers
marking of min.level
9 Thermometer Pocket All transformers
10 Oil filling hole and cap All transformers
11 Conservator with air release For transformers above 50 kva if the transformer is
device rated less than or equal to 11kv and if the
transformer is rated above 11kv for all transformers.
12 Jacking Lugs Transformer above 3000 kg. in wt.
13 Filter valve Transformers above 1000 kva

36
 Type test and routine test on Transformers:

ROUTINE TESTS TYPE TESTS

1 Winding resistance 1. Impulse voltage withstand

2 Ratio test 2. Temperature rise
3 Polarity test
4 Phase relationship
5 Impedance voltage
6 No-load loss and current
7 Load losses
8 Insulation resistance
9 Induced over-volt.withstand
10 Separate source volt withstand

SUB-STATION

A Sub-Station consists of High Tension (HT) room, the transformers and the Low Tension (LT)
panel room from where the power is distributed to the user end through cables and sub-
distribution panels.

Checklist for HT Switch Gear:

1 Is the room of adequate dimensions as per the drg. provided by the supply
co./ Statutory requirements?
2 Has the Electrical Inspector of the region approved the drawing/layout of the
switchgear?
3 Is adequate number of fire extinguishers provided?, Does the type and
number of extinguishers provided meet statutory/ code of practice
requirements?
4 Is the list of authorised personnel,
(with telephone numbers to contact in the event of emergency) to operate the
HT gear prominently displayed?
5 Are proper rubber mattings laid in front of the Switchgear panels?
6 Is the chart indicating emergency procedures in the event of electric shock
displayed prominently?
7 Are hand gloves of proper specification available readily for use in the HT
room?
8 Is the panel earthing as per requirement of Indian Electricity Rules.
9 Are the personnel operating trained in the type of switchgear being used?

37
10 Preventive Maintenance checklist and frequency of Preventive Maintenance.
11 Are the panels provided with earth fault and over current rrelays?
12 Are caution boards indicating voltage and danger provided?

Checklist for LT Panel:

1 Is the layout of the LT room showing the dimensions of the room and the
Switchgear layout approved by the Electrical Inspector?
2 If the LT panel is installed on trench are the trenches properly covered?
3 Are the incoming and outgoing terminations done properly?
4 Is the main panel provided with E/F and O/C relay and trip.cct.?
5 Are metering provided such as Voltmeter, Ammeter, pf meter, etc.?
6 Are indicating lamps provided?
7 Is a single line diagram showing HT, transformer, and LT power distribution
available readily?
8 Are earthings provided as per IS 3043, code of practice for earthing?
9 Are the panels dust and vermin proof?
10 Are the Incomings and outgoings marked clearly and displayed prominently?
11 If there are more than one transformer, and are not designed to operate in
parallel, then appropriate interlocking devices must be used to prevent
paralleling. In such cases the inter-connectors must be marked with prominent
displays?
12 Are rubber mattings provided on the floors in front of the panels?
13 Are proper rubber gloves provided to carry out work on the panels?
14 Are adequate numbers of fire extinguishers of suitable type provided in the
substation, along with sand buckets?
15 What is the preventive maintenance schedule and procedure?
16 Are periodic records of kWh, KVAR and pf being registered?

38
 CABLES
There are two types of cables.

• Paper Insulated PILC cables

• PVC insulated cables.

Paper insulated armoured cables are used generally for high tension although PVC insulated
ones is also available now a days for the purpose. The armored type of paper insulated cables
has either steel tape or steel wires for armor.

Precautions in Laying Underground CablesLaid Directly in Ground:

The depth of trench may vary between 750mm.to 1050mm. The bottom of the trench is leveled,
freed from stones and sharp edges of rock. A layer of 100mm thick Clear River sand is laid at
the bottom of the trench. After laying the cable it is again covered with 100mm thick layer of
sand, where the soil conditions are not good. In other cases soft earth may be employed instead
of sand. RCC slabs or a layer of bricks is usually laid not only as a protection against
mechanical damages but also to facilitate identification of the cable route.

Drawn in Pipes or Ducts

The pipes may be earthenware, cast iron, galvanized iron, or spun cement pipe. This is resorted
to when crossing streets or under railway tracks. The size should be sufficiently large to put in
additional cables later if required. The advantage of laying in ducts is that the cable may be
drawn out and replaced without disturbing the ground above.

Laid Solid in Bitumen

This is done where the soil is chemically very active and / or corrosive and therefore damaging
to the cables. RCC channel sections 2 to 3 ft. long are first laid level at the bottom of the trench
and after the cable is laid bitumen is heated and poured over until the cable is entirely covered,
the whole being protected by warning RCC top caps.

Supported on Brackets
When the cable is installed above the ground, it should be suitably supported or suspended at
sufficiently close intervals. On vertical runs suitable clamps should be used.
Whatever be the type of construction, it is extremely important to handle the cable carefully and
ensure that it is not, under any circumstances, bent unduly.

The minimum bending radius during installation should be as under (BSS: 480): Cable upto and
including

11 kV. 12 D
22 kV. 15 D
33 kV 3 core cables 20 D
33 kV single core cables 30D

39
where D is the diameter of the cable

When planning trenches or ducts a bending radius of 2.7m should be kept for high voltage
cables and 1.8m for lower voltages. For smaller sizes or l.t.cables a radius of 1.2m may be
permitted.

The cable drum should be properly secured and supported on a shaft which should rest on
properly lubricated bearings which are mounted on trestles, so that the drum with its shaft may
be free to rotate. Cable should be taken from the top supporting ramp, if necessary, the drum
being braked to avoid over running. The practice of rolling the drum on the ground to release the
cable must be discouraged as it will result in excessive strain on the cable causing fine cracks to
develop on the lead sheathing which will ultimately result in failure.

Sufficient number of cable routes indicators should be provided, at points which will not be
disturbed, to show the route of the cable as well as at every deviation in its direction, straight –
through or T joint box. Simultaneously, a detailed drawing should be prepared and recorded in
the drawing office for future reference. This should show full particulars of the cable and its
disposition to other cables in the vicinity and other landmarks.

It must be noted that the impregnated paper insulation over the conductors in paper cables is
very hygroscopic and will readily absorb moisture if exposed It is, therefore, of the utmost
importance that the cable ends are properly sealed in terminal boxes using special insulating
box compound. The ends should never be left exposed to the atmosphere except for a very
short period during jointing , as it will otherwise absorb moisture from the air and the insulation
will be adversely affected. If this happens it is necessary to cut off 3m or 4.5m of the damaged
portion of the cable and reseal the end in properly designed cablesealing box.

Precautions During Cable Jointing

The reliability of a cable installation is directly dependent upon the care bestowed when laying it
in position and the degree of skill of the cable jointers employed. The following are some of the
points to be noted

1. Scrupulous care should be taken to keep the joint perfectly clean and dry whilst the joint
is being made. After cutting the cable for making a joint no time should be lost in
completing the joint. If it is necessary to postpone the work, it is essential to seal the
open end atleast temporarily by sweating on a lead cap. Cable joint work should not be
undertaken in inclement weather, but if it is to be done special protective tents should be
used.
2. When soldering the cores, care should be taken to leave the surface smooth and free of
any sharp points. Only resin should be used as the soldering flux.
3. When joints are made inside iron castings, the castings should be warmed before the
joint box compound is poured in. The compound will shrink when cooling and therefore
topping up should be done two or three times, to ensure that there are no air pockets
inside the joint.
4. After the armoring is properly clamped, earth continuity conductor should be bolted in
position.

40
 ILLUMINATION

One may wonder what illumination has to do with electrical safety. In fact a lot. The right level of
illumination using the right kind of light fitting is most essential in creating a safely illuminated
work area, be it reading, doing precision work, sports or a process resulting in explosive or
flammable vapour.

Working in poorly lit area over a period of time will have an adverse effect on the visual
capability of an individual. Some of the factors which affect adequacy of lighting are discussed
below:

• The eye sees best in daylight, out of doors, when the sky is slightly overcast. Lighting which
approaches it is therefore the best. To produce this high level of illumination at night is
impracticable and uneconomical. In practice the capital and operating costs of electric
lighting have to be weighed against the gains in terms of comfort, efficiency and productivity.
• The requirements of lighting partly depend upon the age group. As age advances the pupil
of the eye becomes less elastic, with the result a higher degree of illumination is required. It
has been estimated that a 60 year old man requires about five times as much light as a 40
year old, who himself needs about three times as much as a boy of 10 years, for reading
printed matter.
• A lot depends on the nature of the task performed and the characteristics of the objects in
the field of vision, such as the size, colour, and the shape of the object, its contrast with its
surroundings, whether it is fixed or moving, and the degree of accuracy required. Light
magnifies details. An assembly shop for electric motors requires a much lower level of
lighting than one of electricity meters. Watch assembly and repair call for 20 to 30 fold
increase in lighting. To meet this requirement local lighting from special fittings is the
answer.
• The eye discriminates by comparing the relative brightness of the object and its background
rather than by the absolute value of brightness. The dark letters on a printed page are
perfectly clear, but a dark thread on a dark background is just invisible. Where the contrast
is low therefore a higher level of illumination is required.
• Eye muscles are three times more fatigued under poor lighting conditions than when they
are good. Long hours of work and a high degree of concentration drain nervous energy.
Adequate lighting greatly reduces the strain and makes for comfort.

Levels of Illumination for Different Tasks:

Class of task Min. recommended lux

level
1 Precision work to a high degree of accuracy, tasks requiring 1000
rapid discrimination and response
2 Severe and prolonged visual tasks, such as fine engraving 500
and discrimination and inspection of fine details of low
contrast

41
3 prolonged critical tasks, such as proof reading, type setting, 300
drawing, fine machine work, fine assembling
4 Visual tasks such as detailed office work, reading, skilled 200
bench work, and retail shops
5 Less exciting visual tasks such as in general offices, large 100
assembly works, class rooms
6 Work of simple character not involving attention to details 60
7 Casual observation where no specific task is performed 40
such as parking lot, yards etc

***

42
 6. EARTHING FOR ELECTRTICAL INSTALLATIONS

Earthing forms a very important aspect of any electrical system. To ensure proper earthing
in an electrical system, IS Code of Practice for Earthing: IS 3043-1987 is followed.

Connection with Earth (IE Rule 67)

The following provisions shall apply to the connection with earth of three-phase systems for
use at high or extra-high voltages :-
• In the case of star-connected systems with earthed neutrals or delta-connected systems
with earthed neutral point :
(a) The neutral point shall be earthed by not less than two separate and distinct
connections with earth each having its own electrode at the generating station and at the
sub-station and may be earthed at any other point provided that no interference of any
description is caused by such earthing ;
(b) In the event of an appreciable harmonic current (“Harmonic” is defined as “an
oscillation of periodically varying quantity having a frequency which is an integral multiple of
the fundamental frequency”) flowing in the neutral connection so as to cause interference
with communication circuits, the generator or transformer neutral shall be earthed through a
suitable impedance.
• Single-phase high or extra-high voltage systems shall be earthed in a manner approved
by the Inspector.
• In the case of a system comprising electric supply-lines having concentric cables, the
external conductor shall be the one to be connected with earth.
• Where a supplier proposes to connect with earth an existing system for the use at
high or extra-high voltage which has not hitherto been connected with earth, he shall
give not less than fourteen days’ notice in writing together with particulars to the
telegraph authority of the proposed connection with earth.
• Where the earthing lead and earth connection are used only in connection with earthing
guards erected under high or extra-high voltage overhead lines where they cross a
telecommunication line or a railway line, and where such lines are equipped with earth
leakage relays of a type and setting approved by the Inspector, the resistance shall not
exceed 25 ohms.
• In so far as the provisions of Rule 61 are consistent with the provisions of this rule, all
connections with earth shall also comply with the provisions of that rule.

Earthing of High Voltage Systems

Basically earthing practice in case of systems operated at high or extra high voltages is the
same, except that the special considerations involved in operating systems at very high
voltages call for additional or special precautions. That is why the provisions of Rule 61in so
far as they are not inconsistent with the requirements of Rule 67 are also to be complied
with in earthing of systems at high voltages. It is not enough, from the safety point of view
that the provisions of Rule 67 are carried out to the letter. The technical problem involved
calls for a careful consideration of the conditions of the supply, nature of circuits, and the
nature of short-circuit energy likely to occur in the supply system. The mere provision of a
circuit- breaker or fuse of adequate rupturing capacity is in itself no guarantee that the

43
installation will perform its allotted task without risk of shock or fire. Nature and efficiency of
earthing systems, particularly in high and extra high voltage systems call for critical
examination.

General Rules Applying to All Systems of Earthing

Indian Standard Code of Practice, IS; 2274-1963, and IS 3043-1987 for earthihng which
covers the essential requirements and precautions regarding wiring installations in industrial
locations for ensuring safety from fire and shock lays down general rules applicable to all
systems of working as under:

Method of Earthing
1. Main earthing conductor: it shall be taken from the earth connections at the main switch
board to an electrode to which the connection is to be made
2. Sub-main earthing conductor: it shall run from the main switch boards to distribution
boards.
3. Circuit earthing conductor: it shall run from the exposed metal of equipment and shall be
connected to any point on the main earthing conductor, sub-main earthing conductor, earth
connection at its distribution board or an earth leakage circuit breaker.
a) Earthing of equipment (General): Unless otherwise provided in (c) to (f) the exposed
metal of the equipment shall be earthed according to (a) (3)
b) Conduits, cable sheathing and armouring: They shall be earthed at the ends
adjacent to switchboards at which they originate or otherwise at the commencement
of the run by an earthing conductor connected to an earth clip, clamp or gland in
effective electrical contact with the conduit or cable sheathing and armouring or the
conduit shall be screwed into the metal fitting which is in effective electrical contact
with earthed metal.
c) Equipment mounted on metal framework: The exposed metal of equipment shall be
deemed to be earthed if the metal framework on which it is mounted is in effective
electrical contact with it and is directly earthed.
d) Exposed metal of equipment connected by flexible chord: Where equipment is
connected by flexible chord, all exposed parts of the equipment shall be earthed by
an earthing conductor enclosed with the current carrying conductors within the
flexible cord.
e) Switches, accessories, lighting fittings, etc (Use of screwed conduit for earthing):
Such fittings which are rigidly secured in effective electrical contact with a run of
screwed conduit by screwing, locknut or clamps may be considered as part of the
run of conduit for earthing purposes, provided that the run of conduit is earthed.
f) Prohibited connection: Sprinkler pipes or pipes conveying gas, water or flammable
liquid ; conduit, metallic enclosures of cables and conductors and lightning protection
system shall not be used as a means of earthing an installation or even as a link in
an earthing system.

Metallic Enclosures for Wiring

• Continuity: The metallic enlosures for wiring shall be mechanically and electrically
continuous.
• Resistance: The electrical resistance of metallic enclosures for cables and conductors
measured between earth connection at the main switch-board and any other point on

44
 the completed installation shall be low enough to permit the passage of current
necessary to operate fuse, circuit-breaker or the earth leakage release of the circuit –
breaker protecting the circuit and shall not exceed 2 ohms.

Nature and Efficiency of Earthing System

It is not enough that connection with earth as required by the Rule has been made, since
even after the neutral point has been earthed by two or more separate and distinct
connections both at the generating station and sub-station, the protective devices may not
function effectively. The Memorandum on Electricity Regulations, under Factories Act,
1961, referring to this aspect makes the following important observations:
“In any earthed system i.e. where some part of the windings of the machine or transformer
from which the supply is derived is connected to earth, operation on earth fault of the
protective device, whether circuit-breaker or fuse, is dependent on sufficient current passing
to actuate the excess current or earth leakage tripping device or to blow the fuse. if the
resistance in the path traversed by the fault current from the point of the fault or breakdown
to the earthing point of the system is excessive, the current may be insufficient to operate
the protective device. it may, on the other hand, be amply sufficient to cause destructive
heating. The critical value of the resistance of the earth fault current path is inversely related
to the current value at which the protective gear operates, and the importance of
maintaining the resistance value at or below this critical figure needs no emphasis.

In the case of circuit breakers, the time interval between the occurrence of the fault and the
operation of the excess current trip is to some extent under control. Where fuses are
concerned, however, the operation within which a circuit breaker would be expected to
operate without appreciable time delay may occupy a considerable period during which fault
current is flowing. If therefore, the fault current is restricted by the resistance of the earth
fault current path to values which are not greatly in excess of the full load current, the fault
will persist unduly accompanied by dangerous rise of voltage and possibly destructive
heating or arcing.

Another factor which may produce a similar result may arise from the incidence of a fault to
earth at a point on the windings or elements of the apparatus such that the leakage current
is restricted by the impedance remaining in the circuit to a value below the operating current
of the protective device. An example of this provided by the fluorescent lamp in which as a
result of the incorporation of a choke coil, the value of any earth leakage current
consequent on a fault on the neutral side of the choke may not exceed the normal current
sufficiently to operate normal protective gear. Such leakage current, if it causes arcing or
is concentrated in such a way as to cause local heating, may cause a fire and the
conditions, therefore, warrant attention to the special means of protection which have been
developed for the purpose, for example, thermal fuses or relays, which operate on
temperature rise.

Such considerations point to the desirability, as a primary step, of so arranging the

distribution in order to avoid, as far as possible, the use of circuits of such rating that the
protective gear demands very low values of resistance of the earth fault current for its
successful operation. Naturally there are instances where the current is decided by the
capacity of a single consuming device and in such circumstances, recourse may be had to
the use of earth fault protective gear in which the effective tripping current on fault may be

45
10-15% of the full load rating. The advantage of this is that operation can occur at a current
value of something between 5-7.5% of what would be required to trip at 100% excess
current setting, thus providing a much wider latitude for variation in the resistance of the
earth fault current path.

The application of earth fault protection must be used with discretion since, if applied at the
root of a number of circuits in series a fault on a minor sub-circuit may disconnect the whole
supply with consequent inconvenience. Discrimination by means of time lag devices is
unlikely to be of any parts of a system protected by devices in which the excess current
tripping or fusing value is below that of the earth leakage trip on the main circuit breaker.”

***

46
 7. TEMPORARY ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

Electrical installations are often required to be designed and erected for use for short periods of
time ranging from a few hours to few months and are connected to supply source in open
ground. This is particularly true of construction sites where green field projects are undertaken.
Such installations are generally unprotected from environmental hazards as compared to
installations in the buildings.

The major risks in the use of power in such installation arise from short circuit resulting in fire
accidents and exposure to live wire resulting in shock. It is therefore imperative to lay down the
necessary precautions to be observed for such installations from the point of view of safety.

Temporary installations are essentially classified on the basis of the duration of the installations
as given below:
Temporary installations for duration not exceeding 6 months

Outdoor installations open to sky or partially covered, erected in the vicinity of construction sites
solely for the purpose of supplying the electrical needs of building construction work such as
lighting and power loads.

Temporary installations for duration not exceeding 45 days

These include fairly large loads such as for exhibitions, fairs etc

Temporary installations for duration not exceeding 7days

These include installations site of temporary nature intended for a week long public function or
out door lighting installations of buildings and parts in view of festival and other reason.

Temporary installations for duration not exceeding 24 Hours

These include temporary installations which cater to loads for the purposes of marriages,
reception, religious and other public functions.

General Requirements for Temporary Installations

Substation
In case the loads required for the temporary installations are large and power supply authority
has no network in the vicinity of the temporary installation that could be utilized then it would be
necessary to establish a temporary substation where the switch and transformer can be
installed. The substation site shall be so selected that it is as close to the load center as
possible.

47
The power supply authority’s line should be brought up to the substation in a separate
enclosure. If overhead line is laid up to the temporary substation, then the ‘supporting poles,
conductors, materials of the line, insulation and the method of stringing the conductors and the
mechanical strength of the line as a whole shall coform to the relevant provisions of IS : 5613
(Part 1/ Sec.1)-1970 and IS:5613 (Part 1/ Sec2)-1971. In case supply at voltages above 650 V
is required, a suitable enclosure to install the switch gear and the metering arrangements shall
also be erected.

Power Distribution
At the origin of each installation a unit containing the main controlgear and principal protective
device shall be provided. The main switch shall be installed in an enclosure or a wooden
cupboard and as close to the metering point as possible

Means of emergency switching shall be provided on the supply to all current using equipment
on which it may be necessary to disconnect all live conductors in order to remove a hazard. The
enclosure or cupboard in which the main-switch is installed shall be such that the equipment
within shall be unaffected by the environmental conditions.

The main switch on the installation shall be connected to the point of supply by means of an
armoured cable and termination of this cable shall adequately protected from rain water.

The main switches shall be located at a height not exceeding 1.5 m so as to accessible in
emergencies.

The cable shall be laid either underground or supported in the air. Precautions shall be taken to
ensure that this cable when laid underground is done so with the same meticulous care as is
done for permanent installation. In case the cable passes underneath the passages, it shall be
laid in whole or split pipes. When laid overground, the cables shall either be cleated with
saddles of proper size along the walls of a permanent structure if available or alternatively, it
shall be supported on rigid poles. The height of the cable shall not be less than 2m when run
inside the compound and atleast 5m when run along or across the road. Crossing of the road
shall preferably be avoided. An independent earthing shall be established inside the installation
premises. In case overhead wires are used in the installation they should conform to the
relevant Indian Standards.

In selecting the equipment and cables, the rating shall be decided taking the environmental
conditions into account. The supply intake point shall be placed outside the periphery of area
which is accessible to the general public.

Control of Circuits

A device shall be provided on the incoming cable to each supply unit and each distribution unit
for switching and isolating. With this type of arrangement it shall be possible to switch off the
supply at the intake point or at the distribution point.

The main switch shall be adequately protected from ingress of water. The incoming and
outgoing cables/wires of the main switch shall be firmly supported so that cable and wire ends

48
connected to the main switch shall not be subjected to any mechanical force, transmitted to it
from any portion of the cables or wires.

The main switch shall be installed on a firm and vertical surface, which can withstand the
mechanical vibration created at the installation site as well as the wind pressure at the location.

There shall be adequate ventilation in the room where main switches are installed and there
shall be operational space around the switch in accordance with good practice. The switch room
shall be accessible at any time of the day or night to authorized persons.

Sub Circuit

On large temporary installations like those on construction sites, at exhibitions and at circuses
etc. the outgoing end of the main switch shall be connected to busbar of adequate size and
various sub-circuits shall be connected to this busbar through double or triple pole switches
depending upon whether they are single phase or 3phase circuits.

The switches shall be mounted on a firm support and shall be at a height between 1m and 2m
from the floor level. The sub-circuit switch shall be so spaced that there shallbe a minimum clear
distance of 60mm., between the switches for ease of operation

The outgoing wires from the subcircuit switches inside the enclosure shall be cleated firmly on
wooden battens or taken through conduits which are fixed by means of saddles to the masonry
wall or wooden partition wall. The lead wires connected to the sub-circuits switches shall be
suitably supported on wall with clips and shall not be left hanging. Spans more than 2 m shall
have guide wire support.

A broken bulb of lamps in series circuit is a risk and therefore series lamps shall not strung or
hug at heights less than 3m. A defective series lamp shall not be allowed to remain in its
position and shall be immediately removed.

Earthing

All appliances and equipment on a temporary installation shall be connected to a system of

duplicate earthing one of the Power Supply Authority and one local. Wherever armoured cables
are used, the armouring shall be connected to earthing arrangement of Power Supply Authority.
For local earthing, an independent earth continuity wire shall be used.

For local earthing the earth electrode shall be buried near the supply intake point. The earth
continuity wire shall be a single core insulated wire and shall be connected to the local earth
plate and taken along the cable connecting the supply intake point and main switch on the
installation. The connection from this earth continuity wire shall be taken to various sub-
distribution boards and terminated on a busbar. All appliances and equipment connected to
sub-distribution board, shall get their duplicate earth connection from the earth continuity busbar
on the sub-distribution board.

49
Protection and Safety

The installation a whole shall be protected against overload, short-circuit , and earth leakage by
suitable protective devices. Temporary supply is generally used at public places and for public
functions and therefore, extreme care shall be taken to ensure that there is no risk of any type of
hazard either from electrical shock or fire.

No flammable material shall be stored near the service intake point or the operational area of
electrical equipment or appliances. For large public functions, exhibitions, etc, suitable fire
extinguishers shall be kept at the supply intake point and near the main switch of the
installation.

In construction sites, protection of persons against indirect contact shall be assured by

automatic disconnection of supply appropriate to the system earthing. Socket outlet shall either
be protected by residual current devices having operating current not exceeding 30 mA or be
supplied by safety extra- low voltage or electrical separation of circuit each socket outlet being
supplied by a separate transformer.

Statutory Requirements

• All the switchgear panels should be labelled with voltage level indicating caution boards.
• Rubber mat should be placed in front of all electrical panels.
• Proper and clear nomenclature indicating the identity of the feeder, line or equipment
should be marked on each equipments conspicuously.
• In the event of indoor switchgears, adequate level of illumination and ventilation should
be maintained.
• All the indoor switchgear rooms should be kept clean and tidy. Unwanted and
unnecessary accumulation of materials should be avoided.
• No explosive / inflammable substances should be stored within the enclosed
compartment.
• All the metallic equipment supporting structures, switchgear panels and metallic
enclosures should be solidly earthed with atleast two distinct conductors.
• Smoke detectors should be installed at all indoor units and should be checked on regular
basis. Sufficient portable type of fire extinguishers should be installed.
• All the switchgear panels should have a firm enclosure. Any cut outs or opening should
be properly sealed and prevent entry of dust or vermins within the panels which are
potential sources of electrical short circuit.

50
 SAFETY CHECKLIST FOR TEMPORARY ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

Item to be checked Yes No Comments

1. Cases of inserting bare wires in electrical

socket found.
2. Proper guarding is provided on all moving
parts/dangerous parts.
3. Danger notices displayed whenever
necessary
4. All portable tools are provided with proper
& scientific earthing.
5. Handlamps are of proper type, voltage &
with cage
6. All electrical equipments are provided
with ELCB
7. Cables are exposed to physical damage
8. Cables are exposed to fire hazard
9. Too many joints in cables
10. Cables running over sharp objects, hot
objects, nails etc.
11. Cables running over tarpauline shed.
12. Are electrical circuits overloaded?
13. Are cables protected from vehicle &
traffic?
14. Low voltage (24V) lamps used in
confined space.
15. Are people trained in fire fighting
16. Cables exposed to falling hazards are
protected.
17. Artificial respiration chart is displayed.

51
 8. PORTABLE ELECTRICAL TOOLS / APPARATUS

Portable electrical tools / apparatus are essential part of a contractor’s equipment and it is
therefore thought appropriate to include the details of the same in this Chapter.

Any apparatus which is capable of being taken from place to place while it is being operated is
called portable, as distinct from transportable apparatus which has to be switched off and then
move to a place where it is required to be operated. In case of a portable apparatus, switching
off the current for the purpose of shifting is not necessary. In view of this it is necessary to take
special precautions in the matter of flexible cables. These cables have to be heavily insulated so
as to protect them from mechanical damages. Portable tools are subject to vibrations resulting
in breakage of leads. Blunt tools tend to over-load the motor. Portable tools used in areas where
flammable vapours may be present need to be flameproof.

Indian Electricity Rule 38 prohibits the use flexible cables for portable and tranportable
apparatus, except when:

• such cables are heavily insulated

• they are adequately protected from mechanical injury and
• in case where protection to the cable is by metallic sheath or covering such covering is in
metallic connection with the frame of such apparatus and earth.

These precautions become necessary because flexible cables are inherently weak and with the
trailing rubbing against rough surface of the ground would soon have their comparatively light
insulation worn out. This would lead to bare cores of the cable coming into extraneous contacts
and causing earth fault so that the apparatus held by the workmen becomes live and results in a
severe shock. Therefore IE Rule 38 requires that where flexible are used for example for
transportable motors, generators, transformers, rectifiers, and like apparatus earthing should be
provided.

Use of Flexible Cables in Mines

Chapter X of the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956, provides for additional precautions to be taken in
mines and oil fields where hazard from use of flexible cables is considerably greater, due to the
presence of explosive dust or flammable vapours. Rule 123 regulates the use of flexible cables
in such places, and provides for use of earthing core for earthing flexible metallic covering, use
of properly constructed connectors; provision of special switch for entirely disconnecting supply
from the flexible cables; provision for frequent inspection of the cables to see they have not
suffered mechanical injury; for prohibiting the use of flexible cables more than 90m in length;
and detaching of such cables from the apparatus when not in use,etc.

52
Earthing of Portable Apparatus
Indian Electricity Rule 38 provides for earthing of a portable or transportable apparatus where
the flexible cable has a metallic covering as a means of protection. “Earthing of portable
apparatus is best effected by an additional flexible wire made up as extra core with the flexible
conductors into one cable and distinguished from the conductors by the color of its covering or
otherwise. As an alternative to earthing a special construction is possible and has been
extensively adopted for lamp holders and small portable apparatus. If for instance, the metal
work is so covered with insulating material that it cannot be touched, earthing becomes
unnecessary.”

In the event of earth fault developing on a portable tool or appliance the workman handling it
may not be able to release his grip on it once the has become “live” with defective earthing. A
defective earth wire is not discovered, because the tool continues to operate and the defect
becomes noticeable only after the first shock is received . Hence it is necessary to test the
earthing of a portable appliance periodically and before use in particular.

Electric Welding
There are basically two types of Electric Welding.

• Electric Arc Welding

• Electric Resistance Welding.

Electric Arc Welding

An electric arc is formed when electric current passes from one conductor to another through an
airgap and the di- electric strength of the gap is broken. Arc continues to be maintained in the
gap as long as the current flows producing intense heat raising the temperature to about 6500
deg.C. When welding is carried on between to metal pieces the heat generated melts a small
pool of metal in the job. The electrode also melts and is deposited into this small pool of molten
metal. Arc keeps this molten metal pool agitated and thus the base or parent metal is thoroughly
mixed with melted electrode metal and is refined. As welding progresses the metal pool cools
down under a protective cover of slag left by the electrode. On cooling a sound joint is formed
between the two metal pieces.

Electric Resistance Welding

The second type of electric welding is that when electricity passes through a substance that
resists its flow, heat is produced. This heat may be sufficient to melt the substance (metal) and
their mutual welding may be achieved.

Motor generators, rectifiers, or transformers used for welding or cutting and their current
carrying parts shall be protected against accidental with uninsulated live parts.

53
Before commencement of welding operation, all electrical connections shall be checked to
confirm that they are correctly and securely made. The ground wire shall be securely and
effectively connected to work.

Pipelines containing gases or flammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical conductors shall
not be used for ground return circuit.

Direct Current and Alternating Current Welding

In electric welding either direct or alternating current can be used. Well, of course there are
limitations and one cannot be replaced by the other in all cases.

DC welding uses either a generator or Transformer Rectifier unit to produce DC current which
generally in the range of 25 to 300 amps, the voltage being 40 to 80 v.

The AC welding process uses a transformer with an output voltage of 45to 100 v and a current
range of 300 amps .

Safety in Electric Arc Welding

Within the last two decades, we have seen tremendous growth in the field of electric arc
welding. The welding arc emits harmful rays (uv rays) and infra red rays with fumes which are
harmful for the eyes and general health. Hot metal and slag and metal spatter can be hazardous
to the welder and for others in the vicinity.

The following precautions shall be observed to avoid any incident:

• All cables and connections should be sound and of adequate capacity and properly
insulated.
• The earthing arrangement should be properly made with earthing clamps ora bolted
terminal.
• In addition to the welding return cable, a welding earth must be provided on the job.
• Electrode holders when not in use, should be placed on an insulated hook or the holders
should be fully insulated. Live electrodes should not be left on face shield or gloves nor left
suspended by the welding cable.
• The ground return cable from welding set shall be connected to the welding job as close as
possible.
• When the welder stops or leaves work for any appreciable time, the power supply to the
welding machine shall be effectively disconnected.
• The welder should make sure that his clothing is free from oil or grease. He should keep his
work place clean and tidy and not littered with combustible materials.
• All arc welding operations must be screened to prevent eye flash to other persons working
in the vicinity. Where work is carried out on fixed benches or in welding shops, permanent
screens may be erected. In all other cases, temporary portable screens should be used.

54
A.D. & D.C.

¾ As per I.E.C. 478 A, comparison between the risk of A.C. & D.C., viz. that the ratio of
D.C. values to A.C. values causing the same risks, is high in the range of comparatively
low currents and long times (about 10 seconds) and low in the range of high currents
and short times (about 10 m.s.)
¾ Direct current does not produce convulsive reaction characteristic of the alternating
current. At a high voltage and large direct current the victims may be hurled away from
the live current carrying parts which never happens in similar cases in A.C.
¾ Due to presence of the capacitive component in the electrical impedance of the human
body, the current density and consequently the field intensity will be greater at equal
oltages of A.C. rather than D.C.

FREQUENCY

¾ The heart muscles generally attempt to follow the natural rhythm of contraction as well
as the superimposed contractions by the electric current that serves to cause “ventricular
fibrillation”. The heart is thus most sensitive to currents varying at commercial
frequencies. Alternating currents at 25 to 100 cycles has therefore the worst effect.

******

55
 9. ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN HAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

Safety in electrical system draws maximum attention especially in the hydrocarbon industry,
where classified hazardous atmosphere may be encountered and electricity may constitute one
of the sources of ignition for fire accidents and explosions .Besides equipment damage and
property loss , electrical hazards may lead to injuries and fatalities to personnel due to
electrical shock and burns. The electrical system designer ,hence faces a challenge to provide a
safe and reliable electrical system.

It is therefore imperative that safety aspects are built into the electrical system right from the
design and engineering stage with the main objective of minimizing equipment /system failure
to prevent injury ton personnel and damage to system components.

This section makes an attempt for providing guidelines for selection, installation and
maintenance of electrical apparatus for use in areas where potentially explosive materials are
generated, processed, handled stored or otherwise encountered.
Flammable or potentially explosive materials include gases, vapours, mists and solids.
Definitions
• Explosive Atmospheres: A mixture of flammable gas or vapour with air under atmospheric
conditions in which, after ignitions, combustion rapidly spreads throughout the unconsumed
mixture.
• Mist: A free suspension in air of droplets of a liquid whose vapour is flammable in free
suspension in air.
• Hazard: The presence, or the risk of the presence, of an explosive atmosphere.
• Hazardous Area: An area in which explosive atmospheres are may be expected to be
present in quantities such as to require special precautions for the construction and use of
electrical apparatus.
• Non-Hazardous Area: An area in which explosive atmospheres are not expected to be
present in such quantities that special precautions for the construction and use of electrical
apparatus are necessary.
• Flash Point: The lowest temperature at which sufficient vapour is given off from a
flammable material to form an explosive atmosphere.
• Ignition Temperature: The lowest temperature of a flammable gas or vapour at which
ignition occurs when tested.
• Accessible Surface: A surface to which an explosive atmosphere has access, and that is
not explosion protected other than by temperature limitation.
• Maximum Surface Temperature: The highest temperature attained under practical
conditions of operation within the rating of apparatus ( and recognized overloads, and
including defined fault conditions, if any, associated therewith) (by an accessible surface the
exposure of which to an explosive atmosphere may involve a risk.

56
• Temperature Class (T class): One of six values of temperature allocated to electrical
apparatus derived from a system of classification according to the maximum surface
temperature of the apparatus.
• Apparatus Group and Sub-group: Group or sub-group assigned to apparatus depending
on its suitability for use with specific gases.

An apparatus group or sub-group may be used with flammable materials of a lesser risk sub-
group subject only to considerations of temperature and chemical compatibility.
Type of Protection
The measures applied in the construction of apparatus or part of apparatus to prevent ignition of
surrounding explosive atmosphere by such apparatus.
Enclosure Protection
The measures applied to the enclosures of apparatus to provide degrees of protection for:
a) persons against contact with live or moving parts inside the enclosure and protection for
the apparatus against ingress of solid foreign bodies.
b) The apparatus against the ingress of liquids.

Electrical Protection
The measures applied to circuits to control the effects of overload and overcurrent.

Statutory Requirements
All electrical installations in hazardous areas have to comply with all relevant statutory
requirements. The statutory authorities for industrial installations in India are follows:-
a) The Directorate General Factory Advice and Labour Institute , Mumbai
b) The Controller of Explosives, Nagpur

Selection of Electrical Apparatus

Hazardous area apparatus should be selected for use as per the following criteria.

a) Classification of area
b) Temperature classification
c) Apparatus sub-grouping
d) Environmental conditions

Selection According to Classification of Area

Classification of Hazardous Area - Hazardous area classification is based on the concept,
which deals with the risk of fire and explosion by area classification. This concept recognizes
the differing degrees of probability with which explosive flammable concentrations of
combustible gas or vapour may arise in installations in terms of both the frequency of
occurrence and the probate duration or existence on each occasion.

57
a) Zone 0 : In which an explosive gas / air mixture is continuously present, or present for long
periods.
b) Zone 1 : In which an explosive gas / air mixture is likely to occur in normal operation.
c) Zone 2 : In which an explosive gas / air mixture is not likely to occur in normal operation
and if it occurs, it will only exist for a short time.

Note – It should be noted that whereas formerly classified areas were called divisions, they are
now known as zones.
It will be noted that this area classification deals only with risks due to combustible gases and
vapours and by implication combustible mists. It does not deal with dusts since these materials
can lie quiescent for long periods of time until they are disturbed into suspension by a suitable
mechanism.
By implication an area which is not classified as Zone 0, Zone 1 or Zone 2 is deemed to be non-
hazardous or a safe area.
In a non-hazardous area, no special precautions are necessary.

Types of Protection for Different Hazardous Areas

ZONE OF TYPE OF PROTECTION
HAZARDOUS
AREAS

Zone 0 No electrical equipment should be allowed. When this is not

practicable intrinsically safe electric; apparatus categories and
associated circuits should be employed. – Type of Protection
Zone 1 Intrinsically safe circuits categories ia and ib and associated
apparatus. - Type of Protection “i”
Flameproof equipment – Type of protection ‘d’
Pressurised enclosures – Type of protection ‘p’.
Sandfilled apparatus – Type of protection ‘q’
Oil-immersed apparatus- type of protection ’o’
Such other apparatus as may be specially certified or assessed
for use in Zone I areas.
Zone 2 Intrinsically safe circuits categories ia and ib and associated
apparatus – Type of protection “i”
Flameproof equipment – Type of protection ‘d’
Increased safety apparatus – Type of protection.
Pressurised enclosures – Type of protection ‘p’
Sand-filled apparatus- Type of protection ‘q’.
Oil-immersed apparatus – Type of protection ‘o’.
Non-sparking apparatus- Type of protection ‘n’

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SELECTION ACCORDING TO TEMPERATURE CLASSIFICATION
When selecting apparatus according to temperature classification, the maximum surface
temperature of the T class of apparatus (or were the apparatus is marked with a particular
maximum surface temperature, that temperature) should not exceed the ignition temperature of
the gases or vapours involved.

In certain cases, temperatures higher than that of the marked temperature class can be
permitted, for example for small components such as transistors or resistors, provided it is
proved by tests or other experimental evidence that there is no risk of direct or indirect
flammation, deterioration or deformation by such high temperatures.

A T class is assigned to apparatus on the basis of temperature rise tests assuming that the
apparatus may be used in an environment with an ambient temperature not exceeding 400c. In
special cases, apparatus may be designed on request to operate in an environment with a
temperature of more than 400c. In this case the designed maximum permitted temperature of
the environment will be clearly marked on the apparatus. The T class will have been assigned
on the basis of temperature rise tests and the assumption that the apparatus may operate at
temperatures upto the designed maximum permitted temperature of the environment.

When apparatus which has a T class assigned assuming a 400c max. ambient temperature, is
to be used at a higher environmental temperate, for example because it is mounted on a hot
surface, the maximum surface temperature of the apparatus should not exceed the ignition
temperature of the gases or vapours likely to be present. It is also important to check with the
manufacturer on the suitability of the apparatus to operate at these higher temperatures. For
example, when apparatus is to be mounted under pipe lagging it is virtually unaffected by the air
temperature, but may fail due to heat from the pipe.

Relationship Between T Class And Maximum Surface Temperature

T CLASS MAX. SURFACE TEMPERATURE 0C

T1 450
T2 300
T3 200
T4 135
T5 100
T6 85

An example can be given of the relationship between T class and ignition temperature.
Cyclohexane has an ignition temperature of 2590c and therefore, assuming a maximum
environmental temperature of 400c, apparatus with a temperature class T2 ( that is 3000c) would
not be suitable whereas apparatus with a temperature class of T3 ( that is 2000 c ) would be
suitable.

Note – In special cases, apparatus can be marked with a particular temperature as well as one
of the six T classes. For ex, in the case cited above if the apparatus were marked with a

59
temperature of 590 c as well as the temperature class of T2, it would still be suitable for use in
area where a potentially explosive atmosphere of a cyclohexane might form.

Selection According to Apparatus Sub-grouping

In the new groupings, agreed internationally, Group I is reserved for apparatus for mines
susceptible to methane (firedamp) and is therefore outside the scope of this standard. Group II
is reserved for apparatus for use in all other place where there may be potentially explosive
atmospheres and as appropriate is sub-grouped IIA, IIB and IIC.

It should be noted that apparatus sub-grouping is applied to the technique of prevention of flame
transmission and limitation of energy. Apparatus with type of protection ‘s’ may be subject to
sub-grouping where it used one or more of these techniques. The protective features of other
types of protection apply equally to all industrial cases, subject only tot temperature
classification apparatus sub-grouping is not therefore necessary.

Apparatus may be protected by one or more types of protection which may require apparatus
sub-grouping. In these circumstances, the apparatus sub-group to which the flammable
materials is that may be present are allocated.

Apparatus should be used only with materials allocated to the appropriate apparatus sub-group
whose ignition temperatures are not less than the maximum temperature of the T class certified
for the apparatus. Apparatus certified for a particular sub-group may also be used with
materials allocated to a lower risk sub-group, subject again to considerations of temperature
classification.

It will sometimes be found necessary to use electrical apparatus in applications where materials
may be present that have not yet been allocated to a sub-group. In these circumstances, expert
advice should be obtained on the sub-group allocation of the materials in question.

Selection According to Environmental Conditions

Apparatus and its component parts should be constructed so as to guard against electrical and
mechanical failure in the intended conditions of use. The integrity of some electrical apparatus
may be effected when required to operate under temperature or pressure conditions outside
those for which the apparatus has been constructed. In such conditions further advice should
be sought.

Particular attention should be given to the need for protection against the weather, the ingress
of liquids and particular matter, corrosion the effect of solvents and the effect of heat from
adjacent plant.

Alterations to apparatus or systems may invalidate any certificate or other documentation

relating to that apparatus or system. Such alterations should be made only with the agreement
of the occupier in consultation with the manufacturer where appropriate.

60
There may be special requirements listed in the certification documents that will affect the
method of installation. Installers and occupiers should satisfy themselves that such conditions
are properly met.

Installation of Apparatus

All apparatus should be installed with due regard to the possibility of external mechanical
damage affecting the type of protection of the apparatus. Where equipment is to be installed in
areas of high mechanical, additional measures such as the provision of guards for light
transmitting parts may be necessary. However additional measures should not impair the
integrity of the type of apparatus.

Inspection, Maintenance and Testing

To minimize the risk of ignition of an explosive atmosphere by electrical apparatus, efficient
inspection, maintenance and testing of the apparatus, systems and installations are essential. It
should be noted that correct functional operation does not itself indicate conformity with the
recommendations for the safe use of apparatus. The general recommendations for inspection,
maintenance and testing that are applicable to all types of protection .

Personnel

The inspection, testing, maintenance, replacement and repair of apparatus, systems and
installations should be carried out only by persons whose training includes instruction on the
various types of protection involved. Appropriate refresher training should be given from time to
time.

Isolation of Apparatus

No apparatus should be opened in a hazardous area other than apparatus with type of
protection ‘I’ (intrinsic safety) and non-incendive apparatus until it has been disconnected from
its source of supply and effective measures, such as the locking of the disconnector in the open
position or fuse removal, have been taken to prevent its being made alive before re-assembly.
Particular attention should be paid in the case of an apparatus that may be live even after it has
been disconnected from a source of supply. Where heavy rotating machinery is involved, the
back e.m.f. of such plant should be considered and precautions will usually need to be taken to
ensure that the apparatus, or any apparatus associated with it, is not opened until the rotating
plant is stationary. Most power capacitors are fitted with discharge resistors and it should be
noted that these take a finite time to bring the terminal voltage to a harmless value.

Where the purpose of electrical testing it is essential to restore the supply before the apparatus
is re-assembled, then this work would be under a controlled procedure and the specific location
assessed to ensure that potentially flammable gas or vapour is absent.

61
Precautions Concerning the Use of Igniting Agencies

No operation involving the use of an open flame or other source of ignition should be attempted
in a hazardous area until the conditions have been made safe by the control of the flammable
material that may give rise to the risk. Such operations should be undertaken only on the issue
of a gas free certificate, confirming that adequate control measures have been taken and that
tests have been made and will be repeated at sufficiently frequent intervals to ensure that safe
conditions are maintained.

Intial and Periodic Inspections

All electrical apparatus, systems and installations should be inspected prior to commissioning to
check that the selection and installation is appropriate.Examples of some of the items, which
should be included in an initial inspection, are given in adjacent table.

Example of schedule for initial inspection

Initial inspection items

• Apparatus appropriate for the area classification
• Correct temperature classification
• Appropriate apparatus group or subgroup
• Correct circuit identification
• Maintenance of integrity of enclosure
• Cable entries and stoppers etc. are complete and
• Appropriate to the enclosure
• Electrical connections are tight
• Satisfactory earthing, bonding etc.
• Correct rating of apparatus and components
• Damage to apparatus or wiring systems
• Adequate environmental protection, e.g. against
• Weather, mechanical damage
• No unauthorized modifications

Note: Items are not listed in any order of priority. Where

integrity of type of protection is dependent on electrical
protection, this should be verified initially.

Following any replacement, repair, modification or adjustment, the items concerned should be
inspected, to check that the appropriate recommendations of the code have been maintained.

If at any time there is a change in the area classification or in the characteristic of the flammable
material used in the area, or if any apparatus is moved from one location to another, a check

62
should be made to ensure that the type of protection, apparatus group and T class, where
appropriate, are suitable for the revised conditions.

The extent, complexity and frequency of inspection of apparatus, systems and installations
when in use should be determined by those whose training and experience will enable them to
recognize any potential hazards and who are familiar with the local environmental conditions
and use.

The frequency of inspection depends on the type of equipment, the factors governing its
deterioration, and the finding of previous inspections. Examples of factors, which can affect the
deterioration of apparatus or otherwise lead to an unsafe condition, are given in adjacent table.

Example of schedule for subsequent Inspections

Factors affecting integrity of apparatus, systems and Installations

• Corrosion of enclosures, fixings, cable entries etc.

• Damage to apparatus or wiring systems
• Undue accumulation of dust and dirt
• Loose electrical connections, including those for earthing, bonding
etc.
• Loose fixings, glands, conduit, stoppers etc.
• Condition of enclosure gaskets and fastenings
• Leakage of oil or compound
• Condition of bearings
• Inadvertent contact between rotating and fixed parts
• Integrity of guards
• Incorrect lamp ratings or type
• Undue vibration
• Malfunction of relays and protective devices
• Unauthorized modifications or adjustments
• Inappropriate maintenance, e.g. not in accordance
• with manufacturer’s recommendations
Note: Items are not listed in any order of priority. Where integrity of type
of protection is dependent on electrical protection, this should be verified
initially.

It is, therefore, recommended that once the apparatus has been taken into use, initial intervals
between inspections should be of a reasonably short duration and that a system be established
to enable subsequent inspection intervals to be reviewed and modified in the light of operational
experience. Where inspection intervals and methods are already established and are found by
experience to be satisfactory for similar apparatus and environments, these may continue to be
used. It is recommended that an inspection record system be operated so that the review of
inspection frequencies is effective.

63
When large number of similar items such as luminaires, junction boxes, etc, are installed, it may
be feasible to carry out inspections on a sample basis provided that the degree of sampling in
addition to the inspection frequency is subjected to review.

Initial and Periodic Testing

All electrical apparatus, systems and installations should be tested prior to commissioning and
these tests should include the following :

a) insulation resistance measurement;

b) earth electrode resistance measurement;
c) earth loop impedance measurement; and
d) operation and setting of protective devices.

NOTE – It may be advantageous to make the earth loop impedance measurement with both a
substantial current and with an intrinsically safe tester to enable the measurement to be made
with the intrinsically safe tester alone for subsequent tests and to allow those results to be
compared with the initial test results. It should be noted that tests made with an intrinsically safe
tester may not necessarily identify certain bad connections because of the low test current.

The testing of apparatus, systems and installations when in use should be carried out by those
whose experience will enable them to recognize the potential hazards and who are familiar with
local environmental conditions and use.

Test procedures should be designed to cause the minimum disturbance to the installation or
system.

Diagnostic testing and recording of results of such functions as time, operating voltage, circuit
resistance, insulation resistance, etc, should be used where possible to show trends in electrical
conditions and to aid the determination of both the nature and frequency of subsequent tests
and inspections.

The frequency of testing depends on the type of equipment or system, the factors governing its
deterioration and in particular the finds of previous tests. Factors which may affect the
deterioration of apparatus are identified in Table 6 and as these should be taken into account in
determining the frequency of inspection, the frequency of testing will not be greater than, and in
fact may be less than, the frequency of inspection for the relevant apparatus or system. The
frequency of testing should be established and reviewed in a manner similar to that
recommended for the inspection.

Testing in continuously operating plant and on similar apparatus or systems may be undertaken
on a sample basis subject to review similar to that recommended for inspections conducted on a
sample basis.

Tests should be made in such a way that the safety devices used in low energy or low voltage
apparatus and circuits are not subject to damage by excess voltage.

64
Test should be undertaken under a controlled procedure to ensure that the specific location has
either been assessed for the absence of a flammable gas or vapour or that the test method is
non-incendive.

Maintenance Guidelines

Alterations to Apparatus

The general condition of all apparatus should be noted periodically and appropriate remedial
measures should be taken where necessary. Care should be taken, however, to maintain the
integrity of the type of protection provided for the apparatus; this may require consultation with
the original manufacturer. Replacement parts should be in accordance with the conditions of
certification. No alteration that might invalidate the certificate or other document relating to the
safety of apparatus should be made to any apparatus without appropriate approval.

Maintenance of Flexible Cables

Flexible cables, flexible conduits and their terminations should be inspected at regular intervals
and should be replaced if found to be damaged or defective.

Precautions Against Corrosion

Metallic enclosures of apparatus should where necessary, be treated with an appropriate

protective coating as a precaution against corrosion, the frequency and nature of such treatment
being determined by the environmental conditions.

Cleanliness

All parts of installations should be kept clean and free from accumulations of dust and
deleterious substances.

Precautions Against Excessive Temperature Rise

Apparatus should be kept of free from dust deposits of such a nature as could cause excessive
rise in temperature.

When replacing lamps in luminaires the correct rating and type should be used for excessive
temperature rise may result.

The etching, painting or screening of light transmitting parts may lead to excessive
temperatures.

Withdrawal from Service

Should it be necessary for maintenance purposes to withdraw apparatus, etc, from service, the
exposed conductors should be terminated in an appropriate certified enclosure; alternatively,
the cable may be protected adequately by insulating the ends of the conductors and isolating
the cable from all sources of power supply. Should the apparatus be permanently withdrawn

65
from service, associated wiring should be removed or, alternatively, otherwise correctly
terminated in an appropriate certified enclosure.

Fastenings and Tools

Where special bolts and other fastenings or special tools are required, these items should be
available and should be used.

Types of Protection

Type of Title Description Reference to

Protectio Indian Standards
n

‘d’ Flameproof A method of protection where the IS 2148:1981

enclosure for electrical apparatus will
withstand an internal explosion of the
flammable gas or vapour (for which it is
designed) which may enter it, without
suffering damage and without
communicating the internal flammation to
the external flammable gas or vapour for
which it is designed, through any joints or
‘I” Intrinsically structural openings in the enclosure. IS 5780 : 1980
safe
apparatus or A protection technique based upon the
system restriction of electrical energy within
apparatus and in the interconnecting
wiring, exposed to a potentially explosive
atmosphere, to a level below that which
can cause ignition by either sparking or
heating effects. Because of the method
by which intrinsic safety is achieved it is
necessary that not only the electrical
apparatus exposed to the potentially
‘P’ explosive atmosphere but also other IS 7389 (Part 1) :
Pressurizatio (associated) electrical apparatus with 1976
n continuous which it is interconnected is suitably
dilution and constructed.
pressurised
rooms A method of protection using the pressure
of a protective gas to prevent the ingress
of an external flammable atmosphere to a
‘e’ space which may contain a source of

66
 Increased ignition and, where necessary, using IS 6381 : 1972
safety continuous dilution of an atmosphere
within a space which contains a source of
emission of gas which may form an
explosive atmosphere.

A method of protection by which

additional measures are applied to an
electrical apparatus to give increased
‘n’ security against the possibility of
excessive temperatures and of the IS : 8289 : 1976
Type of occurrence of arcs and sparks during the
protection n service life of the apparatus. It applies
only to an electrical apparatus, no parts of
which produce sparks or arcs or exceed
‘s’ the limiting temperature in normal service.

Special A type of protection applied to an

protection electrical apparatus such that, I n normal
operation, it is not capable of igniting a
surrounding explosive atmosphere, and a
fault capable of causing ignition is not
likely to occur.

‘o’ A concept for those types of electrical

apparatus that, by their nature, do not IS 7693 : 1975
Oil-immersed comply with the constructional or other
requirements specified for apparatus with
established types of protection, but which
nevertheless can be shown, where
‘q’ necessary by test, to be suitable for use
in hazardous areas in prescribed zones. IS 7724 : 1975
Sand-filled

A method of protection where electrical

apparatus is made safe by oil-immersion
in the sense that flammable gases or
vapours above the oil or outside the
enclosure will not be ignited.

A method of protection where the

enclosure of electrical apparatus is filled
with a mass of powdery material such
that, if an arc occurs, the arc will not be

67
 liable to ignite the outer flammable
atmosphere.

NOTE – Other types of protection are under consideration internationally. These may
include type of protection ‘h’ hermetically sealed and type of protection ‘m’ encapsulation.

References :
IS : 5571 –1979 -Guide for Selection of Equipment for Hazardous Areas

IS : 13408 :1972-Code of Practice for the Selection ,Installation and Maintenance of Electrical
Apparatus for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres ( Other Than Mining Applications or
Explosives Processing and Manufacture)

OISD STD-113 : Classification of Areas for Installations at Hydrocarbon Processing and

Handling Facilities.

OISD –RP-149 : Design Aspects for Safety in Electricals System.

BS 5345 : Part 1 : 1989 : Selection , Installation and Maintenance of Electrical Apparatus for
Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres.

BS 5345 : Part –2 : 1983 : Selection ,Installation and Maintenance of Electrical

Apparatus for Use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres.

***

68
 10. CAUSES OF ELECTRICAL FIRES
• Overloading of electrical equipment resulting in excessive currents, as the heat generated is
proportional to square of the current. The equipment gets overheated. Overloaded cable
may loose their insulating properties and lead to short circuits and fire will take place.
• Defects or deterioration of electrical insulation may result in short circuits and continuous
arcing followed by ignition of combustible material.
• Deterioration and failure of pressure contacts between various components in electrical
installation may result in sparking.
• Fracture of current conducting components due to mechanical stresses or stains will result
into localized arcing at the point of fracture.

‘SPARKING’ is an early stage of mechanism of failure of pressure contacts. Sparking is a

voltage phenomenon.

‘ARCING’ occurs when there is a positive gap in the path of current either when insulation fails
or conductor or joint fractures while carrying current. Arcing is a current phenomenon.

CAUSES OF FIRE IN TRANSFORMER

a) Prolonged overloading beyond certain limits

b) Defect in an internal connection or terminal
c) Failure of inter turn insulation in the main winding
d) Defects in internal connections
e) Inter turn shorts due to relative movement of turns.

69
 COMMON FAILURES & THEIR CAUSES
FAILURE MODES CAUSES

Overheating/or burning of the 1. Inadequate crimp

crimped joint between the cable and 2. Incorrect dimensions of socket or crimping
the socket 3. dies.
4. Lack of tinning or oxidation.
5. Inadequate penetration of wire into the socket.
Incorrect location of crimp on socket.
Burning of the insulation around a 1. Overheating and/or weakened spring
spring loaded plug and socket 2. Incorrect spring characteristic plug & socket
dimensions incorrect
3. Defective crimp

Fracture of the crimped socket 1. Sharp bend for stress raiser

2. Excessive crimp
3. Vibrating flexing of wire
4. Minor deficiency in material of socket.

Fracture of wire strands 1. Excessive Crimp

2. Vibratory flexing of wire
3. Sharp corner on barrel of the socket
4. Absence of shrunk sheave over wire and
socket.

Failure of insulation of the wire 1. Wire bearing hard on structural members.

2. Inadequate support for wire.

Failure of terminal boards 1. Inadequate lightening of threaded fasterners.

2. Shrinkage of boards.
3. Currrent passing through steel bolts
4. Insufficient tracking clearance and metal
creep.
Failure of welded brazed and 1. Inadequate cleaning
soldered joints 2. Improper materials
3. Improper process parameters
4. Hydrogen embrittlement
5. Metal creep

Wrong connections or erroneous 1. Faulty circuit diagrams

wiring 2. Mistake committed during wiring and not
checked subsequently.

70
 11. BASIC GUIDE FOR ARC FLASH ASSESSMENT

ARC FLASH:

Electrical short circuits and faults are extremely dangerous and are potentially fatal to
personnel. Arc flash occurs when phase conductors are shorted and ionization of the air
occurs. When this happens, the arc faults produce large amounts of heat that can severely
burn human skin and even set clothing on fire. Also, molten metal is blasted from the fault
location outward in a radial direction. The arcing faults also produce large shock waves that
can blow personnel off their feet.

Arc Flash Hazard Studies are performed to determine the risk to personnel, warn them of
the hazards, and to instruct them as to what kind of personal protective equipment that they
must wear.

CAUSES OF ELCTRIC ARC:

Loose connections
Insulation failure
Poorly maintained equipment
Voltage transients
Unsuccessful Short Circuit Interruption
Dust and impurities
Corrosion
Condensation
Spark discharge
Overvoltage across narrow gaps
Improper work procedures

IMPACT OF ELECTRIC ARC:

Serious Injuries & Medical Costs

Fractures, serious burns or even death.
Equipment damage & Repair Cost
Switchgear replacement
Other gear in close proximity
Production Loss
Considerable costs due to Lost
Production and delayed deliveries
OSHA (Occupational Safety & Health Association)Fines
Standards for Arc Flash Analysis:
OSHA 1910:
The employer shall ensure that each employee exposed to electric arc shall not wear
clothing that will increase the injury when exposed to arc.

71
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) 70E – 2000:
Covers Electrical Safety related work practices & procedures for work on or near exposed
energized electrical conductors or circuit paths in workplaces.

IEEE 1584:
This guide presents the method for the calculation of arc_flash incident energy & arc flash
boundaries in three_phase ac system to which worker may be exposed.

NEC (National Electric Code) – 2002:

This standard talks about the marking system. Switch_boards, panel_boards, Industrial
Control panels shall be marked to warn qualified persons of potential electric arc flash
hazards.

Examples of each Category:

Category Incident Energy

0 0 - 1.2 cal/ sq.cm

1 1.2 – 4 cal/ sq.cm

2 4 – 8 cal/ sq.cm
3 8 – 25 cal/ sq.cm
4 25 – 40 cal/ sq.cm

Note: _Incident Energy doesn’t depend only on the voltage level but it also depends upon
short_circuit current on that particular bus, so we can’t be sure where the category will be
high& where it will be low depending on particular voltage.

Activities which are normally carried out on Live Panels:

1. Measurement of different electrical parameters such as voltage, current, power, etc.
2. Live work on these panels to tighten some connections.
3. To check connectivity of wires, cables, etc.

Measures to be taken (Corrective & Preventive):

1. Safety Training to the personnel.
2. Remote Operation of the protective devices.
3. Wearing proper Personnel Protective Devices (PPE) for working on those Particular
panels.
4. Good Safety practices.

72
 12. ARC FLASH HAZARDS ASSESMENT

Electrical short circuits and faults are extremely dangerous and are potentially fatal to
personnel. Arc flash occurs when phase conductors are shorted and ionization of the air
occurs. When this happens, the arc faults produce large amounts of heat that can severely
burn human skin and even set clothing on fire. Also, molten metal is blasted from the fault
location outward in a radial direction. The arcing faults also produce large shock waves that
can blow personnel off their feet.

Arc Flash Hazard Studies are performed to determine the risk to personnel, warn them of
the hazards, and to instruct them as to what kind of personal protective equipment that they
must wear.

ARC Flash Study :- An Arc Flash Hazard Study is an analysis and assessment of the arc
flash and shock hazards at a facility. The purpose of the study is to identify the appropriate
level of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for the personnel at various locations
throughout the facility. These locations include switchgear, switchboards, substations,
panelboards, motor control centers, and industrial control panels.

The arc flash study is a combination of a short circuit study and protective device
coordination study. Both of these studies must be completed before an Arc Flash Hazard
Study can be completed.

A} Data Required :
The availability of the technical data is very important in case of System Studies. The data
required for ARC Flash Study will be the results of Faults analysis & Devices Coordinations.
The following data is required & availability of the same shall be checked for executing the

Arc Flash Study ;

a) Single Line Diagram for the Plants / Facility (showing details of Substations, Panels,
PCCs, MCCsetc)
b) Utility / Source Fault Levels.
c) Protective Equipments Details (Technical Catalogues giving all details like Rating, Type,
Make, settings options etc.)
d) Short Circuit Currents at various buses ( 3 phase Bolted Fault Currents)
e) Existing Settings of Various Protective Devices.(Tripping Timings)
f) Options / margin available for varying the settings (Tripping Times) of Protective
Devices, if required
g) Availability of Device Coordination curves.
h) Drawings / General Arrangements Layout drawings of Various panels,PCCs, MCCs
Switch boards giving details about internal arrangement of buses etc

The ARC Flash Study will be performed based on above input data. The arc flash study will
determine energy levels, boundary distances and assist the owner in complying with the
NFPA guidelines.

73
The results of the arc flash study will include:
1) Short Circuit Current Values
2) Protective Device Settings (Protective Device Coordination Study)
3) Arc Flash Incident Energy Levels
4) Boundary Distances for
a) Arc Flash Protection
b) Limited Approach
c) Restricted Approach
d) Prohibited Approach
5) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
6) Arc Flash and Shock Hazard Warning Labels (listing items #3 and #4a-d) for select
equipment.
7) Complete report including;
a) Introduction
b) Executive Summary
c) Short Circuit Study
d) Short Circuit Equipment Summary Sheets
e) Protective Device Coordination Study
f) Protective Device Setting Sheets
g) Time Current Curves
h) Arc Flash and Shock Hazard Study
i) Arc Flash Calculations

74
 13. STATIC ELECTRICITY

Lightening is the best example of Static Charge discharging. When lightning strikes a tree or a
building the charge in the cloud discharges. This could be hundreds of thousands of volts. Many
of you must have experienced the crackling noise produced on a dry day when you try to hang a
polyester or nylon shirt on a metal hangar held in your hand. Well that is Static Charge on the
shirt discharging through the hangar.

Hazards Associated With Static Electricity

The ill effects caused by the accumulation of static electricity range from the discomfort one
experiences when touching a charged object to the very serious injuries, even fatalities, which
can occur from an explosion induced by static electricity. The physiological effect of electrostatic
discharges on humans ranges from uncomfortable prickling, to violent reflex actions. These
effects are produced by the discharge current and, especially, by the current density.
When the electrical field induced exceeds the ability of the surrounding environment to
withstand the charge (that is, exceeds the dielectric strength of the environment) a discharge
occurs. Disruptive discharges can take the following forms:

• sparks or arcs which bridge two bodies (two metal electrodes)

• partial, or brush, discharges which bridge a metal electrode and an insulator, or even two
insulators; these discharges are termed partial because the conducting path does not totally
short-circuit two metal electrodes, but is usually multiple and brush like.
• Corona discharges, also known as point effects, which arise in the strong electric field
around small-radius charged bodies or electrodes.
A person wearing insulating shoes is a common example of an insulated conductor. The human
body is an electrostatic conductor, with a typical capacitance relative to ground of approximately
150 pF and a potential of upt 30 kV. Because people can be insulating conductors, they can
experience mild electrostatic discharges such as the more or less painful sensation sometimes
produced when a hand approaches a door handle or other metal object. Stronger discharges
may cause uncontrollable movements resulting in falls. In the case of wokers using tools, the
involuntary reflex motions may lead to injuries to the victim and others who may be working
nearby.

Actual arcing will occur when the strength of the induced electric field exceeds the dielectric
strength of the air. Because of the rapid migration of charges in conductors, essentially all the
charges will flow to the discharge point, releasing all the stored energy into a spark. This can
have serious implications when working with flammable or explosive substances or in
flammable conditions.

The approach of a grounded electrode to a charged insulating surface modifies the electric field
and induces a charge in the electrode. As the surfaces approach each other, the field strength
increases, eventually leading to a partial discharge from the charged insulated surface. Because
charges on the insulating surfaces are not mobile, only a small proportion of the surface

75
participates in the discharge, and the energy released by this type of discharge is therefore
much lower than in arcs.

Electrostatic Discharges and Fire and Explosion Hazards

In explosive atmospheres, violent exothermic oxidation reactions, involving energy transfers to
the atmosphere, may be triggered by:

• Open flames
• Electric sparks
• Radio-frequency sparks near a strong radio source
• Sparks produced by collisions (e.g. between metal and concrete)
• Electrostatic discharges
We shall discuss, however, only the last one.

A mixture of air and flammable gas or vapour can explode only when the concentration of the
flammable substance is between it upper and lower explosive limits. Within this range, the
minimal ignition energy (MIE) – the energy which an electrostatic discharge must possess to
ignite the mixture- is highly concentration dependent. The minimal ignition energy has been
consistently shown to depend on the speed of energy release and, by extension, on discharge
duration. The electrode radius is also a factor.

• Small – diameter electrodes (of the order of several mms) result in corona discharges, rather
than spark
• With larger diameter electrodes (of the order of several cms) the electrode mass serves to
cool the sparks.

In general, the lowest MIEs are obtained with electrodes that are just big enough to prevent
corona discharges

The MIE also depends on the inter electrode distance, and is lowest at quenching distance, the
distance at which the energy produced in the reaction zone exceeds the thermal losses at the
electrodes. It has been experimentally demonstrated that each flammable substance has a
maximum safe distance, corresponding to the minimum inter-electrode distance at which an
explosion can occur. For hydrocarbon this is less 1mm.

Examples
Many processes routinely used for handling and transporting chemicals generate electrostatic
charges. These include:

• Pouring powders from sacks

• Screening
• Transport in pipework
• Liquid agitation, especially in the presence of multiple phases, suspended solids, or
droplets of non-miscible liquids
• Liquid spraying or misting

76
The consequences of electrostatic charge generation include mechanical problem, an
electrostatic discharge hazard for operators and if products containing inflammable solvents of
vapours are used, even explosion.

Liquid hydrocarbons, such as oil, kerosene and many common solvents, have two
characteristics which render them particularly sensitive to problems of static electricity.

• High sensitivity, which allows them to accumulate high levels of charges

• Flammable vapours, which increase the risk of low-energy discharges triggering fires and
explosions.

Charges may be generated during transportation flow (e.g. through pipeworks, pumps, or
valves). Passage through fine filters, such as those used during the filling of aeroplane tanks,
may result in the generation of charge densities of several hundred microcoulombs per cubic
meter. Particle sedimentation and the generation of charged mists of foams during flow-filling of
tanks may also generate charges.

The following factors in combination create a potential static electricity hazard:

• Generation of static electricity charge

• Accumulation of static charge in liquid or solid causing an electric field in an accompanying
gas mixture.
• Generation of a spark sufficient in strength to ignite the mixture
• The gas mixture is flammable.

Static electricity is also generated from frictional and rolling contact between objects. Examples
of static generation are splash filling, agitation and mixing.

Accumulation of Charge

Bodies which are relatively well insulated from each other and the ground can only accumulate
hazardous electro-static charges, otherwise charges leak away and recombine with other parts
of the system almost as fast as they are formed. The accumulation, as distinguished from
generation of electrostatic charges on equipment and other bodies is influenced in large
measure by humidity. During periods of normal humidity, an invisible film of water provides an
electrical leakage path even over the best insulators- even rubber tyres will drain off static
charges which build up on vehicles by rolling contact of the tyres.

Earthing is necessary to prevent accumulation of static charge on equipment. A point to note is

in the case of pipelines through which statically charged liquid flows. Earthing the pipe may not
be sufficient as it may not drain of the charge in the liquid fast enough. In such cases anti-static
additives are mixed with the fluid.

77
Prevention

Some of the basic and effective steps that may be taken to prevent static ignition are discussed
in the following paragraphs:

Bonding
Sparking between two conducting bodies can be prevented by an electrical bond between the
two bodies. This bond prevents a difference in potential between the bodies because it
provides conducting path between the bodies. No charge can therefore accumulate and
therefore no spark.

Grounding or Earthing
Grounding or earthing of an object is the surest way of preventing accumulation of static charge
on the object. It is for this reason that the bodies of electrical apparatus, panels, and any object
likely to accumulate static charge are earthed preferably with bare conducting metal wires or
strips.

Anti-Static Aditives
Additives are available and may be used to increase the conductivity of a liquid thereby
reducing the hazards of static charge. A small quantity added increases the conductivity
considerably.

Reducing Static Generation

The voltage on any body receiving a charge is related to both the rate of static generation and
the rate of static dissipation. The voltage can be prevented from reaching the sparking potential
by restricting or reducing the rate of static generation. Thus reducing agitation by avoiding air or
vapour bubbling, reducing flow velocity and jets and proper blending, and avoiding free falling or
dropping of liquid on surfaces will decrease or eliminate static generation.

Protection of Workers
Workers who have reason to believe that they have become electrostatically charged
(for example, when dismounting from a vehicle in dry weather or walking with certain
types of shoes), can apply a number of protective measures, such as the following:

• Reduce the current density at the skin level by touching a grounded conductor with a piece
of metal such as a key or tool.
• Reduce the peak value of the current by discharging to a dissipating object, if one is
available (a table top or special device such as a protective wrist strap).

Protection in Explosive Atmospheres

In explosive atmospheres, it is the environment itself that is sensitive to electrostatic discharges,
and discharges may result in ignition or explosion. Protection in these cases consists of
replacing the air either with a gas mixture whose oxygen content is less than the lower explosive
limit, or with an inert gas, such as nitrogen. Inert gas has been used in silos and in reaction
vessels in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. In this case, adequate precautions to
assure that the workers receive an adequate air supply are needed.

78
Lightning Arrester

Everyone is aware of the destruction caused by lightning strikes. It is therefore important to

protect tall buildings and structures from the dangers of lightning strikes. Normally standard
lightning arresters with prongs are provided at the highest point of the structure or building firmly
so as to withstand the pressures of strong winds. Down conductors of copper strips is run as far
as possible straight from the arrestor without any bends. Separate earthing pits are provided as
per IS 3043 and the down conductors are earthed through the pits.
Lightening is a frequent cause of fires and deaths of people in many countries in the world.
Lightning is a form of electrical discharge between charged clouds and earth. Lightning strikes
may range from 5 to 50 million V between clouds and the earth.
The frequency of lightning (occurrence) varies between countries and areas depending on the
number of thunderstorm-days per year for the locality. The damage that lightning can cause
depends very much on the ground condition, with more damage occurring in areas of high earth
resistivity.
While the exact theory of lightning discharges is still being investigated, the basic principle of
protection is to provide a means by which a lightning discharge may enter or leave the earth
without damaging the building being protected.
• to intercept the lightning discharge before it strikes the building
• provide a harmless discharge path to earth.

This buildings to be fitted with:

• lightning rods or masts
• down conductors
• good ground connections, typically 10 ohms or less.

Overhead transmission lines, transformers, outdoor substations and other electrical installation
can be damaged by direct lightning strikes. Electrical transmission equipment can also pick up
induced voltage and current surges that can enter buildings. Fire, damage to equipment and
serious interruption to operations may result. Surge arresters are required to divert these
voltage peaks to ground through effective earthing.

***

79
 14 . ELECTRICAL SHOCK AND BURNS TREATMENT

A person feels an electric shock when a current passes through the body. The severity of
electric shock on the human system depends upon a number of factors, viz., the current
passing, whether any vital organs are involved, the duration of contact and whether it is DC or
AC. The current itself obviously depends on the voltage and the resistance of the body. Body
resistance that comprises mainly of skin resistance lies between 100,000 and 500,000 ohms,
when dry, varying widely with different individuals. But if the skin is wet it may drop down to
5000 ohms or less. Resistance decreases with the area of contact with the live part and the
contact pressure. It may be noted that AC voltages have more severe effects than
corresponding DC voltages.

The Effect of Current on the Human Body is as under.

1 1 to 8 ma* perceptible but not painful

2 8 to 15 ma Painful shock, individual can let go at will, as muscular control
is not lost
3 15 to 20 ma Painful shock, muscular control of adjacent muscles lost,
cannot let go.
4 20 to 50 ma Severe muscular contraction, breathing difficult.
5 50 to 100 ma (Possible) Ventricular fibrillation, a heart condition that results
in death.
6 200 ma and (Certain) Severe burns, muscular contraction so severe that
above chest muscles clamp down the heart and stop it during the
duration of shock.
* ma = milliamp

An electrical shock is the physiopathological effect resulting from the direct or indirect passage
of an exernal electrical current through the body. It includes direct and indirect contacts and
both unipolar and bipolar currents.

Individuals –living or deceased – having suffered electrical shocks are said to have suffered
electrification, the term electrocution should be reserved for cases in which death ensues.
Lightning strikes are fatal electric shocks resulting from lightning.

It is a comforting thought that the number of electrocutions are decreasing, both in absolute
terms and, even more strikingly, as a function of the total consumption of electricity.
Approximately half of electrical accidents are occupational in origin, with the other half occurring
at home and during leisure activities.

80
Physical and Physiopathological Basis of Electrocution

Electrical specialists divide electrical contacts into two groups: direct contacts involving
contact with live components, and indirect contacts, involving grounded contacts. Each of these
requires fundamentally different preventive measures.
From a medical point of view, the current’s path through the body is the key prognostic and
therapeutic determinant. For example, bipolar contact of a child’s mouth with an extension cord
plug causes extremely serious burns to the mouth – but not death if the child is well insulated
from the ground.

In occupational settings, where high voltages are common, arcing between an active
component carrying a high voltage and workers who approach too closely is also possible.
Specific work situations can also affect the consequences of electrical accidents for example,
workers may fall or act inappropriately when surprised by an otherwise relatively harmless
electrical shock.

Electrical accidents may be caused by the entire range of voltages present in work places.
Every industrial industrial sector has its own set of conditions capable of causing direct, indirect,
unipolar, bipolar, arcing or induced contact, and ultimately accidents

Physiopathology
Living organisms are electrical conductors. Electrification occurs when there is a potential
difference between two points in the organism. It is important to emphasize that the danger of
electrical accidents arises not from mere contact with a live conductor, but rather from
simultaneous contact with a live conductor and another at a different potential

The tissues and organs along the current path may undergo functional motor excitation, in some
case irreversible, or may suffer temporary or permanent injury, generally as a result of burns.
The extent of these injuries is a function of the energy released or the quantity of electricity
passing through them. The transit time of the electric current is therefore critical in determining
the degree of injury. ( For example, electric eels and rays produce extremely unpleasant
discharges, capable of inducing a loss of consciousness. However, despite a voltage of 600 V,
a current of approximately 1A and a subject resistance of 600 Ohms, these fish are incapable of
inducing a lethal shock, since the discharge duration is too brief, of the order of tens of
microseconds.) Thus at high voltages (> 1000V), death is often due to the extent of the burns.
At lower voltages, death is a function of the amount of electricity ( Q = I x t), reaching the heart,
determined by the type, location and area of contact points.

The following sections discuss the mechanism ofdeath due to electrical accidents, the most
effective immediate therapies and the factors determining the severety of injury – namely,
resistance, intensity, voltage, frequency and wave form.

Causes of Death in Electrical Accidents

In rare cases, asphyxia may be the cause of death. This may result from prolonged tetanus of
the diaphragm, inhibition of the respiratory centers in cases of contact with the head, or very
high current densities, for example as a result of lightning strikes. If care can be provided within
three minutes, the victim may be revived with a few puffs of mouth –to –to mouth resuscitation.

81
On the other hand, peripheral circulatory collapse secondary to ventricular fibrillation remains
the main cause of death. This invariably develops in the absence of cardiac massage applied
simultaneously with mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. These interventions, which should be taught
to all electricians, should be maintained until the arrival of emergency medical aid, which almost
always takes more than three minutes. A great many electropathologists and engineers around
the world have studied the causes of ventricular fibrillation, in order to design better passive or
active protective measures. Random desynchronization of the myocardium requires a sustained
electric current of a specific frequency, intensity and transit time. Most importantly, the electrical
signal must arrive at the myocardium during the so-called vulnerable phase of the cardiac cycle,
corresponding to the start of the T- wave of the electrocardiogram.

Role of Various Electrical Parameters

Each of the electrical parameters (current, voltage, resistance, time, frequency.) and wave form
are important determinants of injury, both in their own right and by virtue of their interaction,
Current thresholds have been established for alternating current, as well as for other conditions
defined above. The current intensity during electrocution is unknown, since it is function of
tissue resistance at the moment of contact (I = V/R), but is generally perceptible at levels of
approximately 1 mA. Relatively low currents can cause muscualar contractions that may prevent
a victim from letting go of an energized object. The threshold of this current is a function of
condensity, contact area, contact pressure, and individual variations. Virtually all men and
almost all women and children can let go at currents up to 6mA. At 10 mA it has been observed
that 98.5% of men and 60% of women and 7.5% of children can let go at 20 mA. No one can let
go at 30 mA an greater.

Currents of approximately 25 mA may cause tetanus of the diaphragm, the most powerful
respiratory muscle. If contact is maintained for three minutes, cardiac arrest may also may
ensue.

Ventricular fibrillation becomes a danger at levels of approximately 45 mA, with a probability in

adults of 5% after a 5-second contact. During heart surgery, admittedly a special condition,
current of 20 to 100x 10-6 applied directly to the myocardium is sufficient to induce fibrillation.
This myocardial sensitivity is the reason for strict standards applied to electromedical devices.

All other things ( V, R, frequency) being equal, current thresholds also depend on the wave
form, animal species, weight, current direction in the heart, ratio of the current transit time to the
cardiac cycle, point in the cardiac cycle at which the current arrives, and individual factors.

The voltage involved in accidents is generally known. In cases of direct contact, ventricular
fibrillation and the severity of burns are directly proportional to voltage. In the case of indirect
contacts, the contact voltage (V) and conventional voltage limit must also be taken into
account.

The contact voltage is the voltage to which a person is subjected on simultaneously touching
two conductors between which a voltage differential exists due to defective insulation. The
intensity of the resultant current flow depends on the resistance of the human body and the
external circuit. This current should not be allowed to rise above safe levels, which is to say that
it must conform to safe time-current curves. The highest contact voltage that can be tolerated
indefinitely without inducing electropathological effects is termed the conventional voltage limit
or more intuitively, the safety voltage.

82
The actual value of the resistance during electrical accident is unknown. Variation in in-series
resistance- for example, clothes and shoes- explain much of the variation observed in the
effects of ostensibly similar electrical accidents, exert little influence on the outcome of
accidents involving bipolar contacts and high voltage electrification. In cases involving
alternating current, the effect of capacitive and inductive phenomena must be added to the
standard calculation based on voltage and current (R= V/I).

The resistance of the human body is the sum of the skin resistance ( R) at the two points of
contact and the body’s internal resistance (R). Skin resistance varies with environmental factors
and , is partially a function of the contact voltage. Other factors such as pressure, contact area,
the state of the skin at the point of contact, and individual factors also influence resistance. It is
thus unrealistic to attempt to base preventive measures on estimates of skin resistance.
Prevention should instead be based on the adaptation of equipment and procedures to humans,
rather than the reverse.

The frequency of the electrical signal is generally known. In India it is 50 Hz. Above a certain
frequency, the physical laws governing penetration of current into the body change completely.
Thermal effects related to the amount of energy released become the main effect, as capacitive
and inductive phenomena start to predominate.

The wave- form of the electrical signal responsible for an electrical accident is usually known. It
may be an important determinant of injury in accidents involving contact with capacitors or
semiconductors.

Clinical Study of Electric Shock

Classically, electrocution have been divided into low (50 to 1000 V) and high (>1000V) voltage
incidents.

Low voltage is a familiar, indeed omnipresent, hazard, and shocks due to it are encountered in
domestic, leisure, agricultural, and hospital settings as well as in industry.

In reviewing the range of low- voltage electric shocks, from the most trivial to the most serious,
we must start with uncomplicated electrical shock. In these cases, victims are able to remove
themselves from harm on their own, retain consciousness and maintain normal ventilation.
Cardiac effects are limited to simple sinus tachycardia wi;th or without minor
electrocardiographic abnormalities. Despite the relatively minor consequences of such
accidents, electrocardiography remains an appropriate medical and medico- legal precaution.
Technical investigation of these potentially serious incidents is indicated as a compliment to
clinical examination.

Victims of shock involving somewhat stronger and longer-lasting electrical contacts shocks may
suffer from perturbations or loss of consciousness, but completely recover more or less rapidly;
treatment accelerates recovery. Examination generally reveals neuromuscular hypertonias,
hyper-reflective ventilation problems and congestion, the last of which is often secondary to oro-
pharyngeal obstruction. Cardiovascular disorders are secondary to hypoxia or anoxia, or may
take the form of tachycardia, hypertension and, in some cases, even infarction. Patients with
these conditions require hospital care.

83
The occasional victims who lose consciousness within a few seconds of contact appear pale or
cyanotic, stop breathing, have barely perceptible pulses and exhibit mydriasis, indicative of
acute cerebral injury. Although usually due to ventricular fibrillation, the precise pathogenesis of
this apparent death is, however, irrelevant. The important point is the rapid commencement of
well- defined therapy, since it has been known for some time that this clinical state never leads
to actual death. The prognosis in these cases of electric shock – from which total recovery is
possible –depends on the rapidity and quality of first aid. Statistically, this is most likely to be
administered by non-medical personnel, and the training of all electricians in the basic
interventions likely to ensure survival is therefore indicated.

In cases of apparent death, emergency treatment must take priority. In other cases, however,
attention must be paid to multiple traumas resulting from violent tetanus, falls or the projection of
the victim through the air. Once the immediate life – threatening danger has been resolved,
trauma and burns, including those caused by low voltage contacts, should be attended to.
Action to be taken in the Event of a Person Getting Shock

1. First prevent anyone else from ignorantly rushing out to rescue the victim, and getting
himself electrocuted in trying to help. Cordon off the area until supply is cut off. Next cut
off the supply, or disconnect the person from the supply, by any means available. What
is required is immediate action. If the main switch is close by switch it off at once. If not
ask someone to contact the sub-station supplying the area to cut off the supply
temporarily.
2. In the case of high voltage circuits, switching of the supply is obligatory, but if the voltage
is 500 volts or below every attempt should be made to free the person from contact with
the live wire after protecting oneself with any dry insulating material.
3. How one does this is a matter of ingenuity and presence of mind. Stand on a dry plank,
stool, table or any other insulating object and pull the man away from the live contact. If
this is not possible pull his coat if dry. Use your own coat or dry paper or any other such
insulating substance, like dry bamboo, or wooden pole either to pull or push the man,
without touching his body directly. Particular care is necessary where the ground is wet.
Some time the live wire itself may be pulled or pushed away using dry walking stick,
bamboo, pole etc.
4. Ask for a doctor.
If the person is unconscious, observe if he is breathing normally, if not start giving
artificial respiration without any delay.
Artificial Respiration
There are several methods of applying artificial respiration, any one of which is good, if applied
properly. Given below are two of the methods.

a. Place the patient on his stomach with his face to one side. Free the neck from clothing
and see that the passage to his throat is clear. Remove false teeth, tobacco, etc. if any
from the mouth.
b. Kneel over him or at his side as may be convenient and place the palms of your hand
flat in the small of his back, with the thumbs nearly touching and the fingers spread out
on each side of the body under the lowest side of the ribs.

84
c. With arms straight, lean forward gradually over the patient bringing the weight of your
body to bear on the patient for about a second. Figure A. Next release all pressure for
about three seconds by swinging your body backwards but without lifting your hands
from the patient. Figure B.(See figures on the next page.)
d. Repeat this application and relaxation of pressure as described above, without any
marked pause between the movements, at the rate of about 12 to 15 times per minute,
until natural breathing is established.
e. Do not give up efforts to restore natural breathing, until the victim is pronounced to be
safe by a doctor. Cases are on record where artificial respiration has succeeded even
after more than an hour.
f. The patient should be kept warm with blankets or coats, and hot water bottles, if
available should be applied to the feet.
g. Do not give any liquid until the patient is conscious.

Where any chest injury is suspected, such as due to fall from height, an alternative method of
artificial respiration may be adopted as indicated below:

First loosen the clothes around the chest and stomach, an place a rolled-up coat, or other
improvised pillow, beneath the shoulders so that the head falls backwards. The tongue should
then be drawn forward.

First motion: Kneel in the position shown in the figure below, grasp the patient just below the
elbows and draw his arms over his head until horizontal, retaining them there for about two
seconds. The lung inflating effect will be better if the arms are outwards as they are lifted.
Second motion: Next bring the patient’s arms down on each side of his chest, and pressing
inwards upon it, lean upon the arms so as to compress his chest as in figure below. Remain
thus for two seconds and then keep repeating the two motions at the same rate
If more than one person be present, the patient’s tongue should preferably be drawn out during
each outward or lung-inflating stroke and released during each inward or lung-deflating stroke.
Whatever may be the method employed , it should be done gently and without violence.
One of the latest techniques of rendering artificial respiration which yields good results is the
oscular or mouth – to – mouth method. It is easily applied and particularly suited where the
patient has suffered chest injuries
Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation Method
i) Place victim on his back. Place his head slightly downhill if possible. A folded coat or
similar object under victim’s shoulders will help maintain proper position, tilt head
back, so that the chin points straight up.
ii) Grasp victim’s jaw as illustrated in position 1 and raise it upward until lower teeth are
higher than the upper teeth; or place fingers on both sides of the jaw near ear lobes

85
 and pull upward. Maintain jaw position throughout resuscitation period to prevent
tongue from blocking air passage.
iii) Take deep breath and place your mouth over victim’s mouth (position 2) making air
tight contact. Pinch the victim’s nose, shut with thumb and forefinger or close nostrils,
by pressing your cheek against them. If you hesitate at direct contact, place porous
cloth between you and the victim at the mouth ofcourse. If an infant place your mouth
over its mouth and nose.
iv) Blow into victim’s mouth (gently, in an infant) until chest rises. Remove your mouth to
let him exhale, turning your head to hear out rush of air. The first 8 to 10 breaths
should be as rapid as victim will respond. Thereafter rate should be slowed down to
about 12 times a minute.(20 times if an infant)
v) If air cannot be blown in, check position of victim’s head and jaw and recheck mouth
for obstructions, then try again more forcefully. If chest still does not rise, turn victim’s
face down and strike his back sharply to dislodge obstructions.

Sometimes air enters victim’s stomach, evidenced by swelling of stomach. Expel air by gently
pressing down on stomach during exhalation period

86
 15. FIRST-AID AND ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCK & CPR

EMERGENCY FIRST- AID

1. If you are the first on the scene of accident that results in an injury or serious
illness, you may be the only link between a victim and emergency medical care. Your
role is to take action, whether by providing first aid, seeking medical help or
calling EMS or Police. Your actions may improve the victim’s chance of recovery.
2. The following slides will provide specific information from on basic first aid
procedures.

First-aid is the emergency care and treatment of a sick or injured person

before professional medical services are obtained.

FIRST AID MEASURES ARE NOT MEANT TO REPLACE PROPER MEDICAL

DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT, but will only consist of providing temporary
support until professional medical assistance is available.

Purpose:

1. to save life,
2. prevent further injury, and
3. to minimize or prevent infection.

Primary objectives:

(1) to maintain an open airway;

(2) maintain breathing, and;
(3) to maintain circulation, control bleeding, and reduce or prevent shock.

Initial Assessment:

- Quickly inspect the area.

- Remain calm ,
- Act quickly but efficiently.
Consider the following:

1. Safety –
2. Mechanism of injury –
3. Number of casualties -
4. Bystanders –
5. Introduce yourself -

87
 1. Keep the casualty lying down, head level with the body, unless the casualty has one
of the following conditions that represent an exception to the above.
a.Vomiting or bleeding around the mouth

b.Difficulty breathing

c.Shock

2.Do not move the casualty more than is necessary.

3. Reassure the casualty
4. Do not touch open wounds or burns with your fingers unless it is absolutely
necessary
5. Do not give the casualty anything to eat or drink
6. Do not attempt to straighten broken or dislocated bones. Use splint
7. When transporting, carry the casualty feet first

BASIC LIFE SUPPORT

Airway maintenance:

* Restore breathing to reverse respiratory arrest commonly caused by electric shock,

drowning, head injuries, and allergic reactions.

* Restore circulation

Airway Obstruction

Causes:

swallowing large pieces of improperly chewed food, drinking alcohol before or during meals, and
laughing while eating.

The tongue is the most common cause of obstruction in the casualty who is unconscious.

A foreign body can cause a partial or complete airway obstruction.

Partial Airway Obstruction

Complete Airway Obstruction

Complete Airway Obstruction

1. Shout "Help“ - and Request medical assistance - Call local emergency number or
medical personnel.
2. Abdominal thrusts (Heimlich Manoeuvre)

a. Stand behind and place your arms around the (Fig.2-1) casualty’s waist.

88
b. With your fist, place the thumb side against the middle of the abdomen, above the
navel and below the tip (xiphoid process) of the (sternum) breastbone.

c. Grasp your fist with your other hand.

d. Keeping your elbows out, press your fist (Fig. 2-2) into the abdomen with a quick upward
thrust.

e. Repeat until the obstruction is clear.

89
If the casualty becomes unconscious,
do the following:
Figure 2-2: Figure 2-3:
Abdominal Thrust Head Tilt-Chin Lift

Rescue Breathing /artificial respiration

Figure 2-4 Mouth-to-Mouth Ventilation

90
3. Finger sweep –

Place the casualty on his back, open his mouth and run your index finger into the
mouth along inside of cheek to base of tongue. Use "hooking“ motion to dislodge
object for removal.

4. Open airway (Head-tilt/Chin-lift) –

Place your hand on the forehead. Place the fingers of your other hand under the (Fig.
2-3) bony part of the chin. Tilt the head and lift the jaw, and place your ear over the casualty's
mouth and nose. Look at the chest, listen and feel for breathing.

5. Give breaths –

Pinch nose, open your mouth, take a deep breath, and make an air-
tight seal around the casualty's mouth. Give 2 full breaths, each lasting 1 to
1+1/2 seconds. Pause between each breath

Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure for the casualty, who

is not breathing and whose heart has stopped beating (cardiac arrest). The procedure
involves a combination of chest compressions and rescue breathing.The
casualty must be lying face up on a firm surface.

RESUSCITATION (CPR) ABC’s

 Breath - give two breaths.

 Check circulation.
 If there is no pulse or breathing (next slide)
 AIRWAY – Open the airway with the tilt-chin method.

- Perform chest compressions:

91
 q 15 compressions and two breaths.
- Count = 1&2&3&4&5…&15

- Call

RESCUE BREATHING :

1 breath every 5 seconds - 12 per minute

Circulation:

Cardiac arrest:

The failure of the heart to produce a useful blood flow or the heart has completely
stopped beating.

Signs:

* unconsciousness,
* the absence of a pulse, and
* the absence of breathing.
* Immediate action must be taken to restore breathing and circulation.

92
93
First Aid and CPR for Electrical Shock
Severity of Injury
• Voltage
• Duration
• Path taken
• Body resistance

Effects of Electrical Shock

• Cardiac Arrest
• Heart Rhythm Problems
• Respiratory Failure
• Convulsions
• Internal Burns
• Muscular Contraction and pain
• Unconsciousness
• Shock
• Fractures
• Tingling and numbness

Electrical Shock: First Aid

• Look First, Do not touch
• Turn off the electricity source
• Check the patient in a systematic way
• Do not move a patient unless absolutely necessary
• Look for point of entry and exit
• Do not be complacent if there are no external injuries

Burns

Turn off power at its source before touching the victim

Don’t enter high voltage area

If victim becomes unresponsive, begin CPR and use AED

If Clothes on Fire

94
Command the victim to:

“STOP, DROP, and ROLL”

Help put out the flames by covering the victim with a blanket and/or soaking him/her
with water
Burns caused by hot objects / fire:

• Cool burn immediately: hold burned area under running tap water till the burning
sensation subsides
• Do not apply creams or lotions etc
• Do not burst blisters
• Note the burn time as accurately as possible
• After cooling with water, cut off hot or smoldering clothing, providing it is not adhered
to the skin
• Cover with sterile dressing
• Seek medical help

Convulsions
• Clear furniture near the patient to avoid injury
• Put a soft cloth or blanket below the head
• Do not hold the patient
• DO not put anything in the mouth
• After convulsions have stopped, assess the patient

Spine Stabilization:
Suspect injury to the cervical spine if there is:
• Injury to the head
• Broken collar bone
• Polytrauma (Multiple injuries)
• Fall from a height
• Diving accident
• Severe electrical shock
DO NOT move the casualty from their original position unless he/she is in danger
or becomes unconscious
• Attempt only if you MUST turn the casualty on to the back to resuscitate
• Ensure that the head, trunk and toes are in a straight line
• While maintaining support at the neck, ask helpers to gently straighten the casualty’s
limbs, and “log-roll” him/her over

95
BASIC LIFE SUPPORT (CPR)
Cardiac Arrest

Definition: Sudden cessation of either Mechanical/Electrical or both activities of the Heart

Clinically characterized by:

• Unresponsiveness
• Absence of Breathing
• Absence of pulse

Chain of Survival
Early Recognition
Early Access
Early CPR
Early Defibrillation
Early Advanced Life Support

BASIC CPR

It is an attempt to restore spontaneous circulation by using chest wall compressions and

pulmonary ventilation (giving breaths)

PRINCIPLES OF BLS / CPR

• To establish unresponsiveness
• To provide oxygen to the brain
• To maintain circulation
• Early defibrillation using AED

Steps of BLS / CPR

STEP 1: Early Recognition

Check for Unresponsiveness

STEP 2: Early Access

Call Ambulance and AED

All you need to remember is ABCD

A = Airway
B = Breathing
C = Circulation
D = Defibrillation

96
A = AIRWAY

Open airway by HEAD TILT and CHIN LIFT

B = BREATHING

LOOK.…..LISTEN…… AND FEEL! (For 5 - 10 Seconds )

• Take a normal breath

• GIVE TWO RESCUE BREATHS
• Each over ONE second
• Each breath should make the chest rise

C = CIRCULATION

• Place the hands on the breast bone at the nipple line

• Give Chest Compressions
• Compression – Ventilation Ratio should be 30:2 for all age groups
(except newborn)

Chest Compression Skills

• Rescuers SHOULD push Hard and Fast.

• Compress at the rate of 100/ minutes for all victims. (except for new born)
• Allow chest to recoil completely after each compression.
• Try to limit chest interruptions in compressions
• Depth of compression should be 1and 1/2 – 2 inches.
D = DEFIBRILLATION

Step 1: POWER ON
Step 2: ATTACH AED PADS & THEN ANALYSE

Step 3: DELIVER SHOCK

97
 16. LIST OF STANDARDS
Standard Subject

1293-1988 3 Pin Plug and Socket Outlets

722-1972 3Phase Watt-hour Meters with MDI
2516-1980 AC Circuit Breakers
3837-1976 Accessories for rigid steel conduits
8095-1976 Accident prevention tags.
4064-1978 Air break switches, Air break disconnector and fuse combination units for
voltages not exceeding 1000v AC or 1200v DC
2512-1978 Batteries (lead acid type) for miners cap lamp
5133 Part 1- Boxes for enclosure of electrical accessories
1969
6789-1972 cable couplers and adapters, bolted flame proof.
2593-1964 Cable flexible for miner’s cap lamp.
1026-1966 Cable flexible trailing for use in quarries.
4821-1968 Cable glands and sealing boxes for use in mines.
691-1966 Cable rubber insulated flexible trailing for in coal mines
4817-1968 Cable rubber insulated for mines.
2268-1988 Call Bells/Buzzers
374-1979 Ceiling Fans
3202-1965 Climate Proofing of Electrical Equipment
3043-1987 Code of practice for earthing
6665-1972 code of practice for industrial lighting.
4591-1968 Code of practice for installation and maintenance of escalators.
3072-1975 Code of practice for installation of Switchgear
2309-1969 Code of Practice for Lightnig Protection
3106-1966 Code of practice for Selection, Installation and Maintenance of Fuse (upto
650volts)
2274-1963 Code of Practice for Wiring Installations ( exceeding 650 volts)
9249 part I Common safety requirements.
1979

98
part II-1982 Instruments using main supply.
2705-1992 Current Transformers
2551-1963 Danger notice plates
2147-1962 Degree of Protection provided for enclosure for Sw-gear and control gear low
voltage.
1248-1983 Direct Acting Electrical Indicating Instruments
3051-1965 Earthing for transformers.
1913-1969 Electric lighting fittings general and safety requirements for( first revision)
4648-1968 Electrical layout in residential buildings, guide for
9836-1981 Electrical and electronic equipment for coal explorers.
9559-1980 Electrical and electronic equipment for coal miners, guards for selection
7693-1975 Electrical apparatus for use in explosive gas atmospheres, oil immersed.
6381-1972 Electrical apparatus with type of protection ‘e’ construction and testing of.
5571-1970 Electrical equipment for hazardous areas, guide for selection of.
7724-1975 Electrical equipment for use in explosive atmosphere sand filled protection of.
4051-1967 Electrical equipment in mines, code of practice for maintenance of.
8607 part II – Electrical equipment- protection against explosion hazards.
1978
8507 part1- Electrical equipment used in medical practice, general and safety requirement
1977 Part 1 General.
3034-1981 Electrical generating and distributing stations.
1646-1982 Electrical installations.
8945-1976 Electrical instruments for Hazardous atmospheres
732 Electrical wiring installation
partI-1982 Definition and general installations.
partII-1983 Design and construction
partIII-1982 Inspection and testing of installation
2274-1963 Electrical wiring installation, system voltage exceeding 650 volts code of practice
for.
732-1963 Electrical wiring installation, system voltage not exceeding 650 volts, code of
practice for.
732-1989 Electrical Wiring Installations ( upto 650 V )
7733-1975 Electrical wiring installations in hospitals, code of practice for.
616-1981 Electronic and related apparatus, mains operated for household and similar

99
 general use.
2675-1983 Enclosed Distribution Fuse Boards and Cut Outs for Voltage upto 100V
4691-1968 Enclosure for rotating electrical machinery, degree of protection provided by.
7385-1974 Enclosure pressured of electrical equipment for use in hazardous areas.
2312-1967 Exhaust Fans
3070 part II- Expulsion type
1966
8623-1993 Factory built assemblies of Switch gear and control gear
2667-1988 Fitting for Rigid Steel Conduits for Electrical Wiring
2206-part II- fittings using glass tubes.
1976
3682-1966 Flame proof AC motors for use in mines.
2206-partI- Flame proof electric lighting fitting part-1 well glass and bulk head type.
1962
2148-1968 Flame proof enclosures of electrical apparatus
1947-1980 Flood Lights
5545-1977 Fog lights for automobile (first revision)
4237—1982 General Requirements for Switch gears not exceeding 1000 v.
3770-1968 Gloves, rubber for electrical purposes.
5578-1984 Guide for marking of Insulated Conductors.
5216-1969 Guide for Safety Procedures and Practices in Elect.work.
7689-1974 Guide for the control of undesirable static electricity.
5572-partI- Hazardous areas (other than mines) for electrical installations, classification of
1978 part I areas having flammable gases and vapours (first revision)
4047-1967 Heavy Duty Air Break Switchgear and Composite Switch Fuse Unit for voltage
not exceeding 1000 v.
302-1973 Household and similar electrical appliances, general and safety requirement for
(fourth revision)
2208-1962 HRC Cartridge fuse units upto 650 volts
1818-1972 Isolator and Earthing switches
1651-1991 Lead Acid Cell Batteries
8216-1976 Lift wire ropes, guide for inspection of
1860-1968 Lifts electric, passenger and goods code of practice for installation, operation and
maintenance of.
4666-1968 Lifts electric, passenger and goods.

100
6620-1973 Lifts electric, service, code of practice for installation operation and maintenance
of
4850-1968 Lightening arresters for AC systems, expulsion type application guide for.
3070 part I Lightening arresters of AC system Part I non-linear type (first revision)
1974
3105-1980 Lighting and signaling devices –automobiles.
4370-1967 Lighting and signaling devices on cars and commercial vehicles, code of practice
for the use of.
3105-1966 Lighting and signaling devices, automobile general requirement for.
1944 (part I& Lighting of public thorough fares code of practice for (first revision)
II) 1970
2493-1963 Lighting, fitting, well-glass for use in underground mines (non-flame proof type.)
3070-1993 Lightning Arresters
(Part 1)
375-1963 Marking and Arrangement for Switch gear Boards Main Connections and
Auxiliary Wiring
5424-1960 Mats, rubber for electrical purposes
1567-1960 Metal Clad Switches upto 100 Amps
3427-1969 Metal Enclosed Switchgear and Control Gear
5908-1970 Method of Measurement of Electrical Installation in bldng
3596-1964 miners cap-lamp, bulbs(lamps)
5679-1970 miners caps-maps
2772 part I Oil immersed type transformers for use below ground, mining, non-flame proof
1964 part I
7321-1974 Overhead power and telecommunication lines, code of practice for selection
handling and erection of concrete poles for.
802-part I Overhead transmission in line towers, code of practice for use of structural steel
1973 in: part I Loads and permissible stresses (first revision)
6946-1973 Pliable (Flexible) Non Metallic Conduits
5820-1970 Precast concrete Cable Covers.
8607-1978 Protection against electric shock.
6970-1973 Protection against possible hazard in radio transmitting equipment.
2509-1973 PVC Electrical Conduits
1554-1998 PVC Insulated cables – Heavy Duty
694-1990 PVC Insulated Cables and Cords for Power/Lighting

101
6567-1973 Radiation protection for an X-ray tube in a protective tube housing operating
between 10kv and 40kv.
7064-1973 Radiation protection in medical X-ray equipment operating at 10 kv to 40 kv.
10437-1983 Radio transmitting equipment.
1653-1972 Rigid Steel Conduits for Electric Wiring
5780- 1970 Safe intrinsically, electrical apparatus and circuits.
8706-1978 Safety features for Ground power units, alternating current for aircraft servicing.
9858-1981 Safety requirement for electronic measuring instruments
6619-1972 Semiconductor rectifier equipment, safety codes for.
2834-1986 Shunt capacitor for power system
1087-1957 Single Pole Tumbler Switch 5 Amps
6381-1972 Specification for constn. and testing of Elect. Apparatus.
4004-1978 Surge arrestors for AC system non-linear resistor type application guide for.
4160-1967 Switch socket outlets, interlocking.
4615-1968 Switch Socket Outlets.
3854-1988 Switches for Domestic and similar purposes
4720-1975 Terminal markings for rotating electrical machinery (first revision)
10406-1983 Transformers intrinsically safe.
1416-1972 Transformers, safety.
2418-1977 Tubular Fluorescent Lamps for Gerneral Lighting Service
1913 part I Tubular fluorescent lamps.
1978
6568-1972 TV picture tubes – implosion protection.
8923-1978 Warning symbols for dangerous voltages.

***

102
 17. LIST OF REFERENCES

Author Title

1. Douglas Megregor The Human Side of Enterprises

2. H.W. Henrich Industrial Accident Prevention

3. Will Hammer Occupational Safety Management and Engineering

4. N.V. Krishnan An Introduction to Safety Engineering and Management

5. Simond and Gribaldi Safety Management

6. Bird Frank P. Management Guide to Loss Control

7. Willi Hammer Handbook of System & Product Safety

8. National Safety Council, Accident Prevention Manual Vol. I, II & III

Chicago
9. Singleton Introduction to Ergonomics

10. ACGIH, USA Industrial Noise Control Manual

11. Hopkinson Lighting HMSO London

12. ACGIH, USA Industrial Ventilation

13. D. Hunter Diseases of Occupation

14. SAX, IRWIN Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials

15. D.E. Dickie Rigging Manual

16. ACGIH, USA Encyclopedia of Industrial Hygine

17. Redgrave Health and Safety in Factories

18. Srivastava KD Commentaries on Factories Act

19. Frank P. Lees Loss Prevention in Process Industries Volume I to III

20. National Fire Protection Industrial Fire Hazards Hand Book

Association, USA

103
 Author Title

21. I.L.O. Geneva Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety – Volume

I to III

22. Barbara A. Plog, National Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene

Safety Council, USA

23. I.L.O. Geneva Major Hazard Control – A Practical Manual – ILO

24. I.L.O. Geneva Guidelines on Inspection of Major Hazard Installations

25. National Safety Council, CBD, Hazard And Operability Studies – An Introduction
Belapur
26. Trevor A. Kletz What Went Wrong

27. American Institute of Chemical Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk
Engineers Analysis 1989

28. American Institute of Chemical Guidelines for Evaluating the Consequences of Fires and
Engineers Explosions form Vapour Clouds and BLEVES

29. American Institute of Chemical Guidelines for Safety Storage and Handling of High Toxic
Engineers Hazard Materials 1988

30. American Institute of Chemical Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures – 1985
Engineers

31. Dow Chemicals Company Ltd., Dow Chemicals – Indices for Fire and Explosion etc.
USA

32. K.C. Dhingra Handbook of Pesticies

33. A.M. David Chemical Safety Data Sheets

34. National Safety Council, Hazardous Materials Handle with Care

Chicago

35. O.P. Kharbanda & E.A. Safety in Chemical Industry

Stallworthy

36. P.J. Kayes Manual of Industrial Hazard Assessment Techniques

37. U.S. Dept. of Labour OSHA How to prepare for Workplace Emergencies

104
 Author Title

38. John L. Willams Accident and ill Health at Work

39. Donald F. Featherstone Industrial Injuries. Their Prevention & Treatment

40. Herbet J. Stack Jean Surry Administration and Supervision of Safety Education

41. Dan Peterson Techniques of Safety Management

42. U.S. Dept. of Labour Occupational Health Hazards Their Evaluation and
Washington Control

43. W.O. Phoon Health and Safety

44. William Handlay Industrial Safety Handbook

45. John Ridley Safety At Work (Second Edition)

46. Bureau of Indian Standards National Building Code of India 1970 (ISI)

47. U.S. Department of Labour Construction Industry OSHA Safety and Health Standards

48. ILO Office, Geneva Safety and Health in Construction

49. John Caick, Denis Neitzel, Electrical Safety Hand Book

Marry Capelli Schellpfeffer
50. National Fire Protection Fire Fighters Hand Book
Aluminy Association

***

105