Chapter 3 (AS-Level)
Chemical bonding and structure A. Covalent bonding
Simple molecular
Liquids and gases Low melting solids H2O, NH2, C2H5OH, Sucrose
Properties: A. Low boiling point and melting point B. Nonconductors of electricity C. May be insoluble in H2O, may dissolve in organic solvents
Giant molecular
Solids of high melting point and boiling point Quartz
Properties: A. High boiling point and melting point B. Nonconductors C. Insoluble in H2O and other solvents
In covalent bonds, electron pairs are shared between atoms. The electron pairs lying between the two nuclei are attracted by both nuclei, thus bonding them and thus overcoming the repulsion between them. In covalent compounds, the shared electron pairs are in molecular orbitals rather than atomic orbitals
Molecular Orbitals arise from the overlap of atomic orbitals.
Atomic Orbitals s, p, d H C=C H H
Examples of simple covalent molecules:
Molecular Orbitals H , ,
Molecular formula Cl2
Structure
Bonds
Cl-Cl
CH4
H2O
NH3
C2H4
CO2
O=C=O
Dative covalent (coordinate) bond:
A lone pair from one atom overlaps with an empty orbital in another atom. Ex: +
NH3 + [H] + H H N H + H H N H
Ex: Al2Cl6
Cl
Cl
Cl
Al
Dative covalent bond
Al
Cl
Cl
Cl
B. Bonds of intermediate (in between covalent & ionic) character
Ionic, of covalent character:
Polarization of Ions: These are ionic compounds that show some properties which are more characteristic of covalent compounds. These ionic compounds contain anions which have become polarized.
1) Polarization of anion is the distortion of electronic cloud by the cation. 2) Polarization brings more electron charge between the two ionic nuclei producing a certain degree of covalent bonding. 3) Distortion:
purely ionic
partial ionization
extensive Ionic Molecule of Covalent Character
4) Cations with smaller radius and greater charge (i.e. greater charge density) have greater polarization on anions. 5) Anions with larger radius and greater charge are more easily polarized by cations.
Covalent, of ionic character
Polarity of Covalent Bond
1) Covalent bonds in molecules become polar if there is difference in electronegativity between the elements. EN is the ability to attract the shared e-pairs. EN increases Most EN
Least EN Periodic Table (F>O>N>Cl) Most electro-negative
2) The more electronegative atom attracts the shared pair(s) more to itself leading to formation of a dipole. (i.e. ionic character). 3) In polyatomic molecules, the shape of the molecule must be taken into account.
Diatomic and polyatomic molecules
Diatomic
To predict the polarity in a molecule, the molecular shape should be known
Polyatomic
Non-polar, the 4 polar bonds cancel each other out.
Shapes of simple molecules:
We apply VSEPR (Valency Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion Theory). Bonding and non-bonding e-pairs repel each other. The repulsion causes these pairs to move as far apart as possible. The orientation in space of these pairs determines the shape of the molecule. CH4 (tetrahedron)
NH3 (trigonal pyramidal)
Lone pair
SO42- ion
H2O (V-shaped)
CO2 (linear)
BF3 (trigonal planar)
SF6 (octahedral)
Summary:
1) Simple Molecules, central atom has no LPs Formula AB2 AB3 AB4 AB5 AB6 Shape linear trigonal planar tetrahedral trigonal bipyramidal octahedral 2) Simple Molecules, central atom has LPs Formula AB2 AB2 AB3 # of LPs 1 2 1 Shape V-shaped V-shaped trigonal pyramidal
Lone pairs, bonding-pairs and bond angles: Lone-pairs , Bonding-pairs , Bond Angles
LPs occupy bigger space than BPs LP-LP > LP-BP > BP-BP
Bond length and bond enthalpy:
Single Bond Length > Double Bond Length > Triple Bond Length Bond Enthalpy: energy required to break 1 mol of given bond in 1 mol of gaseous molecules. Single Bond Enthalpy < Double Bond Enthalpy < Triple Bond Enthalpy
C. Metallic bonding
Properties of Metals: Shiny Good conductor of electricity & heat in solid state Sonorous Ductile Malleable
Bonding: In metallic bonding (lattice), the atoms lose their electrons (outer-shell), which extend throughout the lattice, thus forming a sea of electrons surrounding a lattice of positive ions. Metallic bonding explains the properties of metals.
Intermolecular forces:
Instantaneous dipole, induced dipole (van der waals forces)
Present in atoms and non-polar molecules.
He
He
attraction of + to - charge
Ex: noble gases, alkanes, polymers like LDPE & HDPE.., graphite Gases: Cl2 Liquids: Br2 Solids: I2
Permanent dipole, dipole
Present in polar molecules. Ex: H2O, NH3, HCl, CHCl3 Hydrogen bonding (H-bonding) H-bonding is present in molecules with possibility of H-bonding. This is by far the strongest type of intermolecular force. i.e. with: F-H, O-H, N-H bonds Hydrogen bonding is responsible for the liquid state of water, and water is responsible for the presence of life.
Ex: H2O, NH3, proteins, C2H5OH (carboxylic acids)
+ +
H O
H O
H +
+ H
Hydrogen bonding
Hydrogen bonding
END OF LESSON
