2nd edition 2nd edition

Structural timber elements A pre-scheme design guide

Structural timber elements
A pre-scheme design guide

At-a-glance reference guide to structural timber options for use during

Structural
the early stages of design
Includes comparisons of sawn timber, glulam, I-joists, unilam, CLT,
LVL and flitch beams to aid product selection
Highly illustrated with drawings, graphs and sizing tables, enabling

Timber
designers to make the most efficient choices

In the early stages of a new project designers must find answers to many questions. What
should the structure be made from? Where should columns or walls be located? Is it a framed

Elements
building or does it have loadbearing walls? How thick do walls and floors need to be?

Structural timber elements combines design data with the invaluable experience of timber
designers. Particularly useful for engineers who have designed buildings out of steel and
concrete, but have limited experience with timber, it will also benefit architects, students and
lecturers who need comparative information on structural timber options.

The second edition of this book contains additional coverage of robustness, moisture A pre-scheme design guide
movement, typical moment connection capacities, and long span beams, as well as several
new drawings, graphs and sizing tables.

2nd edition

James Norman, Programme Director of Civil Engineering at Bristol University,

has researched and written this book with assistance from TRADA members.

Exova BM TRADA provides independent certification, testing,

training, technical services and information around the world,
and is TRADA’s appointed provider for its research and information
Exova BM TRADA

programmes, and for the administration of its membership services. ISBN 978-1-909594-52-4

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 Structural timber

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elements

A pre-scheme design guide

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 ISBN 978-1-909594-67-8
Published in 2018 by Exova BM TRADA

This is a technical book for professionals in the built environment sector.

While every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the advice given,
the company cannot accept liability for loss or damage arising from the
information supplied

© Exova (UK) Ltd 2018

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form, by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owners

All illustrations are © Exova (UK) Ltd except those otherwise credited in the
captions.

Cover: pre-scheme design sketches © Smith and Wallwork

Exova BM TRADA
Chiltern House
Stocking Lane
Hughenden Valley
High Wycombe
Buckinghamshire HP14 4ND
tel: +44 (0)1494 569600
fax: +44 (0)1494 565487
email: publications@[Link]
website: [Link]
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 Structural timber elements
A pre-scheme design guide
In the early stages of a new project designers must find answers to many
questions. What should the building be made from? Where should columns
or walls be located? Is it a framed building or does it have loadbearing
walls? How thick do walls and floors need to be? The result of that process
is the ‘scheme’ that the architect and structural engineer will take forward
for detail development.

Structural timber elements: a pre-scheme design guide has been developed for
use as an at-a-glance comparative reference for structural timber options to
assist with the pre-scheme design process.

Structural engineers who may have designed buildings out of steel and
concrete but have not acquired significant experience with structural
timber elements will find this book particularly useful. Architects and other
building designers, as well as students and lecturers, will also benefit.

The book was first conceived by Simon Smith, who is a pioneer in the
structural use of timber in the UK. As well as running his own practice, he is
currently Chair of the TRADA Advisory Committee. James Norman of Bristol
University was commissioned to research and write this book, with input
from TRADA members.

A note on the second edition

A new chapter on robustness has been added to the second edition of this
book, including sections that cover designing for robustness, framing and
stability options, and disproportionate collapse. Additional detail has been
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added on moisture movement, typical moment connection capacities, and

long span beams. Several new figures, charts and tables have also been
commissioned as a result of peer reviewer feedback.

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 James Norman MEng PhD Ceng MICE FHEA
James has 12 years’ industry experience and has worked on a number of
award-winning buildings, including many with a variety of timber structures,
from softwood to CLT.

James is Programme Director of Civil Engineering at the University of Bristol.

Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following TRADA
members in the preparation of this book.

First edition:

Simon Smith BEng CEng MICE, Smith and Wallwork

Andrew Wylie BEng Mst (Cantab) CEng MICE, BuroHappold Engineering, who
also contributed Section 6.10 Costing
Ross Smith MEng CEng MICE, Opus International
Jon Shanks MEng PhD CEng MIStructE, BuroHappold Engineering
Graham Clarke MEng CEng MICE, Mann Williams
Kim Collins MEng CEng MIStructE, Integral Engineering Design
Ralph Pelly MEng CEng MIStructE, Giraffe Engineering
Keerthi Ranasinghe BSc (Eng), PhD, Exova BM TRADA

Second edition:

Simon Smith BEng CEng MICE, Smith and Wallwork

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Ross Smith MEng CEng MICE, Opus International

Kim Collins MEng CEng MIStructE, Integral Engineering Design
Ralph Pelly MEng CEng MIStructE, Giraffe Engineering
Alan Dowdall, MSc CEng MICE, Ramboll

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 TRADA, the Timber Research and Development Association, is a
not‑for‑profit, membership-based organisation delivering key services to
members in support of its two main aims of ‘Building markets for timber’
and ‘Increasing specification’. Membership encompasses companies and
individuals across the entire timber supply/use chain, from foresters and
sawmillers, through merchants and manufacturers, to architects, engineers
and specifiers.

For further information and details of membership, visit [Link] or

telephone 01494 569603.
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Exova BM TRADA provides independent certification, testing, inspection,

training, technical services and information to the timber, building, fire and
furniture industries. It is also the appointed service provider for TRADA’s
research, information and membership administration.

The TRADA bookshop offers a wide range of technical publications for

professionals: [Link]

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 Contents

1 Pre-scheme design 9

2 How to use this book 11

2.1 The sequence of work 11
2.2 How to use the design charts 13
2.3 Design complexity 14
2.4 Governing design criteria 14
2.5 Fire performance 15
2.6 Acoustic performance 17

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2.7 Moisture and movement 19
2.8 Other considerations 19

3 Robustness 21
3.1 Designing for robustness 21
3.2 Framing options 21
3.3 Stability options 23
3.4 Robustness 26
3.5 Disproportionate collapse 30

4 Product selection 37
4.1 Timber fabrication 37
4.2 Types of timber products 37
4.3 Floor options 46
4.4 Roof options 48
4.5 Wall options 50
4.6 Beam options 52
4.7 Column options 54
4.8 Types of timber connections 55

5 Initial sizing 61
5.1 Floors 62
5.2 Roofs 84
5.3 Walls 112
5.4 Beams 128
5.5 Columns 146
5.6 Moment connection capacity 157
5.7 Estimating moisture movement 166

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 6 Next stage 171
6.1 Sawn timber and glulam 171
6.2 I-joists 172
6.3 Unilam 173
6.4 Cross-laminated timber 173
6.5 Laminated veneer lumber 174
6.6 Flitch beams 174
6.7 Robustness and disproportionate collapse 175
6.8 Moisture movement 175
6.9 Connections 176
6.10 Costing 176

References181
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 1 Pre-scheme design
This book is intended to help designers make the right decisions early on in
the design process. For instance, what should the building be made from?
Where should columns or walls be located? Is it a framed building or does it
have loadbearing walls? How thick do walls and floors need to be? The result
of that process is the ‘scheme’ that the architect and structural engineer will
take forward.

The primary readership is structural engineers who may have designed

buildings of steel and concrete but have not acquired significant experience
in timber. It will also be useful to architects, building designers, lecturers and
students.

Figure 1.1 positions this work in the context of the RIBA Plan of Work.

Intended for use in pre-scheme design, the book is not for the detailed design
of the structure; there are other resources that provide this information­as

USE THIS BOOK HERE

SCHEME DEVELOP DETAILED

BRIEF CONSTRUCTION
DESIGN DESIGN DESIGN

STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE

A/B C D E/F/G/H J/K

RIBA Plan of Work, until 2014

STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE

0/1 2 3 4 5

RIBA Plan of Work, since 2014

Figure 1.1: When to use this book
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1 Pre-scheme design
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 mentioned in Chapter 6. As an example, for floor design, it will help the
engineer to set the structural depth but won’t provide the final joist size and
spacing as this is not needed until the detailed design stage.

The book draws on the twin resources of technical application and experience­.
It combines design data with the experience of a number of timber designers
from a variety of practices. It should raise the engineer’s awareness of issues
that they may not consider at pre-scheme design stage for other materials.

Loads were derived from BS EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures.

General actions. Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings,1 which is
abbreviated as ‘Eurocode 1’ or EC1.

The indicative spans and heights shown were derived by calculations in

accordance with BS EN 1995-1-1 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures.
General. Common rules and rules for buildings,2 abbreviated as ‘Eurocode 5’ or
EC5, and its National Annex, abbreviated as ‘Eurocode 5 NA’.

Exova BM TRADA/IStructE’s Manual for the design of timber building structures

to Eurocode 5 3 is abbreviated as ‘the TRADA/IStructE Manual’.
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 2 How to use this book
2.1 The sequence of work
This book is divided into the following chapters:

1 Pre-scheme design
2 How to use this book
3 Robustness
4 Product selection
5 Initial sizing
6 Next stage.

Figure 2.1 shows how the sequence of chapters matches the sequence of
pre-scheme design.

Start with Chapter 2 to understand the different icons and colour coding used
throughout the book.

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Use Chapter 3 to choose the building’s structural form, stability and robust-
ness approach.

Use Chapter 4 to choose the different products for the building elements.

Chapter 5 provides approximate floor depths and wall thicknesses for these
products.

The same illustrations have been used to link all the different sections, so the
reader can use the book in their own way.

On completion of the pre-scheme design, Chapter 6 offers a brief guide

to what’s next in terms of engineering considerations, as well as notes on
costing the scheme design.

2 How to use this book

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 Read through Chapter 2

Framing options

Select a loadbearing, framed

Chapter 3

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or hybrid solution.
Confirm stability.
Confirm disproportionate collapse
approach.

Choose product type

While it is possible to mix and

Chapter 4
match products, minimising the
number will ease co-ordination
and fabrication, making
construction easier.

Chapter 5 Select approximate structural

sizes

Initial costing

In the initial costing of the

different schemes provided,
it is important that timber is
costed properly (see Section 6.10)

Next stage
This book does not cover
Chapter 6 detailed design. For a brief guide
to what's next, see Chapter 6.

Figure 2.1: How to use this book

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 2.2 How to use the design charts
Figure 2.2 shows how products are selected for various applications in
Chapter 4 and then initially sized in Chapter 5.

Glulam

Unilam
I-joists
timber
Sawn

Flitch
CLT

LVL
Floors
5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.1.4 5.1.5
4.3

Roofs 5.2.3/
5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.4 5.2.5
4.4 5.2.4

Walls 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4

4.5

Beams
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5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4

4.6

Columns 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.5.3

4.7

Connections
4.8

Figure 2.2: Visual contents

2 How to use this book

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 2.3 Design complexity
Chapter 4 uses a traffic-light colour coding system to highlight the level of
design complexity in using different products, as explained in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1: Comparative design complexity

Typical use. Does not require significant design experience
Working material hard. May require increased amount of material,
unusual member sizes or additional calculations to prove that
materials work.
Limits of material. Will require significant amount of material,
unusual member sizes or additional calculations to prove that
materials work.

2.4 Governing design criteria

Chapter 5 contains various design charts. The colour scheme in Table 2.2
indicates which criterion is likely to govern the design.

Table 2.2: Design criteria

Sections 5.1–5.2, 5.4 Section 5.3 Section 5.5
Design is governed Design is governed by Refer to graph
by stress (typically deflection. Stress is legend.
bending but below 30% of capacity.
occasionally shear).
Design is governed Design is governed by
by deflection. deflection. Stress is
below 60% of capacity.
Design is governed Design is governed
by vibration. by deflection. Stress
is greater than 60%
of capacity.

Section 5.1 (floors) and Section 5.2 (roofs) give a lower and upper bound
for the design. The lower bound is for a typical low-grade, cost-effective
solution. The upper bound is the maximum practical span. Spans between
these two bounds can be achieved in a number of ways, including changing
the timber width, spacing or grade. In some cases it is therefore not possible
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 to categorically state what will govern design and hence both the upper and
lower bound colours may appear in this middle region.

2.5 Fire performance

The design of timber structures requires the consideration of design for
fire. The design of timber for fire is different from steel and concrete. For a
detailed explanation of the fire performance refer to Exova BM TRADA’s Wood
Information Sheet 4-11: Wood-based panel products and timber in fire,4 which
explains the behaviour of timber products in fire, the difference between
resistance to fire and reaction to fire, and the UK and European classification
systems.

2.5.1 Resistance to fire

Timber structures can resist fire by three predominant methods:

•• Allow the timber to char, in which case the resistance is a function of the
timber size, the charring rate and the loading.
•• Provide fire-resistant lining to protect the timber.
•• Use a combination of the two.

An inherent fire resistance through charring is achievable for a mass timber

structure but this requires a different approach to that used by other
structural­ materials.

Fire resistance is normally expressed as three different measures:

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•• loadbearing integrity (charring permitted)

•• insulation from fire (fire-resistant linings)
•• isolation from fire.

Each of these measures may require different treatments or construction

methods.

2 How to use this book

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 This book offers a comparative guide to the resistance to fire of various
materials and forms of construction, on the basis of allowing solid timber
to char. These can then be enhanced by adding fire-resistant linings. For
some materials a more specific fire rating is provided in the detailed notes.
However, these are based on assumed standard conditions and, as the design
develops, the timber should be designed specifically for the fire condition.
Table 2.3 shows the symbols used in Chapter 4.

Table 2.3: Comparative resistance to fire

Typically fire protection is required to achieve any fire rating.

Typically 30 minutes of fire resistance without further protection.

Typically 60 minutes of fire resistance without further protection.

Typically 120 minutes of fire resistance without further protection.

Using compartment floors as an example, Table 2.4 shows typical forms of

construction to achieve enhanced fire resistance of an I-joist floor using fire-
resistant linings. Similar principles apply in walls.

Exova BM TRADA’s Timber frame construction5 contains examples of fire-

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resistant floors and walls. Although the context is conventional timber frame
walls, the same principles can be applied to other forms of construction.

2.5.2 Reaction to fire

If timber surfaces are to be exposed (typically in CLT, unilam and glulam
structures) then it is necessary to consider the spread of flame in addition
to fire resistance. The spread of flame is covered by the national building
regulations­(in England Approved Document B ( fire safety)6 and is specified
by the architect or fire engineer. The normal approach is flame-retardant
treatment of exposed surfaces. This is usually applied on site following

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 Table 2.4: Fire-rated floors
Floor deck Additional 30 minutes of protection with one layer of
fire-resistant lining.
Floor joist
(Note the lining needs to be certified for 30 minutes of
fire resistance for the type of construction.)

Ceiling
Floor deck Additional 60 minutes of protection with two layers of
30-minute fire-resisting lining.
Floor joist
(Note each layer of boarding needs to be certified for
30 minutes of fire resistance for the type of construction.)

Ceiling

erection once the building is watertight, but can also be applied off site if
the timber is properly protected once on site. Off-site treatment in factory
conditions usually produces a better result.

See Exova BM TRADA’s Wood Information Sheet 2/3-3: Flame-retardant

treatments­for timber products.7

2.6 Acoustic performance

The resistance to airborne and impact sound deserves careful considera-
tion in most structures, especially because the requirements of users differ
according to the building’s use and the performance of different building
products can vary widely.
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 In timber buildings, airborne and impact sound insulation are achieved by
isolating the two sides of the separating construction and incorporating mass
into the linings and finishes.

This book offers a comparative guide to the acoustic performance of various

materials and forms of construction. Table 2.5 shows the symbols used in
Chapter 4. These can then be enhanced by adding appropriate combinations
of dense screeds over floors, dense linings on walls, insulation and clear
cavities.

Table 2.5: Comparative transmission of airborne and impact sound without

enhancements
Very low sound transmission

Low sound transmission

Some sound transmission

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High sound transmission

There are few situations in which enhancements will not be needed to

achieve sufficient resistance to airborne and impact sound. The extent of
enhancement will be specified by the architect or an acoustics specialist.
However, at scheme design it is important to make an additional allowance
for the increase in the dead load on the structure.

See Exova BM TRADA’s Wood Information Sheet 4-32: Acoustic performance in

residential timber frame developments,8 which explains the regulations, design,
testing and site control.

Exova BM TRADA’s Timber frame construction contains examples of sound-

resistant floors and walls. Although the context is conventional timber frame
walls, the same principles can be applied to other forms of construction.
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 2.7 Moisture and movement
Timber, unlike steel and concrete, is a naturally occurring material that in
its living state has 100% moisture content. During felling, sawing and kiln-
drying this value will drop to 14%–20%, and, depending on the final location
of the timber, may drop down to as little as 8%–14%. The behaviour of the
timber fibres is a function of the moisture content, which can affect both
the strength of the timber and the degree to which it will creep during
its lifetime. To simplify design, the Eurocode defines three service classes.
Service class 1 is for timber used in a warm environment that is generally
kept dry. The timber used in most timber buildings is service class 1, and
this has been assumed throughout this book. The definition of the different
service classes is given in EC5, cl.[Link], and can also be found in several
reference books.

As timber dries out it shrinks. This shrinkage is much more pronounced

perpendicular to the grain (the width/depth of the timber) than in the
direction of the grain, and due consideration should be given to the
movement due to shrinkage and creep when considering the design of
buildings, and especially the interface between the building frame and the
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external envelope. For example, within timber frame construction this is

typically 7mm per floor zone for engineered wood and 10mm per floor zone
for solid timber.

Further detail on estimating movement is given in Section 5.7.

2.8 Other considerations

In addition to acoustics and fire, there are many other considerations in the
design of timber structures. Table 2.6 shows various icons that highlight the
key considerations for each type of construction.

2 How to use this book

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 Table 2.6: Other key considerations
Prefabricated v fabricated on site
While most timber products can either be prefabricated or fully constructed on site,
each system tends to favour a certain approach.
Materials with this symbol are typically supplied to site with little or no
prefabrication and, as a result, tend to take longer to build on site.
However, for smaller projects materials may be manually handled on site,
removing the requirement for a crane.
Materials with this symbol are typically provided as prefabricated
panels. Panels are usually large and therefore construction is much more
rapid. In addition, window openings may be measured before shipping so
that manufacture may begin before panels arrive on site. However, as the
panels are large a crane will be required, which may not be suitable for
smaller projects.
Detailed calculation
Products and structural forms with this symbol require detailed
calculations at the scheme design stage. While these will never be
beyond the ability of a competent engineer it is important to allow
enough time to learn these skills the first time a material is used. Typical
examples of the types of calculations needed include the dynamic
response of floors, the shear interaction of timber cassette panels, the
modelling of solid timber panels in finite element (FE) packages and the
design of moment connections.
Lead in
Products with this symbol may have a significant lead in to allow
for contractor design and prefabrication. These lead-in times can
be managed as long as they are accounted for in advance, but it is
important to inform the contractor as soon as possible to avoid delays
on site. Lead-in times of up to 16 weeks are typical but this depends
partly on demand at the time.
Typical use
While timber is a highly versatile material, different timber products are suited to
different types of construction. However, these symbols are offered as a guide only
and, as long as the building is appropriately designed, there is no reason not to use
the materials in different situations.
Single dwelling

Multiple dwelling and low rise (1–3 storeys) such as schools and offices
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Multiple dwelling, low rise and high rise such as offices and residential
(3+ storeys)

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 3 Robustness
3.1 Designing for robustness
As engineers, one of the key concerns when approaching design is
ensuring the structure is robust – Building Regulations Document A states
that buildings should be sufficiently robust to sustain a limited extent of
damage or failure without collapse. There are a number of guides that cover
robustness­, a key reference being the IStructE’s Practical guide to structural
robustness and disproportionate collapse in buildings.9 This guide separates
the design of robustness into three distinct areas:

•• Stability – Section 3.3

•• Robustness – Section 3.4
•• Disproportionate collapse – Section 3.5

There are a number of decisions to be made during the design stage that
will determine how robust the structure will be. The following sections aim
to guide the reader through the decisions and provide advice on how best
to design and detail the structure at the scheme stage. This guide is only a
brief introduction to the area of robustness, and it is strongly advised that
designers seek further advice and refer to more detailed literature before
embarking on full detailed design (see Section 6.7 for more details).
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3.2 Framing options

The first decision you need to make as an engineer is whether the building
will be framed (beams and columns) or loadbearing (walls). Below is a brief
description of each. Typically the most efficient solution is to use a load-
bearing system; however, this requires the location of walls to be fixed, with
a reasonably constant layout on every floor. If this is not possible, then a
framed or hybrid structure may be required.

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 3.2.1 Loadbearing
Timber construction is thousands of
years old, and the predominant form of
construction for the majority of its use
has been loadbearing masonry walls.
These walls could be stud, solid unilam
or cross laminated timber (CLT), and in
simple terms the floors and the roof
span between these walls, which take the
load down to the foundations. The advantage of this type of construction is
that it can be quick to erect, especially if it is combined with prefabrication.
However, wall locations need to be agreed, and for multi-storey buildings the
loadbearing walls need to be in the same location on each floor. This can
also affect the future flexibility of the space.

3.2.2 Framed
Framed construction uses the principle
of beams and columns to support the
floor plates. This obviously means that
wall positions are not so fixed, both as
you go up through the building and as
the building use evolves during its life.
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However, this form of construction can
lead to reasonably deep structural floor
zones relative to a loadbearing system.

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 3.2.3 Hybrid
Many projects end up being hybrid
solutions, with walls around key elements
such as lift shafts and stair cores, and also
around the perimeter of the building but
using a framed system to support the
floors and roof internally where greater
flexibility is required.

In addition, timber frames can be further hybridised to include other

construction materials. Recently there has been a move to use solid timber
flooring in steel frame buildings as an alternative to concrete planks.

There has also been a move in recent times to place a concrete topping
over timber floors to provide stiffer and acoustically favourable solutions.
However, this does remove some of the advantages of timber, including the
lightweight structure and the avoidance of wet trades on site.

3.3 Stability options

All buildings need stabilising. For loadbearing or hybrid solutions this will be
through the use of the walls, whereas for frame construction either bracing
or moment-resisting joints in frames can be used. As with all lightweight
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structures, uplift and the associated tension can be a significant consideration.

Unlike for steel and concrete, EC5 does not explicitly require the consid-
eration of notional horizontal load (NHL) for timber buildings. However, to
ensure the building is robust it is suggested that NHL should be considered
for timber buildings using the same methodology as for steel and concrete
buildings (by considering a degree of out-of-plumb (conservatively 1/200)
which is then adjusted for the building height and the number of columns).
At this early stage an NHL of 1/200 of the floor load could be considered. This
is particularly important for mezzanines and other construction types which
seemingly don’t have any applied wind load.
3 Robustness
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 3.3.1 Stress skin racking panel
Stress skin racking panels use OSB or plywood panels
placed over the face of a stud wall to stop the panel from
racking (shearing in plane). The ‘skin’ goes into tension
when load is applied and acts in a similar way to bracing.
Stress skin panels are very efficient as the timber sheet is
typically required anyway; however, the load that can be
carried is limited and so a number of panels in any one
direction are typically required. If stress skin panels are
not adequate, steel straps can also be added to create bracing (see Section
3.2.3). Stability walls should be provided at no greater than 8m spacing
in both directions at the early stages of scheme design unless substantial
additional design is to be carried out at scheme design stage. With recent
changes to BS 5268, TRADA have shown this method to work up to a height
of seven storeys. However, at the early stages of design it would be prudent

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to consider alternatives if going above three storeys. The proportionally high
number of walls typically used in a stress skin design leads to a highly robust
solution as a single wall can be lost and the horizontal load redistributed
through the other walls.

3.3.2 Solid timber panel

Solid timber panels (unilam or CLT) are very efficient at
taking lateral loads in the plane of the panel. Therefore
the additional load caused by stability loading is typically
only a small proportion of the design load (the design
being governed by vertical loading and in-plane bending).
As a result, typically fewer panels are required for lateral
loading than stress skin panels. For a vertical loadbearing
system, little more design is required at the scheme
design stage. For hybrid design, especially where the stability system is
asymmetric on plan, stress can develop and often uplift at the base of the
wall can become a governing factor (as it can for steel and concrete frame

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 buildings). In these hybrid buildings the location of stability walls is typically
similar to the requirements for steel and concrete.

Regarding robustnesss, as for stress skin walls, a loadbearing system will

lead to a large number of walls that can share the horizontal load if a panel
is removed. For hybrid frame solutions, more caution should be applied,
especially­where the stability is complex and the removal of a single wall
could lead to a complete collapse of the building. While at scheme stage
full design should not be necessary, a review of the structure following wall
removal may be prudent to see what alternative load paths may be present
(if any).

Solid timber walls have been used to stabilise the first timber ‘skyscrapers’
and are currently proven to ten storeys, although this number will probably
rise over the next few years.

3.3.3 Braced bays

For frame structures and hybrid structures, the use of
bracing is the preferred form of stability. Bracing can be
designed in the same way as for a steel frame. Use of either
off-the-shelf steel straps or prefabricated steel plates is
common. Timber struts can also be used. As is common in
timber design, the transfer of loads through connections
can be the governing factor. In tension connections (steel
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straps and plates) the connection is key to the design and

should be considered at the early stages as it may affect the size of other
elements. For timber bracing, if acting in compression, bearing connections
can be utilised, which are less problematic. Timber-braced systems are
analogous to steel ones, but the capacity of the system will not be as high as
for steel systems and so additional bracing locations should be considered at
the scheme design stage. Timber bracing can form an attractive part of the
design if planned well.

3 Robustness
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 Regarding robustness, it is suggested at the early design stage to consider
carefully the stability and the redundancy in the system. If a single brace is
lost, ideally an alternative load path should exist so that the building remains
stable. While a full design is not necessary at scheme stage, a review of the
stability and alternative load paths is recommended. The simplest solution
is to include two braced bays on each bracing line; this reduces the load in
any single brace and provides a straightforward alternative load path for
robustness. Where only a single braced bay can be provided and no alterna-
tive load paths can be established, caution should be applied and careful
consideration given to the protection of this element. This should include
the fire protection of the bracing, especially timber bracing that may rely on
a char zone for fire protection.

3.3.4 Moment frame

Where walls and bracing are not possible, it is an option
to create moment frames. Moment frames in timber are
not ideal as the moment connections required can often
increase the size of timber elements significantly and
therefore the connections should be considered even at
the early scheme design stage. Frames should be provided
at closer centres than for steel frames to limit the size of
timber members. Initial connection capacities are provided
in Section 5.6.

For robustness, the large number of moment frames usually required

typically means that there is an element of redundancy. If this is not the case,
a stability review should be carried out to highlight other alternative load
paths under accidental loading.

3.4 Robustness
Robustness often refers to both the overall design of the building (and hence
includes stability and disproportionate collapse) and also the decisions we
make within the design that make it more or less susceptible to failure. This
26 Structural timber elements: a pre-scheme design guide
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 section will look at both the overall robustness of a system and specifically
the robustness of connections that should be considered differently to those
in steel design.

3.4.1 General principles of robust design

The robustness of a building can be considered to include many different
aspects. In addition to stability and disproportionate collapse, the IStructE
guide to robustness and disproportionate collapse lists a number of items to
consider, including:

Redundancy. This is the building’s ability to cope with the failure of a

member or element. If a building has redundancy, alternative load paths are
available if an element fails. Conversely, if the failure of a single element
leads to significant failure of the structure this is known as having no redun-
dancy and the element in question is referred to as a single point of failure.
Single points of failure include (but are not limited to) any truss element in
a pin‑jointed truss, a tension member holding down a large cantilever and

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Figure 3.1: Examples of a single point of failure

3 Robustness
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 bracing elements if no alternative load path is available. Where possible,
single points of failure should be avoided. Where this is not possible the
effect of removing the element should be carefully considered and dispro-
portionate collapse should be avoided (see Section 3.5).

Insensitivity. Different building types are more or less sensitive to initial

design assumptions and whether they are correct. These can include building
tolerance, out-of-plumb and the amount of building movement or settle-
ment (including differential settlement). An insensitive design will behave
in the same way even if the initial conditions are not exactly the same as
assumed. Buildings should be designed to be insensitive when possible, and
if a building is highly sensitive then the effects of any changes to the initial
assumptions should be considered and included in the design from an early
stage. Most timber buildings should be relatively insensitive as long as an
NHL has been considered and they are framed or loadbearing. Some specialist
timber structures such as flat arches and gridshells, which rely on horizontal
restraint to limit deflection, may be highly sensitive to horizontal movement at
the supports and this should be considered carefully at scheme design stage.

Uncertainty. There is a degree of uncertainty in all design. From initial design

conditions to site practice, there are a number of assumptions that are made
and a degree of uncertainty. While factors of safety are an attempt to deal
with uncertainty under different conditions, they do not remove the onus on
the designer to ensure the different uncertainties have been fully considered
in the design.

Ductility. Steel and concrete are typically ductile materials (as long as they
have been designed to ensure this is the case). Timber will often fail in
a brittle manner, especially when failure is in bending or at connections.
Ideally we should avoid brittle failure, and as a result we would encourage
bearing connections where possible. However, it is not possible to completely
design‑out the brittle failure of timber and therefore consideration of alter-
native load paths and load sharing is recommended.
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 Fire. All timber buildings should be designed for fire. Refer to Section 2.5.
Robustness elements that act as single points of failure should be especially
carefully considered when carrying out the fire design.

3.4.2 Robust connection details

When designing steel structures the typical approach is to assume that
columns are continuous and beams connect into the sides of the column.
Within timber design, however, beams and floor plates should ideally bear
on the columns and walls. The main reason for this is that it prevents brittle
failure, as the beams and slabs are loadbearing and bearing failure is ductile.
This is true for both simple connections and also for moment connections.
Figure 3.2 shows the proffered connection detail for both simple connections
and moment connections. The added benefit of this is that it removes some
of the sensitivity around element fit.

More robust connection Less robust connection

Figure 3.2: Robust bearing connection
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3 Robustness
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 --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 3.3: Improving robustness of bearing connections

For all connections, including simple bearing connections, a resistance

to sideways impact force should be considered in the design. This can be
achieved through the use of noggings, angle brackets, skew screwing or by
using a locator plate. This prevents the element being unseated from its
bearing in an accidental impact and is particularly key during construction.

Caution should be used when assuming that the tight fit of timber will
provide restraint or resistance in a connection or structural system. Timber
changes volumetrically depending on the water content and will often dry
out and therefore shrink during its lifetime. As a result, timber that is tight-
fitting at the point of construction may become loose-fitting during the
lifetime of the building, and the assumed restraint and/or connection may
not be present later in the life of the building.

3.5 Disproportionate collapse

Disproportionate collapse occurs where the degree of failure is considered
disproportionate to the cause of failure. This is covered in significant detail
in Building Regulations Document A.

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 Table 3.1: Definition of building class for typical building types
Building type Building class
1 2A 2B 3
Agricultural All
Houses 1–4 storeys 5 (single 6+ storeys
occupancy)
storeys
Hotels, flats 1–4 storeys 5–15 storeys 16+ storeys
and other
residential
buildings
Offices 1–4 storeys 5–15 storeys 16+ storeys
Retail 1–3 storeys and 4–15 storeys 16+ storeys or
<2000m2 floor and <2000m2 >2000m2 floor
area per storey floor area per area per storey
storey
Building to 1–2 storeys and 3+ storeys and 3+ storeys and
which the <2000m2 floor <5000m2 floor >5000m2 floor
public are area per storey area per storey area per storey
admitted
Educational 1 storey 2–15 storeys 16+ storeys

Building Regulations Document A defines buildings as being one of four

classes. Depending on the class, the requirements of disproportionate
collapse vary. Reference should be made to the Building Regulations for
the full definition of the different classes. Some of the typical cases are
summarised in Table 3.1, which is an abbreviated version of Table 4.1 in The
Institution of Structural Engineers' Practical guide to structural robustness and
disproportionate collapse in buildings.10
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At scheme design stage it is important to consider disproportionate collapse

to ensure a feasible approach is available. Full detailed design can then be
carried out at a later stage. Table 3.2 provides typical approaches for different
building classes and different construction methods. They are based on the
recommendations of Section 9 of the IStructE guide to robustness.

3 Robustness
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 Table 3.2: Approaches to disproportionate collapse
Construction Building class
type 1 2A 2B 3
Loadbearing No additional Typically Provide rim beam Carry out
stud and joist considerations connections and sequentially a risk
floor (platform provide check wall assessment
timber frame) requirements for removal but as a
Solid timber horizontal ties Ensure solid wall minimum
(CLT and and no further panels can act provide the
unilam) consideration as beams and same as 2B
is required at connections can
scheme design carry hanging
floor load
Frame Provide Horizontal and
(sawn timber/ horizontal ties vertical ties
glulam/LVL) Or notional
element removal
Or key element
design
Hybrid Provide the requirements above for
the different sections of the structure

Much of the above will be familiar to anyone who has designed a steel frame.
Below is further information for those solutions specific to timber design.

Rim beam. A rim beam (Figure 3.4 ) is a timber beam built into the depth of
the floor which under the condition of wall removal will support the floor.
They are typically provided around the perimeter of the building. Internally
continuity of the floor joist is recommended so that there is some bending
resistance in the case where an internal wall is removed. The Structural
Timber Association’s Timber frame structures – platform frame construction
(part 3) provides further details and sample calculations.11

Solid panel acting as beam. For solid panel construction, rather than provide
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an additional rim beam the solid panel may itself span across the gap left
by the removed wall in the accidental load condition (Figure 3.5 ). There are
two requirements in this condition. First, the panel must be able to span;
this isn’t generally a problem for solid panels, but for panels with a large
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 Timber rim beam
spans over gap

Timber rim beam

Portion of wall
panel removed

Timber stud wall

Figure 3.4: Rim beam spanning over removed wall

number of openings this may be problematic. Second, the floor below must
be able to hang from the solid panel above. This can be achieved through
the skew screwing of the vertical panel to the floor panel or use of appro-
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

priate brackets, but centres may be closer than for other requirements. These
requirements are typically only for perimeter panels as above. For internal
panels, where possible, it is recommended that panels are made continuous;
this continuity should provide some resistance if a wall panel is removed.

3.5.1 Other considerations for disproportionate collapse

In addition to the above, acoustic separation, concrete strong floor, and
construction should also be considered for disproportionate collapse.
3 Robustness
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 Wall spans
over gap

Solid timber floor

Floor hangs
off wall

Portion of wall
panel removed

Solid timber wall

Figure 3.5: Solid panel spanning over removed wall

Acoustic separation. As noted above, ideally we should ensure continuity of

floor plates and floor joists over internal walls and beams where possible
to improve the residual capacity of a structure under the conditions of
disproportionate collapse (Figure 3.6 ). However, there is often a conflict
between this requirement and the acoustic requirements, which suggests
that to minimise noise transmission, floor plates and joists should be simply
supported with a physical break over supporting walls/beams. This is not an
easy problem to resolve and should be considered carefully with all parties
as part of the design development.

34 Structural timber elements: a pre-scheme design guide

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 Preferred for robustness Preferred for acoustics
Figure 3.6: Internal continuity for robustness and acoustics

Concrete strong floor. Some buildings have a concrete frame below with
a lighter timber frame above. Examples include concrete basements (and
partial basements) as well as longer span retail units below with higher
density timber units above. Under Building Regulations the timber frame
can be designed to the building class of the number of storeys of the timber
frame only provided that the concrete floor plate that separates the timber
and concrete floor can act as a strong floor. To be adequate as a strong floor
the concrete floor should be able to carry the weight of the building above.
Further details are given in Section 4.4.5 of the IStructE guide to robustness.

Construction. Many timber forms of construction are inherently robust in

their final condition. However, risk of failure and disproportionate collapse
is often significantly higher in the temporary condition. This is true for most
construction types and timber is no exception. The designer is required
to consider robustness and disproportionate collapse not just in the final
condition, but also during construction and demolition.

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3 Robustness
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36
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 4 Product selection
Recapping from Table 2.1, the colour codes used in this chapter are:

Typical use. Does not require significant design experience.

Working material hard. May require increased amount of material,
unusual member sizes or additional calculations to prove that
materials work.
Limits of material. Will require significant amount of material,
unusual member sizes or additional calculations to prove that
materials work.

4.1 Timber fabrication

A wide variety of different timber products are available. Figure 4.1 shows
the fabrication process for all the products covered in this book. They all
include kiln drying and mechanical cutting; some also include gluing and the
addition of steel elements. It is not easy to make a like-for-like comparison
regarding how ‘green’ the different products are but, in simple terms, the less
engineered a product, the more sustainable it is.

4.2 Types of timber products

Timber is available in a wide variety of different products. We are aiming
to guide the designer to choose the most appropriate products for their
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building at the earliest design stage and to prevent unnecessary work

later on in the design process. The following is a very brief outline of the
commonly available products. Their use will be governed by engineering
constraints such as spans, as well as by other considerations, such as
aesthetics, acoustics, fire and insulation details, which should all be consid-
ered at the pre-scheme design stage.

4 Product selection
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 Logs

Peeled Sawn

Waste offcuts
chipped
Thin sheets Sawn timber
ready for use

Plywood OSB Sawn timber

+ steel I-joist

LVL Sawn timber Unilam

+ OSB I-joist Glued
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Nailed

Unilam
LVL + OSB I-joist Glulam (Brettstapel)

Staked

Flitch
CLT
Sawing (or peeling)
Kiln drying Bolted
Chipped and drying
Gluing
Addition of other materials
Figure 4.1: Processing from logs to products

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 Sawn timber
Sawn timber is the most basic form of timber with
the exception of logs (which are not generally
considered in design standards and are not covered
in this book). It can be used for walls, floors and
roofs. Typically it is used in single dwellings and
small-scale construction, which is still the most
prevalent form of timber construction in the UK. Sawn timber tends to come
in standard sizes and is limited by the size of the tree.

For off-the-shelf timber, the maximum recommended length is 6m; there is

limited availability of longer lengths. Similarly, a maximum breadth and
depth of 300mm is recommended, although again availability may be limited,
especially for 300mm2 sections. Sawn timber is typically available for
softwood as either grade C16 or grade C24, but it is wise, at pre-scheme
stage, to check availability.

I-joists
Timber I-joists, like steel I-beams, are designed so
that the majority of the material is at the top and
bottom of the beam where the maximum compres-
sion and tension occur, increasing strength and
stiffness while reducing the volume of timber used.
Timber I-joists are made from a variety of different
materials including laminated veneer lumber (LVL)
and softwood for the flanges, and oriented strand board (OSB) and cold‑rolled
steel struts for the webs (known as metal-webbed joists).

The use of engineered timber products enables a greater range of both depth
and length than for softwood timbers and, where possible, a saving can be
achieved by double-spanning the timber joists.

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 Glulam
Glued laminated timber (glulam) consists of glued
and laminated timber softwood planks. It is a manu-
factured product made up of layers of either 40mm
or 45mm softwood. The beams can be any size up to
about 2m in depth (as the approach enables beams
to be layered up) and the size is only limited by the
available gluing rig and any transportation restrictions. Likewise the length
of beam is not limited by the length of grown timber and therefore glulam is
often used either for long spans or in double-spanning conditions. It has the
added advantage that large defects can be removed from individual timber
pieces before gluing and, even when present, they do not extend beyond a
single lamination of the beam.

Glulam is typically used for beams and columns, with either cross-laminated
timber (CLT), unilam or solid joists being used to create the floor and wall
plates. Glulam joists can be used where particularly large-span floor plates
are required.

LVL
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is made up of a
large number of thin (2mm–3mm) layers of timber
veneers glued together. Due to the highly engineered
nature of this material, the strength is significantly
higher than normal timber (typically about double).
However, there is a significant limit on the available
thickness, with 90mm typically the thickest and
133mm the absolute maximum (but not readily
available in the UK). Therefore buckling can be an
issue, especially for columns. (Note: multiple sheets can be glued together if
greater thicknesses are required.)

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 LVL is made in large sheets so the depth of sections can be specified by
the designer, although 240mm is the typical depth. LVL is available in two
grades: LVL-S and LVL-Q. In LVL-S all the veneers are placed with the grain
in the same direction. For LVL-Q some veneers are placed perpendicular to
the main grain, increasing dimensional stability in large panels, but reducing
the design stresses.

LVL can be used for beams and columns, and can also be used in I-joists and
as flooring in ribbed slabs and cassette panels. Due to the engineered nature
of LVL it reduces the movement (due to changes in moisture and tempera-
ture) inherent in timber structures.

Ribbed slabs
A ribbed slab is a joisted floor in which the flooring
and joists are considered to act compositely. Typical
examples include glulam joists with CLT flooring and
LVL joists and flooring. They are typically specialist
designed and the shear slip between the two
elements makes it difficult to provide simple span
tables, although they are available from some manufacturers. Alternatively,
in pre-scheme design, the span tables for glulam joists can be used, but this
will overestimate deflections and therefore joist centres can be increased as
the design develops.

Ribbed slabs can be constructed on site or prefabricated.

Cassette panels
A cassette panel is a joisted panel with timber
boarding on both faces. Similar to ribbed slabs, the
joists and boarding are considered to act compos-
itely. A cassette panel can be formed from softwood
joists or I-joists with plywood or OSB boarding, or
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 LVL with LVL or OSB boarding. Similar to ribbed slabs, the non-composite,
pre-scheme design span tables provided can be used, but this will overesti-
mate deflections and therefore joist centres can be increased as the design
develops.

Cassette panels can be used for both walls and floors, and lend themselves
to prefabrication, their inherent robustness making them ideal for trans-
portation. Insulation can be installed into panels during fabrication, further
speeding up construction on site.

Unilam
Unilam is made up of closely packed joists posi-
tioned side by side and connected. A variety of
different connections are available, including glue
(effectively in this case it is glulam on its side),
nails or staked with hardwood stakes (this form of
construction is known as Brettstapel and avoids the
use of glues and metal).

The variation in manufacture (from factory to cottage industry) makes this

form of construction quite variable at present in the UK. The bonding of the
timbers increases load sharing but, unlike CLT, the timbers are only strong in
a single direction. Therefore any holes (including windows) require framing
as the material is unable to span in the minor axis.

CLT
Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is essentially the same
as glulam, except that the timber is built up in
layers with different layers having timbers laid in
perpendicular directions. The resulting panel is a
solid timber panel that has significant strength in
both directions. The ratio of these strengths can be
adjusted by varying the thickness and/or number
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 of layers in each direction. CLT can be used for both floors and walls and
has significant loadbearing capacity. It has been used in timber high-rise
buildings. The bending capacity in both directions means that significant
openings can be made without the requirements for trimmers.

In theory, CLT panels can be any size, but in practice the size is limited by
the size of a shipping container and a typical maximum width is 2.95m. The
cross-laminations in CLT help control moisture movement in the timber.

Further information on CLT can be found in Exova BM TRADA’s Cross-

laminated timber: design and performance book.

Flitch beams
A flitch beam is a pair of timber beams (sawn
timber, glulam or LVL) with a steel plate sandwiched
between. They are generally used in alterations
and strengthening of existing buildings but can be
used in new builds where required. It is suggested
that a flitch beam should only be used in a one-off
situation in a new build (such as a transfer beam or an exceptional span). If
a design requires a number of flitch beams, a deeper LVL or glulam solution
is almost certainly more suitable.

Trusses
Timber trusses are commonly used for roofs, espe-
cially in the housing market. Basic span-to-depth
ratios are available for pre-scheme design. The final
truss is typically a specialist design item provided
by the truss fabricator using their own system
software. Trusses are typically made from timber
softwood, but glulam and LVL trusses are possible. For large spans, the
consideration of connections becomes critical in the design, as for other
types of timber structure. --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Plywood
Plywood is made from a number of thin sheets (or veneers) of timber. It is
typically used for flooring and roofs to span between structural joists. It can
also be used in walls as the layer of sheathing board.

OSB
Orientated strand board (OSB) is made from layers of timber flakes that are
glued and compressed together. The flakes are typically made from the waste
product of timber saw mills. OSB can be used in a variety of ways but is most
commonly used as sheathing board for structural timber stud walls.

Hardwoods
Timber is separated into two types of wood, softwood (coniferous) and
hardwood (deciduous). Hardwood grows much more slowly than softwood
and, as a result, it produces a denser, stronger material. However, this makes
it more expensive and also harder to farm sustainably. While it is possible
to design in hardwood (see ‘green timber’ below), it is more typical to design
with softwood in the UK due to cost benefits and availability.

Green timber
In the UK, traditional green oak frames have been used for many centuries
(oak is a hardwood). The design of green oak timber is a particular specialism
and is not covered in this guide. Refer to Exova BM TRADA’s Green oak in
construction12 and Exova BM TRADA’s Wood Information Sheet 2/3-65:
Principles of green oak in construction.13

UK-grown timber species

The market for UK-grown timber is increasing both for sawn timber products
and also for engineered timber products such as OSB and timber I-joists. The
landscape for UK-grown timber is rapidly changing as more products come
to the market. For up-to-date information, see [Link] and
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 Exova BM TRADA’s Wood Information Sheet 2/3-67: Specifying British-grown
timbers.14

Sustainable sourcing
Timber is an extremely sustainable material as long as it is sourced from
a well-managed forest that is maintained and replaced rather than only
harvested. There are many different certificates that can be used to prove
that timber is from a sustainable source; the main two are FSC (Forest
Stewardship Council) and PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest
Certification). Ensure all timber is specified as coming from a sustain-
able source. Further information can be found in Exova BM TRADA’s Wood
Information Sheet 2/3-58: Sustainable timber sourcing.15
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 note 1

5.1.5
5.1.1

5.1.2

5.1.4
5.1.3

See
CLT
Unilam
Ribbed slab/
cassette

10
Glulam joists

9
8
7

Figure 4.2: Floor options (see notes below)

Span (m)
6
5
I-joists
4.3 Floor options

4
3
2
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Sawn timber

Cassette/
Glulam

Unilam
I-joists

ribbed
timber
Sawn

joists

slab

CLT
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Note
4 Product selection

1. Cassette and ribbed slabs will perform better than their parent materials but, due to the shear interaction, this
can be difficult to calculate. At pre-scheme stage we would recommend using the parent material’s span load
tables. With further calculation, a reduction in depth, increase in spacing or increase in span may be possible,
especially if the design is governed by stiffness (deflection and vibration).
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
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47
 note 1

note 2
5.2.4

5.2.5
5.2.1

5.2.2

5.2.3

See

See
CLT
Unilam

(note 3)
1415+
Ribbed slab/

13
cassette

12
11
10
Glulam joists

Span (m)
9
8
7

Figure 4.3: Roof options (see notes below)

6
5
I-joists
4.4 Roof options

4
3
2
Sawn timber

Cassette/
Glulam

Unilam
I-joists
timber

ribbed
Sawn

Truss
joists

slab

CLT
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Notes
4 Product selection

1. Cassette and ribbed slabs will perform better than their parent materials but, due to the shear interaction, this
can be difficult to calculate. At pre-scheme stage we would recommend using the parent material’s span load
tables. With further calculation, a reduction in depth, increase in spacing or increase in span may be possible,
especially if the design is governed by stiffness (deflection and vibration).
2. Timber trusses are typically sized by truss fabricators. A large number of different sizes and shapes are
available. For initial sizing, see the TRADA/IStructE Manual, specifically Figure 4.2 and Table 4.6.
3. Timber roofs can be designed with spans exceeding 15m. For initial scheme design of long-span roofs, see the
TRADA/IStructE Manual, specifically Table 4.6. For further information on the design of long-span roof struc-
tures with a number of examples, see the Exova BM TRADA/Wood for Good publication Wide-span wood sports
structures.16.
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49

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
 note 1
5.3.1

5.3.2

5.3.3

5.3.4
See
CLT
Unilam
Ribbed slab/cassette

10
9
8
7
Height (m)
6

Figure 4.4: Wall options (see notes below)

I-joists

5
4
4.5 Wall options

3
2
Sawn timber

Cassette

(note 2)

(note 2)
Unilam
I-joists
timber
Sawn

CLT
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Notes
4 Product selection

Note 1.  Cassette panels will perform better than their parent materials but, due to the shear interaction, this can
be difficult to calculate. At pre-scheme stage we would recommend using the parent material’s span load
tables. With further calculation, a reduction in depth or increase in spacing may be possible, especially if
the design is governed by stiffness (deflection and vibration).
Note 2.  External stud wall options allow for the inclusion of insulation between studs (typically with an additional
layer on the outside). Solid timber walls will require thermal insulation on the outside.
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51

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
 5.4.3
5.4.1

5.4.2

5.4.4
Sawn timber flitch
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

10
LVL

9
8
7
Span (m)
6

Not suitable
5
Glulam

Figure 4.5: Beam options (see notes below)

4
3
4.6 Beam options

10 kN/m
20 kN/m

10 kN/m
20 kN/m
50 kN/m

10 kN/m
20 kN/m
50 kN/m

10 kN/m
20 kN/m
50 kN/m
Sawn timber

(note 1)

(note 2)
Glulam
timber
Sawn

Flitch
LVL
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Notes
4 Product selection

1. LVL beams are particularly susceptible to lateral torsional buckling and these spans are only possible if the
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

compression edge is fully restrained by the decking.

2. Timber flitch beams are typically only used in repair or alterations to existing buildings. If required in new
buildings they should be used in exceptional circumstances only (such as transfers). If a number of flitch beams
are required at pre-scheme design stage, alternatives such as glulam or LVL should be considered.
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53
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4.7 Column options

54

Sawn timber Glulam LVL

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Axial capacity (kN)

0 100 200 300 400 500 1000 2000 Bearing
capacity (kN)

Sawn timber 20–200 5.5.1

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Glulam 120–480 5.5.2

LVL 15–60 5.5.3

Figure 4.6: Column options (see notes below)

Note
1. For most columns the governing consideration will be the bearing capacity. If beams are face fixed, therefore
removing this consideration, the moment induced by eccentricity should be considered and a significant
reduction to axial capacity (say 50%) should be allowed for at this stage of design.
 4.8 Types of timber connections
Unlike in steel and concrete buildings, the design of timber connections often
governs the size of the primary timber. For sizing, columns may be based on
bearing capacity rather than axial capacity and beam depth may be based on
the number and spacing of bolts. Therefore it is important, even at the pre-
scheme stage of a design, to know what type of connection could be used.

In this section the connections are colour coded to demonstrate:

•• the complexity of the design (red and amber connections require more
calculation than green)
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•• the impact the connection type will have on the design (for red connec-
tions, the connection design will govern the beam member size, for amber
it may govern the beam size and for green it is unlikely to).

Ideally green connections should be used at this stage as they are usually
cheaper, quicker and easier to calculate. The following connections are
presented in the form of a hierarchy, from the most simple to the most
complicated.

Due to the properties of timber and its propensity to split or shear if bolts
are located too close either to each other or to the edges of the timber, the
spacing of bolts in timber is significantly greater than for other materials.
A number of tables are available that confirm bolt spacing for detailed
design considerations. For pre-scheme design, the simplified approach is to
assume that bolts are spaced five times the bolt diameter from all edges and
each other.

Exova BM TRADA’s Concise illustrated guide to timber connections shows the

main structural forms for which timber is suitable and the common connec-
tions used to assemble these forms.17

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 4.8.1 Beam–column connections
Bearing

A bearing connection is typically used:

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
• when timber sits on a wall (as is typical in masonry
construction but also in timber wall construction)
• when it sits on top of a column
• when there is vertical space for it to sit on top of
other beams.

The connection is simple and the design is governed typically by bearing.

However, an allowance should be made for either skew screwing (in the
case of beams on a continuous support) or locator brackets (for beams onto
columns or where location of the beam is critical).

A bearing connection can be visually exposed and is not inherently weak in

a fire scenario. However, consideration should be given to the fire capacity of
the exposed elements in the connection.

Where bearing connections are formed along walls or beams, the use of
noggings should be considered to prevent the rotation of the beams sitting
on top. In roof locations, careful consideration of uplift is required (load
reversal) and adequate fixing down of timber members is necessary; this will
often be through the addition of steel straps. The use of bearing connections
minimises moments on the supporting element.

Hangers
As an alternative to bearing connections, proprietary,
galvanised, thin, steel joist hangers can be used. They
are designed for a variety of uses, from connection
to masonry walls to steel I-beams. They are suitable
for a number of joisted components such as sawn
joists, timber I-beams, glulam beams and LVL beams.
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 Traditionally hangers were external to the joist but hidden hangers are also
now available.

Load capacities are typically provided by manufacturers but a performance

specification is acceptable as long as there is at least one available product
that can achieve the required loading. Hangers are also available to enable
skew connections.

It is important to consider fire protection in the design of hangers as

generally they have very little inherent fire capacity.

Flitch
Where a beam is to be connected to another beam or
column and a bearing connection is not acceptable
due to depth of floor build up or other engineering
or visual requirements, a flitch connection can be
considered. The flitch plate is typically hidden within
the timber beam and face-fixed to the supporting
beam or column. They are connected through the
timber and steel plate either with bolts or dowels.
The connection is sized by the transfer of load from
the timber to the plate through the connectors.

The mechanism is governed by the limited bearing

capacity of the timber bearing on the connectors as
the contact area is relatively small. As a result, this connection type can require
an increased depth to accommodate the required number of connectors.

When subjected to fire the steel connectors will heat up and cause local
charring, reducing the capacity of the connection. One option is to cover
the connectors with timber plugs, which act as a fire stop in the short term.
However, this will reduce the thickness of timber in contact with the
connector and therefore may increase the width of the timber member
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

required to achieve the same connection capacity.

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 Split beam/column
In some circumstances, where columns need to be
continuous and/or beams also need to be continuous
then a split beam or column can be used. A blocking
piece, through-bolted to the column, acts in bearing
for the beam.

This detail is typically used when a cantilever is

required but columns need to be continuous for
visual and/or structural reasons. This type of connec-
tion is not as typical and has a strong visual aesthetic that should be agreed
at this stage of the design.

Moment
Moment connections are possible in timber but are
advised against at this stage. The limited bolt spacing
and low bearing capacity of the timber, especially
perpendicular to the grain, means that often the size
of the timber will significantly increase to enable the
connection to work (typically timbers two to three
times the size may be required).

At pre-scheme design stage it is recommended that any moment frame and/

or cantilever connection be avoided. If this is not possible then a full design
(there are no design tables or shortcuts for moment connections) should be
carried out at this early stage as this consideration will undoubtedly govern
the design of the timber elements. The movement of the frame due to joint
slip should also be considered at this early stage.

For fire protection the same considerations apply as for flitch connections.

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 4.8.2 Base plate connections
Proprietary shoe
For softwood (and LVL) columns the most common
form of simple connection is the use of an off-the-
shelf shoe. The shoe is formed of two parts: a bracket
that is bolted down to the foundation/ground floor
slab to prevent uplift, and a shoe that is bolted to
the column.

The two items mechanically interlock on site and

are locked together with a locator bolt. The design
allows for the installation of a subsequent screed
and assumes the column will be fire-boarded, thus
covering up the connector in the final condition.

Fabricated steel flitch

For larger columns, typically glulam (although large
softwood columns also fall into this category), a
nominally pinned plate connection is formed by
either bearing the column on an endplate (with a
flitch used to locate the column) or by using a large
flitch that transfers the load through a number of
connectors.

For the bearing detail the column can either sit on a baseplate or, if a screed
or slab will be poured after the column installation, a short stub of steel
universal column (UC) can be used to raise the bearing plate above the wet
trades (pictured), while enabling the base plate to be connected to the slab.
This is not an off-the-shelf product and requires fabrication. If a true pin is
required, the short stub of UC can be replaced with three interlocking plates
connected by a barrel pin. This detail allows full articulation in one direction
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 only and is sometimes required where movement of the timber in a rigid
frame may lead to unwanted moments at the base.

For the flitch plate detail the load is taken by the vertical plate that is welded
to the baseplate. The baseplate is connected to the foundation using holding
down bolts. Where wet trades follow after the installation of the column,
a suitable gap should be allowed for to prevent the timber being in direct
contact with the wet trades. A check of the flitch plate for buckling should be
applied for the temporary condition.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Moment connection
As for beam connections, moment connections
should be avoided at pre-scheme design stage. If
a moment connection is required then it can be
achieved using the flitch plate detail outlined above
but with a plate going into the timber column in a
manner similar to a moment plate. This plate will
need to transfer the moments and to achieve this a
large number of bolts may be required, which will
almost certainly define the size of the column. In this situation the aspect
ratio of the column is much more likely to be like that of a beam.

If a moment connection is required for structural stability (as against limiting

deflection) then careful consideration of fire protection is also required. As
with beam connections, the full design of the moment connection should be
considered even at the pre-scheme design stage as it will govern the overall
size of the timber.

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 5 Initial sizing
Recapping from Table 2.2, the colour codes used in this chapter are:
Section 5.1–5.2, 5.4 Section 5.3 Section 5.5
Design is governed by Design is governed by Refer to graph
stress (typically bending deflection. Stress is below legend.
but occasionally shear). 30% of capacity.
Design is governed Design is governed by
by deflection. deflection. Stress is below
60% of capacity.
Design is governed Design is governed by
by vibration. deflection. Stress is greater
than 60% of capacity.

This chapter contains indicative performance for timber products used in

various situations, as summarised above.

For each application of a given structural depth, ‘economical’ means the span
or height that is possible with the minimum-cost solution and ‘maximum’
means the span or height that is possible with a fully developed solution.
For example, in Section 5.1.1: Sawn timber floors, using joists 100mm in depth
supporting a variable action of 1.5kN/m2, the ‘economical’ solution with C16
joists at 600mm centres will span 1.5m, while the ‘maximum’ solution with
C24 joists at 300mm centres will span 2.7m.

Where a range exists, the start and finish of the bars in the chart correspond --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

to the economical and maximum data in the table.

In this chapter:

•• UDL means ‘uniformly distributed load’

•• PL means ‘point load’
•• NA means ‘not applicable’
•• LTB means ‘lateral torsional buckling’.
Sections 5.1–5.3 contain unfactored loads; Sections 5.4 and 5.5 contain
factored loads.
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 5.1 Floors
5.1.1 Sawn timber floors

>6m check availability

7.5
5.0
300

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5

Variable action (kN/m2)

5.0
250

4.0
2.5
Joist depth (mm)

Maximum Span
1.5
Economical

7.5
5.0
200

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
4.0
150

2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
4.0
100

2.5
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.1: Spans for sawn timber floors (see Table 5.1)

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Key considerations
Economical = C16 timbers at 600 centres.
Maximum span = C24 timbers at 300 centres.
Joists longer than 6m may be difficult to obtain.
A permanent action allowance of 1kN/m2 plus self-weight of the joists is included.
Allow additional 25mm for boarding. If a more accurate thickness is required,
see Section 5.1.6.

Table 5.1: Data for sawn timber floors

Variable action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 100 150 200 250 300
Spans (m)
1.5 Economical 1.5 2.5 3.3 4.5 5.1
Maximum 2.7 3.9 5.1 5.9 7.2
2.5 Economical 1.4 2.2 3.0 4.3 5.0
Maximum 2.4 3.6 5.0 5.8 7.1
4.0 Economical 1.2 1.9 2.5 3.9 4.6
Maximum 2.2 3.3 4.7 5.6 7.0
5.0 Economical 1.1 1.7 2.3 3.5 4.2
Maximum 2.1 3.1 4.5 5.4 6.8
7.5 Economical 0.9 1.4 1.9 3.0 3.6
Maximum 1.8 2.8 4.0 5.0 6.3
Minimum bearing length (mm) 40 40 40 40 40

Notes
1. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design that
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher grade timber,
a greater number of joists and greater joist width for the same depth.
Generally, it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but
where necessary, spans can go up to the maximum.
2. For economical spans C16 timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.2N/mm2,
fm,k = 16N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,000N/mm2.
3. For maximum spans C24 timber is assumed with fv,k = 4N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
4. The following spacings have been considered. For economical design a
spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm.
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 5. The following timber sizes have been considered:
Economical 100mm × 38mm commonly available
Maximum 100mm × 75mm
Economical 150mm × 47mm commonly available LTB
Maximum 150mm × 75mm
Economical 200mm × 47mm commonly available LTB
Maximum 200mm × 100mm
Economical 250mm × 75mm LTB
Maximum 250mm × 100mm
Economical 300mm × 75mm LTB
Maximum 300mm × 150mm
6. The above sizes have been chosen in line with Exova BM TRADA WIS
2/3-37: Softwood sizes,18 published in 2015, and should all be generally
available. The ones noted as commonly available are target cross-
sectional sizes of structural softwoods commonly available in the UK.
Due to the large number of merchants each offering their own range of
sizes, this data may not be definitive.
7. For LTB the depth-to-breadth ratio is generally limited to 1:3 (provided
the ends are held in place by suitable brackets or noggings); where
LTB is highlighted above, this is not the case and the joists will require
restraint from the decking.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
9. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
10. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
11. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
12. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
13. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
14. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
15. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load. If large point
loads are to be applied, and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be checked.
16. The minimum bearing length is based on cl.6.1.5 of EC5 and allows for
the full width to bear with a bearing length taken as the value given
in the table in Section 5 plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.5. In this case
the actual bearing required is significantly less than the 40mm stated.
However, due to construction tolerance and ‘buildability’, we do not
recommend reducing the bearing length below this value.
17. The factor kh is considered for timbers 100mm deep.
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 18. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
19. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
20. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term only.
21. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.
22. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the floor over a nominal width
of 1m. The mass per square metre is taken as the permanent action
and 10% of the variable action. If the variable action is predominantly
storage load, a greater percentage could be considered as the greater
the mass of the floor, the lower the natural frequency.
23. Joists should generally be fire-boarded to protect against fire. For
larger joist sizes, the joists may have some inherent fire resistance as
shown below. This is a generic study based on a gk (permanent load)
of 1kN/m2, a qk (variable load) of 2.5kN/m2 with only 30% of the qk
allowed for under the fire condition as it is an accidental action in this
condition. The table below assumes a charring rate of 0.8mm/minute in
accordance with BS EN 1995-1-2 Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures.
General. Structural fire design Table 3.1.19

Depth (mm) Rating (minutes)

Economical Maximum span
100 0 30
150 0 30
200 0 30
250 30 30
300 30 60
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,

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 5.1.2 I-joist floors

7.5
5.0
400

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5

Variable action (kN/m2)

5.0
Joist depth (mm)
350

4.0
2.5

Maximum Span
1.5
Economical

7.5
5.0
300

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
250

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
200

4.0
2.5
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.2: Spans for I-joist floors (see Table 5.2)

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Key considerations
Economical = narrow I-joist at 600 centres.
Maximum span = wide I-joist at 300 centres.
A permanent action allowance of 1kN/m2 plus self-weight of the joists is
included.
Allow additional 25mm for boarding. If a more accurate thickness is required,
see Section 5.1.6.

Table 5.2: Data for I-joist floors

Variable action (kN/m2) Approx. depth (mm) 200 250 300 350 400
Spans (m)
1.5 Economical 3.3 3.9 4.5 5.5 6.0
Maximum 5.1 5.8 6.5 7.0 7.5
2.5 Economical 3.0 3.6 4.1 5.2 5.7
Maximum 5.0 5.7 6.3 6.9 7.3
4.0 Economical 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.4 4.7
Maximum 4.5 5.3 6.2 6.7 7.2
5.0 Economical 2.4 2.7 3.1 4.0 4.3
Maximum 4.3 5.0 5.8 6.3 6.8
7.5 Economical 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.3 3.6
Maximum 3.7 4.3 4.9 5.3 5.7
Minimum bearing length (mm) 90 90 90 90 90

Notes
1. Unlike other timber materials, timber I-joists are a product and are made
by a variety of manufacturers. The materials used, sizes and therefore
capacity varies by manufacturer. As a result, the data presented are
based on a variety of options and the depths approximately match
available products (±10mm). As a result exact technical data cannot be
provided in the same way as for other materials.
2. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design that should
offer sensible spans at the minimum cost and maximum spans, where
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

the cost will be significantly greater due to higher specification joists

and a greater number of joists for the same depth. Generally, it is recom-
mended that economical spans should be used, but where necessary
spans can go up to the maximum.

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 3. The following spacings have been considered: for economical design a
spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm.
4. I-joists should be restrained either by decking or straps that prevent
racking and LTB.
5. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
6. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
7. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
8. The partial factor for material is taken as the appropriate values for the

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
different materials considered in line with EC5 Table 2.3.
9. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load. If large point
loads are to be applied, and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be checked.
10. The minimum bearing length is based on manufacturers’ recommenda-
tions. Depending on load intensity some joists will require blocks at
supports to prevent failure of the web at the support point.
11. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
12. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear
deflection­; instead, a 20% allowance is made to account for the effects
of shear deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases. This
is significantly greater than for solid joists and is due to the geometric
properties of an I-joist.
13. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term
only.
14. For vibration design, the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.

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 15. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the floor over a nominal width
of 1m. The mass per square metre is taken as the permanent action
and 10% of the variable action. If the variable action is predominantly
storage load, a greater percentage could be considered as the greater
the mass of the floor, the lower the natural frequency.
16. I-joists should be fire-boarded to protect against fire.
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.1.3 Glulam joist floors

7.5
5.0
4.0
440

2.5
1.5
Gluam Joist Depth (mm)

7.5

Variable action (kN/m2)

5.0
4.0
400

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2.5

Maximum Span
1.5
Economical

7.5
5.0
4.0
360

2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
320

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
4.0
280

2.5
1.5
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.3: Spans for glulam joist floors (see Table 5.3)

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 Key considerations
Economical = GL24c glulam joists at 600 centres.
Maximum span = GL28h glulam joists at 300/400 centres.
A permanent action allowance of 1kN/m2 plus self-weight of the joists is
included.
Allow additional 25mm for boarding. If a more accurate thickness is required
see Section 5.1.6.

Table 5.3: Data for glulam joist floors

Variable action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 280 320 360 400 440
Spans (m)
1.5 Economical 5.3 5.9 6.7 7.2 8.0
Maximum 6.8 7.4 8.0 8.6 9.1
2.5 Economical 5.2 5.8 6.6 7.1 7.9
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Maximum 6.7 7.3 7.9 8.5 9.0

4.0 Economical 5.0 5.5 6.3 6.8 7.6
Maximum 6.5 7.1 7.7 8.3 8.9
5.0 Economical 4.7 5.3 6.1 6.6 7.3
Maximum 6.3 6.9 7.6 8.2 8.7
7.5 Economical 4.2 4.8 5.6 6.1 6.8
Maximum 5.8 6.4 7.0 7.6 8.1
Minimum bearing length (mm) 75 75 75 75 75

Notes
1. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design that
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost, and maximum spans
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher grade timber,
a greater number of joists and greater joist width for the same depth.
Generally, it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but
where necessary, spans can go up to the maximum.
2. For economical spans GL24c timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.5N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,600N/mm2.
3. For maximum spans GL28h timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.5N/mm2,
fm,k = 28N/mm2 and E0,mean = 12,600N/mm2.

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 4. The following spacings have been considered: for economical design
a spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm for
depths up to 320mm and 400mm for depths greater than this.
5. The following timber sizes have been considered:
Economical 280mm × 80mm LTB
Maximum 280mm × 120mm
Economical 320mm × 80mm LTB
Maximum 320mm × 120mm
Economical 360mm × 100mm LTB
Maximum 360mm × 160mm
Economical 400mm × 100mm LTB
Maximum 400mm × 160mm
Economical 440mm × 120mm LTB
Maximum 440mm × 160mm
6. Glulam joists are available in both 40mm laminations (metric sizes)
and 45mm laminations (imperial sizes). Both sizes are available in the
UK and size will depend on stockist. The values provided are based on
40mm laminations, but as the design is stress based, 45mm laminations
will provide similar solutions.
7. For LTB the depth-to-breadth ratio is generally limited to 1:3 (provided
the ends are held in place by suitable brackets or noggings); where
LTB is highlighted above, this is not the case and the joists will require
restraint from the decking.
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
9. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
10. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
11. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.
12. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
13. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
14. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
15. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load. If large point
loads are to be applied, and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be checked.
16. The minimum bearing length is based on cl.6.1.5 and allows for the
full width to bear with a bearing length taken as the minimum value
given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.75. In this case, the actual bearing
required is significantly less than the 75mm stated. However, due to
construction tolerance and ‘buildability’ we do not recommend reducing
the bearing length below this value.
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 17. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
18. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
19. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term only.
20. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as

laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.
21. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the floor over a nominal width
of 1m. The mass per square metre is taken as the permanent action
and 10% of the variable action. If the variable action is predominantly
storage load, a greater percentage could be considered as the greater
the mass of the floor, the lower the natural frequency.
22. Joists should generally be fire-boarded to protect against fire. For larger
joist sizes the joists may have some inherent fire resistance as shown
below. This is a generic study based on a gk (permanent load) of 1kN/m2,
a qk (variable load) of 2.5kN/m2 with only 30% of the qk allowed for
under the fire condition as it is an accidental action in this condition.
The table below assumes a charring rate of 0.7mm/minute in accord-
ance with BS EN 1995-1-2 Table 3.1.
Depth Rating (minutes)
Economical Maximum span
280 30 60
320 30 60
360 30 90
400 30 90
440 60 90

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 5.1.4 Unilam floor

7.5
5.0
250

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5

Variable action (kN/m2)

5.0
4.0
200
Floor depth (mm)

2.5

Maximum span
1.5
Economical

7.5
5.0
4.0
150

2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
100

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
4.0
75

2.5
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.4: Spans for unilam floors (see Table 5.4)

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Key considerations
Economical = C16 timbers screwed or staked together.
Maximum span = C24 timber and is effectively glulam on its side.
A permanent action of 1kN/m2 plus the self-weight of the timber unilam is
included.

Table 5.4: Data for unilam floors

Variable action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 75 100 150 200 250
Spans (m)
1.5 Economical 2.7 3.6 4.7 5.7 6.6
Maximum 3.0 3.8 5.0 6.1 7.0
2.5 Economical 2.5 3.3 4.6 5.6 6.5
Maximum 2.8 3.7 5.0 6.0 6.9
4.0 Economical 2.2 3.0 4.5 5.5 6.4
Maximum 2.5 3.3 4.9 5.9 6.8
5.0 Economical 2.1 2.8 4.2 5.4 6.3
Maximum 2.4 3.2 4.7 5.8 6.8
7.5 Economical 1.9 2.6 3.8 5.0 5.9
Maximum 2.1 2.8 4.2 5.4 6.4
Minimum bearing length (mm) 50 50 50 50 50

Notes
1. Unilam is an upcoming material that can be manufactured in different
ways. The economical option assumes lower grade timber mechani-
cally interconnected, whereas the maximum span option is assumed
to be a glued laminated material and is commercially available. Unlike
other materials, the economical option may not be cheaper but may be
preferred for other reasons.
2. For economical spans C16 timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.2N/mm2,
fm,k = 16N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,000N/mm2.
3. For maximum spans C24 timber is assumed with fv,k = 4N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
4. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
5. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.

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 6. It is assumed planks are connected and therefore share loads, so a
ksys = 1.1 is taken.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
8. A shear factor kc,r = 1 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
11. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are applied, this should be considered.
12. The minimum bearing length is calculated in accordance with EC5
cl.6.1.5 and allows for the full width to bear, with a bearing length
taken as the minimum value given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.5. In
this case, the actual bearing required is significantly less than the 50mm
stated. However, due to construction tolerance and ‘buildability’ we do
not recommend reducing the bearing length below this value.
13. The factor kh is considered for timbers 100mm deep.
14. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
15. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
16. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term
only.
17. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.

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 18. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the floor over a nominal width
of 1m. The mass per square metre is taken as the permanent action
and 10% of the variable action. If the variable action is predominantly
storage load, a greater percentage could be considered as the greater
the mass of the floor, the lower the natural frequency.
19. The floor has some inherent fire resistance, as shown in the table below.
This is a generic study considering various loads with only 30% of the
variable action allowed for under the fire condition as it is an acci-
dental action in this condition. Greater fire ratings may be achievable
depending on the exact loading type.
20. A charring rate of 0.8mm/minute is assumed.

Depth (mm) Rating (minutes)

Economical Maximum span
75 30 30
100 60 60
150 120 120
200 120 120
250 120 120

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 5.1.5 CLT floor

7.5
5.0
4.0
280

2.5
1.5
7.5

Variable action (kN/m2)

5.0
4.0
240
Floor depth (mm)

2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
4.0
160

2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
100

4.0
2.5
1.5
7.5
5.0
4.0
60

2.5
1.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.5: Spans for CLT floors (see Table 5.5)

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 Key considerations
A permanent action of 1kN/m2 plus the self-weight of the CLT is included.
Unlike for other materials, there is not an economical and maximum span
value provided for CLT. However, the deeper sections are significantly more
expensive than shallower ones.
Unlike joisted floors and unilam, CLT has some minor axis bending strength
and moderate holes may be formed without the requirement for trimmers.

Table 5.5: Data for CLT floors

Depth (mm) 60 100 160 240 280
Variable action (kN/m2) Spans (m)
1.5 2.3 3.8 5.1 6.9 7.4
2.5 2.1 3.4 5.1 6.9 7.4
4.0 1.8 3.1 4.7 6.9 7.4
5.0 1.7 3.0 4.5 6.9 7.4
7.5 1.5 2.7 4.0 6.4 7.2
Minimum bearing length (mm) 50 50 50 50 50
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Notes
1. The tables and graphs in Section 5 are based on the design principles
as given by the IStructE’s Cross-laminated timber construction – structural
design.20
2. CLT manufacture is generally standardised, with the exception of KLH
who supply slightly different thicknesses and layering.
3. The CLT panels considered have been chosen to optimise the main
span; if large openings are required and greater minor axis strength
is therefore also required, the spans given should be reduced. The
following build-ups have been considered (values in bold are oriented
in the direction of the span, other values are perpendicular to the span).

Lamination thickness
60 3s 20 20 20
100 3s 40 20 40
160 5s 40 20 40 20 40
240 7ss 40 40 20 40 20 40 40
280 7ss 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
(Table derived from MM Holz’s brochure MM crosslam21)

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 4. The following timber properties are assumed: GL24 timber with
fv,k = 3N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2, E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2, Gmean = 650N/mm2
and Grollingshear = 65N/mm2.
5. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
6. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.
8. A shear factor kc,r = 1 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. Neither shear nor bending govern the design in any case considered.
11. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are applied, this should be considered.
12. The minimum bearing length is calculated in accordance with EC5
cl.6.1.5 and allows for the full width to bear, with a bearing length taken
as the minimum value given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.75 for GL24.
In this case, the actual bearing required is significantly less than the
50mm stated. However, due to construction tolerance and ‘buildability’
we do not recommend reducing the bearing length below this value.
13. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
14. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.9.
15. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.
16. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the floor over a nominal width of
1m. The mass per square metre is taken as the permanent action only. If
the variable action is predominantly storage load, a greater percentage
could be considered as the greater the mass of the floor, the lower the
natural frequency.

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 17. The floor has some inherent fire resistance. However, due to the
change in thickness of the different laminations and the change in
orientation­between laminations, specific advice should be sought from
the manufacturer­.
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 5.1.6 Plywood and OSB floor boarding
Key considerations
The design of boarding is always governed by the deflection under a point
load. There is not a direct relationship between the area load and the point
load, and Table 5.6 should be used as a guide only. For actual point loads, see
the national annex of EC1.
The deflection due to point load has been treated as an instantaneous load
and therefore the creep of the timber has not been considered. For long-term
point loads such as storage loads and plant loads, this is clearly not the case
and under this condition the plywood thickness should be increased by 3mm.
Under this condition, the use of OSB is not recommended.
The table is based on a PL applied over a square 50mm × 50mm. For very
high point loads over a small area, punching through the boarding should
also be considered.
Plywood grade and quality can vary significantly. The engineer should ensure
that they have specified a suitable grade of plywood at tender stage.

Table 5.6: Data for plywood and OSB floors

Plywood thickness (mm)
Variable action UDL (kN/m2) 1.5 2.5 4/5 7.5
PL (kN) 2.0 3.0 4.5 5.0
Joist spacing (mm) 300 121 15 18 18
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

400 15 15 18 18
450 15 18 18 21
600 18 21 24 24
Note 1. Where ties are required for robustness minimum thickness should be increased to 15mm.
OSB3/4 thickness (mm)
Variable action UDL (kN/m2) 1.5 2.5 4/5 7.5
PL (kN) 2.0 3.0 4.5 5.0
Joist spacing (mm) 300 152 18 18 22
400 152 18 22 22
450 152 18 22 22
600 18 22 NA NA
Note 2. Where ties are required for robustness minimum thickness should be increased to 18mm.

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 Notes
1. OSB is assumed to be OSB3 or OSB4; if OSB2 is to be used these values
may not be applied.
2. For OSB3/4 boarding fv,k = 1N/mm2, fm,k = 14.8N/mm2 and
E0,mean = 4,930N/mm2.
3. For plywood boarding the characteristic design stresses are highly
variable. For final design the plywood supplier should confirm the
values for their product. For scheme design the minimum values
provided by Table 3.17 of the TRADA/IStructE Manual are assumed to be
fv,k = 1.4N/mm2, fm,k = 20N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,100N/mm2
4. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
5. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
6. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.2.
7. Unlike larger structural members, the design of boarding is governed
by the applied point load rather than distributed load. For the deflec-
tion calculation the variable action is taken as a point load applied to
an area of 50mm × 50mm, with an assumed load spread of 45 degrees.
Therefore, a design width equal to the span is assumed. As most boarding
is continuous over a number of joists, the design has been based on a
minimum of two continuous spans for the deflection calculation. The
deflection is then limited to span/100 for the combined permanent
and variable action. The effects of creep have been considered for the
permanent action and 30% of the variable action uniformly distributed
load. However, the point load has been assumed to be instantaneous. If
this is not the case, OSB is not recommended and plywood thicknesses
should be increased by 3mm. The following kdef have been assumed: 0.8
for plywood and 1.5 for OSB3/4.
8. BS 8103-1. Structural design of low-rise buildings22 allows design either
by application of EC5 or by testing. As a result, suppliers may have their
own span charts that improve on the values provided here.
9. BS 8103-1 provides specific values for OSB3 in domestic situations.
These values have been used instead of the calculated values for a
variable action of 1.5kN/m2.

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 5.2 Roofs
5.2.1 Sawn timber roofs

>6m check availability

3.0
2.0
225

1.5
1.0
0.5

Permanent action (kN/m2)

3.0
2.0
200

1.5
Floor depth (mm)

1.0

Maximum span
0.5
Economical

3.0
2.0
150

1.5
1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
100

1.5
1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
75

1.0
0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.6: Spans for sawn timber roofs (see Table 5.7)

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 Key considerations
Economical = C16 timbers at 600 centres.
Maximum span = C24 timbers at 300 centres.
Joists longer than 6m may be difficult to obtain.
All spans are governed by deflection.
Variation in permanent action has been considered; variable action is fixed
at 0.6kN/m2.
The chart and table are on the basis of a flat roof.
Allow additional 15mm for boarding. If a more accurate thickness is required
see Section 5.2.7.

Table 5.7: Data for sawn timber roofs

Permanent action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 75 100 150 200 225
Spans (m)
0.5 Economical 1.5 2.0 3.3 4.4 5.3
Maximum 2.3 3.6 5.3 7.1 7.7
1.0 Economical 1.3 1.7 2.8 3.8 4.7
Maximum 2.0 3.1 4.6 6.3 6.9
1.5 Economical 1.2 1.6 2.5 3.4 4.2
Maximum 1.8 2.8 4.2 5.8 6.4
2.0 Economical 1.1 1.4 2.3 3.1 3.9
Maximum 1.6 2.6 3.9 5.5 6.0
3.0 Economical 0.9 1.3 2.1 2.8 3.5
Maximum 1.4 2.3 3.4 5.0 5.5
Minimum bearing length (mm) 40 40 40 40 40

Notes
1. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design that
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost; and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher grade timber,
a greater number of joists and greater joist width for the same depth.
Generally, it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but
where necessary, spans can go up to the maximum.
2. For economical spans C16 timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.2N/mm2,
fm,k = 16N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,000N/mm2.

5 Initial sizing 85
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 3. For maximum spans C24 timber is assumed with fv,k = 4N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
4. The following spacings have been considered. For economical design a
spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm.
5. The following timber sizes have been considered:
Economical 75mm × 38mm
Maximum 75mm × 47mm
Economical 100mm × 38mm Commonly available
Maximum 100mm × 75mm
Economical 150mm × 47mm Commonly available, LTB
Maximum 150mm × 75mm
Economical 200mm × 47mm Commonly available, LTB
Maximum 200mm × 100mm
Economical 225mm × 63mm Commonly available, LTB
Maximum 225mm × 100mm
6. The above sizes have been chosen in line with Exova BM TRADA’s Wood
Information Sheet 2/3-37: Softwood sizes, published in 2015, and should
all be generally available. The ones noted as commonly available are
target cross-sectional sizes of structural softwoods commonly available
in the UK, from a market survey by BM TRADA in 2014. Due to the large
number of merchants offering their own ranges of sizes, these data may
not be definitive.
7. For LTB the depth-to-breadth ratio is generally limited to 1:3 (provided
the ends are held in place by suitable brackets or noggings). Where
LTB is highlighted above, this is not the case and the joists will require
restraint from the decking.
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
9. The load duration is taken either as short term and therefore kmod = 0.9
or as permanent, in which case kmod = 0.6 and only the permanent
action is considered. The worst case is taken for each condition.
10. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
11. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
12. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
13. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
14. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.

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 15. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load. If large point
loads are to be applied, and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be checked.
16. The minimum bearing length is based on cl.6.1.5 and allows for the full
width to bear with a bearing length taken as the minimum value given
plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.5. In this case, the actual bearing required
is significantly less than the 75mm stated. However, due to construction
tolerance and ‘buildability’ we do not recommend reducing the bearing
length below this value.
17. The factor kh is considered for timbers 75mm and 100mm deep.
18. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

19. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
20. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action. The variable action is consid-
ered to act in the short term only.
21. As this is for a roof design, vibration has not been considered.
22. The effects of fire do not need to be considered unless the roof supports
plant, in which case it should be designed using the floor tables.

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 5.2.2 I-joist roofs

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3.0
2.0
400

1.5
1.0
0.5

Permanent action (kN/m2)

3.0
2.0
350

1.5
1.0

Maximum span
0.5
Joist depth (mm)

Economical

3.0
2.0
300

1.5
1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
250

1.5
1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
200

1.5
1.0
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.7: Spans for I-joist roofs (see Table 5.8)

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 Key considerations
Economical = narrow I-joists at 600 centres.
Maximum span = wide I-joists at 300 centres.
Variation in permanent action has been considered; variable action is fixed
at 0.6kN/m2.
The chart and table are on the basis of a flat roof.
Allow additional 15mm for boarding. If a more accurate thickness is required
see Section 5.2.7.

Table 5.8: Data for I-joist roofs

Permanent action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 200 250 300 350 400
Spans (m)
0.5 Economical 4.5 5.4 6.3 8.2 8.9
Maximum 7.5 8.8 10.1 11 11.7
1.0 Economical 3.9 4.7 5.4 7.1 7.8
Maximum 6.5 7.6 8.5 9.2 9.9
1.5 Economical 3.6 4.2 4.9 6.5 7.0
Maximum 5.9 6.8 7.7 8.3 8.9
2.0 Economical 3.3 3.9 4.6 6.0 6.5

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Maximum 5.5 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.3
3.0 Economical 2.9 3.5 3.9 5.1 5.5
Maximum 4.9 5.8 6.5 7.0 7.5
Minimum bearing length (mm) 90 90 90 90 90

Notes
1. Unlike other timber materials, timber I-joists are a product and are
made by a variety of manufacturers. The materials used, sizes and
therefore capacity varies by manufacturer. The data presented are based
on a variety of options and the depths approximately match available
products (±10mm). As a result, exact technical data cannot be provided
in the same way as for other materials.

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 2. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design, which
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost, and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher specification
joists and a greater number of joists for the same depth. Generally,
it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but where
necessary, spans can go up to the maximum.
3. The following spacings have been considered: for economical design a
spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm.
4. I-joists should be restrained either by decking or straps that prevent
racking.
5. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
6. The load duration is taken either as short term and therefore kmod = 0.9
or as permanent, in which case the kmod = 0.6 and only the permanent
action is considered. The worst case is taken for each condition.
7. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
8. The partial factor for material is taken as the appropriate values for the
different materials considered in line with EC5.
9. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load. If large point
loads are to be applied, and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be checked.
10. The minimum bearing length is based on manufacturers’ recommenda-
tions. Depending on load intensity, some joists will require blocks at
supports to prevent failure of the web at the support point.
11. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
12. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear
deflection; instead a 10% allowance is made to account for the effects
of shear deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases. This
is significantly greater than for solid joists and is due to the geometric
properties of an I-joist.

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 13. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action. The variable action is consid-
ered to act in the short term only.
14. As this is for a roof design, vibration has not been considered.
15. The effects of fire do not need to be considered unless the roof supports
plant, in which case it should be designed using the floor tables.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.2.3 Glulam roofs

3.0
2.0
1.5
440

1.0
0.5

Permanent action (kN/m2)

3.0
2.0
1.5
400
Joist depth (mm)

1.0

Maximum span
0.5
Economical

3.0
2.0
1.5
360

1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
320

1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
280

1.5

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.0
0.5
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.8: Spans for glulam joist roofs (see Table 5.9)

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 Key considerations
Economical = GL24c glulam joists at 1200 centres.
Maximum span = GL28h glulam joists at 600 centres.
All spans are governed by deflection.
Variation in permanent action has been considered; variable action is fixed
at 0.6kN/m2.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The chart and table are on the basis of a flat roof.
See Section 5.2.7 for decking options.

Table 5.9: Data for glulam joist roofs

Permanent action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 280 320 360 400 440
Spans (m)
0.5 Economical 6.0 6.6 7.6 8.2 9.2
Maximum 7.8 8.5 9.7 10.4 11.1
1.0 Economical 5.4 6.0 6.9 7.4 8.3
Maximum 7.1 7.8 9.0 9.6 10.3
1.5 Economical 5.0 5.6 6.4 6.9 7.7
Maximum 6.6 7.3 8.4 9.1 9.7
2.0 Economical 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.5 7.3
Maximum 6.3 6.9 8.0 8.7 9.3
3.0 Economical 4.2 4.8 5.6 6.0 6.7
Maximum 5.8 6.4 7.4 8.0 8.6
Minimum bearing length (mm) 75 75 75 75 75

Notes
1. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design, which
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost, and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher grade timber,
a greater number of joists and greater joist width for the same depth.
Generally, it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but
where necessary, spans can go up to the maximum.
2. For economical spans GL24c timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.5N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,600N/mm2.

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 3. For maximum spans GL28h timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.5N/mm2,
fm,k = 28N/mm2 and E0,mean = 12,600N/mm2.
4. The following spacings have been considered: for economical design
a spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm. For
1200mm spacing a thin CLT, unilam or thick plywood will be required.
This needs to be checked in the permanent action as only the self-
weight of the joists is considered.
5. The following timber sizes have been considered:
Economical 280mm × 80mm LTB
Maximum 280mm × 120mm
Economical 320mm × 80mm LTB
Maximum 320mm × 120mm
Economical 360mm × 100mm LTB
Maximum 360mm × 160mm
Economical 400mm × 100mm LTB
Maximum 400mm × 160mm
Economical 440mm × 120mm LTB
Maximum 440mm × 160mm
6. Glulam joists are available in both 40mm laminations (metric sizes)

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and 45mm laminations (imperial sizes). Both sizes are available in the
UK and size will depend on stockist. The values provided are based on
40mm laminations, but as the design is stress based, 45mm laminations
will provide similar solutions.
7. For LTB the depth-to-breadth ratio is generally limited to 1:3 (provided
the ends are held in place by suitable brackets or noggings). Where
LTB is highlighted above, this is not the case and the joists will require
restraint from the decking.
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
9. The load duration is taken either as short term and therefore kmod = 0.9
or as permanent, in which case the kmod = 0.6 and only the permanent
action is considered. The worst case is taken for each condition.
10. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
11. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.
12. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
13. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
14. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.

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 15. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load. If large point
loads are to be applied, and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be checked.
16. The minimum bearing length is based on clause 6.1.5 and allows for the
full width to bear, with a bearing length taken as the minimum value
given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.75. In this case, the actual bearing
required is significantly less than the 75mm stated. However, due to
construction tolerance and ‘buildability’, we do not recommend reducing
the bearing length below this value.
17. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
18. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear
deflection­; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of
shear deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
19. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action. The variable action is consid-
ered to act in the short term only.
20. As this is for a roof design, vibration has not been considered.
21. The effects of fire do not need to be considered unless the roof supports
plant, in which case it should be designed using the floor tables.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.2.4 Long span glulam roofs

3.0
2.0
840

1.5
1.0
0.5
3.0

Variable Action (kN/m2)

2.0
760

1.5
1.0
Joist Depth (mm)

Maximum Span
0.5
Economic

3.0
2.0
680

1.5
1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
600

1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
520

1.5
1.0
0.5
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.9: Spans for long span glulam roofs (see Table 5.10)
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Key considerations
Economical = GL24c glulam joists at 2400 centres.
Maximum span = GL28h glulam joists at 1200 centres.
All spans are governed by deflection.
Variation in permanent action has been considered; variable action is fixed
at 0.6kN/m2.
For spans over 10m it is assumed a precamber will be introduced and hence
the requirement for total load deflections not to exceed 20mm has been
removed.
The chart and table are on the basis of a flat roof.
See Section 5.2.7 for decking options.

Table 5.10: Data for long span glulam roofs

Dead load (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 520 600 680 760 840
Spans (m)
0.5 Economic 12.5 14.3 16.9 18.7 20.5
Maximum 16.4 18.5 21.1 23.2 25.2
1 Economic 11 12.6 15 16.6 18.3
Maximum 14.8 16.8 19.4 21.4 23.3
1.5 Economic 10 11.5 13.7 15.2 16.8
Maximum 13.7 15.6 18.1 20 21.9
2 Economic 9.3 10.7 12.8 14.2 15.7
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Maximum 12.9 14.7 17.1 18.9 20.7

3 Economic 8.3 9.6 11.5 12.8 14.1
Maximum 11.7 13.4 15.6 17.3 19
Minimum bearing length (mm) 100 125 125 150 175

Notes
1. Two conditions have been considered, an economic design which
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher grade timber,
a greater number of joists and greater joist width for the same depth.
Generally it is recommended that economic spans should be used, but
where necessary spans can go up to the maximum.
2. For economic spans GL24c timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.5N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0.5 = 11,600N/mm2.
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 3. For maximum spans GL28h timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.5N/mm2,
fm,k = 28N/mm2 and E0.5 = 12,600N/mm2.
4. The following spacing has been considered, for economic design
2,400mm and for maximum span 1,200mm. For both spacings a thin CLT
deck will be required. This needs to be considered in the DL as only the
self-weight of the joists is considered.
5. The following timber sizes have been considered:
Economic 520mm × 200mm
Maximum 520mm × 280mm
Economic 600mm × 200mm
Maximum 600mm × 280mm
Economic 680mm × 240mm
Maximum 680mm × 320mm
Economic 760mm × 240mm LTB
Maximum 760mm × 320mm
Economic 840mm × 240mm LTB
Maximum 840mm × 320mm
6. Glulam joists are available in both 40mm laminations (metric sizes)
and 45mm laminations (imperial sizes). Both sizes are available in the
UK and size will depend on stockist. The values provided are based on
40mm laminations, but as the design is stress based, 45mm lamination
will provide similar solutions.
7. For lateral torsional buckling the depth to breadth ratio is generally
limited to 1:3; where LTB is highlighted above, this is not the case and
the joists will require restraint from the decking.
8. The load duration is taken either as short term and therefore kmod = 0.9,
or as permanent, in which case kmod = 0.6 and only DL is considered. The
worst case is taken for each condition.
9. It is assumed the joists can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
10. The material factor of safety is taken as 1.25.
11. It is assumed the timber is service class 1.
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

12. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4)
13. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
14. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
15. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are to be considered and the load cannot be considered to spread
over two or more joists, this case should be considered separately.

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 16. The minimum bearing length is based on EC5 cl.6.1.5 and allows for the
full width to bear with a bearing length taken as the minimum value
given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.75.
17. Deflection is based on the following two conditions
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250.
A precamber for beams should be allowed early on to remove the initial
dead-load deflection.
18. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection which is more than adequate for most cases.
19. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full dead load; the live load is considered to act in
the short term only.
20. As the design is for a roof, vibration has not been considered.
21. The effect of fire does not need to be considered unless the roof supports
plant, in which case a detailed review should be carried out.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.2.5 Unilam roofs

3.0
2.0
1.5
250

1.0
0.5

Permanent action (kN/m2)

3.0
2.0
1.5
200

1.0
Roof depth (mm)

Maximum span
0.5
Economical

3.0
2.0
1.5
150

1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
100

1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
75

1.0
0.5
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.10: Spans for unilam roofs (see Table 5.11)

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Key considerations
Economical = C16 timbers screwed or staked together.
Maximum span = C24 timber and is effectively glulam on its side.
Variation in permanent action has been considered; variable action is fixed
at 0.6kN/m2.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The spans have been calculated with the additional permanent action due
to self-weight.
The chart and table are on the basis of a flat roof.

Table 5.11: Data for unilam roofs

Permanent action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 75 100 150 200 250
Spans (m)
0.5 Economical 3.5 4.6 6.1 7.4 8.5
Maximum 3.9 5.0 6.5 7.9 9.0
1.0 Economical 3.1 4.1 5.7 6.9 8.0
Maximum 3.4 4.5 6.1 7.4 8.5
1.5 Economical 2.8 3.7 5.3 6.5 7.6
Maximum 3.1 4.1 5.7 7.0 8.1
2.0 Economical 2.6 3.5 5.1 6.2 7.3
Maximum 2.9 3.9 5.5 6.7 7.8
3.0 Economical 2.4 3.1 4.7 5.8 6.8
Maximum 2.6 3.5 5.1 6.3 7.3
Minimum bearing length (mm) 50 50 50 50 50

Notes
1. Unilam is an upcoming material that can be manufactured in different
ways. The economical option assumes lower grade timber mechani-
cally interconnected, whereas the maximum span option is assumed
to be a glued laminated material and is commercially available. Unlike
other materials, the economical option may not be cheaper but may be
preferred for other reasons.

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 2. For economical spans C16 timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.2N/mm2,
fm,k = 16N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,000N/mm2.
3. For maximum spans C24 timber is assumed with fv,k = 4N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
4. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
5. The load duration is taken either as short term and therefore kmod = 0.9
or as permanent, in which case the kmod = 0.6 and only the permanent
action is considered. The worst case is taken for each condition.
6. It is assumed planks are connected and therefore share loads, so a
ksys = 1.1 is taken.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
8. A shear factor kc,r = 1 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
11. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are applied this should be considered.
12. The minimum bearing length is calculated in accordance with EC5
cl.6.1.5 and allows for the full width to bear, with a bearing length
taken as the minimum value given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.5. In
this case, the actual bearing required is significantly less than the 50mm
stated. However, due to construction tolerance and ‘buildability’ we do
not recommend reducing the bearing length below this value.
13. The factor kh is considered for timbers 100mm deep.
14. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
15. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear
deflection­, instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of
shear deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.

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 16. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action. The variable action is consid-
ered to act in the short term only.
17. As this is for a roof design, vibration has not been considered.
18. The effects of fire do not need to be considered unless the roof supports
plant, in which case it should be designed using the floor tables.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.2.6 CLT roof

3.0
2.0
280

1.5
1.0
0.5

Permanent action (kN/m2)

3.0
2.0
1.5
220

1.0
Roof depth (mm)

Maximum span
0.5
Economical

3.0
2.0
1.5
140

1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
100

1.5

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.0
0.5
3.0
2.0
1.5
60

1.0
0.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Span (m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

Figure 5.11: Spans for CLT roofs (see Table 5.12)

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 Key considerations
Variation in permanent action has been considered; variable action is fixed
at 0.6kN/m2.
The spans have been calculated with the additional permanent action due
to self-weight.
Unlike for other materials, there is not an economical and maximum span
value provided for CLT. However, the deeper sections are significantly more
expensive than shallower ones.
Unlike joisted roofs and unilam, CLT has some minor axis bending strength
and moderate holes may be formed without the requirement for trimmers.
The chart and table are on the basis of a flat roof.

Table 5.12: Data for CLT roofs

Depth (mm) 60 100 140 220 280
Permanent action (kN/m2) Spans (m)
0.5 2.9 4.7 6.3 8.9 10.6
1.0 2.5 4.2 5.7 8.3 10.1
1.5 2.3 3.9 5.2 7.7 9.6
2.0 2.1 3.6 4.9 7.3 9.3
3.0 1.9 3.2 4.4 6.7 8.5
Minimum bearing length (mm) 50 50 50 50 50

Notes
1. The tables and graphs in Section 5 are based on the design principles
as given by the IStructE’s Cross-laminated timber construction – structural
design.
2. CLT manufacture is generally standardised, with the exception of KLH
who supply slightly different thicknesses and layering.
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 3. The CLT panels considered have been chosen to optimise the main
span; if large openings are required and greater minor axis strength is
therefore required, the spans given should be reduced. The following
build-ups have been considered (values in bold are oriented in the
direction of the span, plain values are perpendicular to the span).

Lamination thickness (mm)

60 3s 20 20 20
100 3s 40 20 40
140 5s 40 20 20 20 40
220 7ss 40 20 40 20 40 20 40
280 7ss 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
(Table derived from MM Holz’s brochure MM crosslam)

4. The following timber properties are assumed. GL24 timber with

fv,k = 3N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2, E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2, Gmean = 650N/
mm2 and Grollingshear = 65N/mm2.
5. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
6. The load duration is taken as permanent or medium term and therefore
kmod = 0.8 or 0.6 respectively. However, bending does not govern design.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8. A shear factor kc,r = 1 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
11. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are applied this should be considered.
12. The minimum bearing length is calculated in accordance with EC5
cl.6.1.5 and allows for the full width to bear with a bearing length taken
as the minimum value given plus 30mm. Kc,90 is taken as 1.75 for GL24.
In this case, the actual bearing required is significantly less than the
50mm stated. However, due to construction tolerance and ‘buildability’
we do not recommend reducing the bearing length below this value.

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 13. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
14. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.9.
15. As this is for a roof design, vibration has not been considered.
16. The effects of fire do not need to be considered unless the roof supports
plant, in which case it should be designed using the floor tables.
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 5.2.7 Plywood, OSB and CLT roof boarding
Key considerations
A variable action point load of 0.9kN and a UDL of 0.6kN/m2 has been consid-
ered in all design cases. For greater variable actions refer to Section 5.1.6.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The deflection due to point load has been treated as an instantaneous load
and therefore creep of the timber has not been considered.
The table is based on a point load applied over a square 50mm × 50mm.
For very high point loads over a small area, punching through the boarding
should also be considered.
Plywood grade and quality can vary significantly. The engineer should ensure
that they have specified a suitable grade of plywood at tender stage.

Table 5.13: Data for plywood, OSB and CLT roofs plywood thickness (mm)
Permanent action UDL (kN/m2) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Joist spacing (mm) 300 121 121 121 121
400 121 121 121 121
450 121 121 121 121
600 151 15 15 15
Note 1. Where ties are required for robustness minimum thickness should be increased to 15mm.
OSB3/4 thickness (mm)
Permanent action UDL (kN/m2) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Joist spacing (mm) 300 122 122 122 122
400 122 122 152 152
450 152 152 152 152
600 152 152 18 18
Note 2. Where ties are required for robustness minimum thickness should be increased to 18mm.
CLT thickness (mm)
Permanent action UDL (kN/m2) 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0
Joist spacing (mm) 1,200 60 60 60 60
2,400 60 60 80 80

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 Notes
1. For plywood boarding the characteristic design stresses are highly
variable. For final design the plywood supplier should confirm the
values for their product. For scheme design the minimum values
provided by Table 3.17 of the TRADA/IStructE Manual are assumed as
fv,k = 1.4N/mm2, fm,k = 20N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,100N/mm2.
2. OSB is assumed to be OSB3 or OSB4; if OSB2 is to be used these values
may not be applied.
3. For OSB3/4 boarding fv,k = 1N/mm2, fm,k = 14.8N/mm2 and
E0,mean = 4,930N/mm2.
4. The tables in this section are based on the design principles as given by
the IStructE’s Cross-laminated timber construction – structural design.
5. CLT manufacture is generally standardised, with the exception of KLH
who supply slightly different thicknesses and layering.
6. The CLT panels considered have been chosen to optimise the main
span; if large openings are required and greater minor axis strength is
therefore required, the spans given should be reduced. The following
build-ups have been considered (values in bold are oriented in the
direction of the span, values in italics are perpendicular to the span).

Lamination thickness (mm)

60 3s 20 20 20
80 3s 30 20 30
(Table from MM Holz’s brochure MM crosslam)

7. The following timber properties are assumed. GL24 timber with

fv,k = 3N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2, E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2, Gmean = 650N/mm2
and Grollingshear = 65N/mm2.
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
9. The load duration is taken as short term and therefore kmod = 0.9.
10. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.2 for plywood and OSB and
1.25 for CLT.

5 Initial sizing
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 11. Unlike larger structural members, the design of boarding (specifically
the OSB and plywood) is governed by the applied point load rather
than distributed load. For the deflection calculation the variable action
is taken as a point load applied to an area of 50mm × 50mm with an
assumed load spread of 45 degrees; therefore a design width equal to
the span is assumed. As most boarding is continuous over a number
of joists, the design has been based on a minimum of two continuous
spans for the deflection calculation. The deflection is then limited to
span/100 for the combined permanent and variable action. The effects
of creep have been considered for the permanent action and 30% of
the variable action uniformly distributed load. However, the point load
has been assumed to be instantaneous. The following kdef have been
assumed: 0.8 for plywood, 1.5 for OSB3/4 and 0.9 for CLT.
12. BS 8103-1. Structural design of low-rise buildings allows design either
by application of EC5 or by testing. As a result suppliers may have their
own span charts that improve on the values provided here.

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 --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.3 Walls
5.3.1 Sawn timber stud walls

>6m check availability

2.0
1.5
1.25
300

1.0
0.75
2.0

Variable action (kN/m2)

1.5
1.25
200
Wall thickness (mm)

1.0

Maximum span
0.75
Economical

2.0
1.5
1.25
150

1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
1.25
100

1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
1.25
75

1.0
0.75
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height (m)
Bending stress
<30% M, <60% M, >60% M

Figure 5.12: Spans for sawn timber stud walls (see Table 5.14)

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 Key considerations
Economical = C16 timbers at 600 centres.
Maximum span = C24 timbers at 300 centres.
Joists longer than 6m may be difficult to obtain.
Loading is horizontal wind action; conservatively use 0.75kN/m2 for internal
walls.
All spans are governed by deflection.
An allowance for 12mm sheathing board on at least one face should be
made.
The depth of wall may well be governed by non-engineering considerations
such as insulation, acoustics or detailing of the facade.

Table 5.14: Data for sawn timber stud walls

Variable action Depth (mm) 75 100 150 200 300
(kN/m2) Height (m)
0.75 Economical 1.7 2.3 3.8 5.1 9.0
Maximum 2.7 4.2 6.3 9.2 15.9
1.0 Economical 1.6 2.1 3.5 4.6 8.1
Maximum 2.4 3.8 5.7 8.4 14.4
1.25 Economical 1.5 2.0 3.2 4.3 7.5
Maximum 2.2 3.5 5.3 7.8 13.4
1.5 Economical 1.4 1.9 3 4.0 7.1
Maximum 2.1 3.3 5 7.3 12.6
2.0 Economical 1.2 1.7 2.7 3.7 6.4
Maximum 1.9 3.0 4.5 6.6 11.4
Maximum axial Economical 3m 0 0–10 0–201 301 801
load (kN/m) 6m 0 0 0 0–301 801
9m 0 0 0 0 0–801
Maximum 3m 0–30 50–701 1001 1701 3801
6m 0 0–30 0–1001 150–1701 3801
9m 0 0 0–50 0–160 350–3801
Note 1. Maximum axial load is governed by the bearing of the floorplate on the wall. If the
floor is face-fixed, a greater axial capacity may be achieved.

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 Notes
1. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design, which
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost, and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher grade timber,
a greater number of studs and greater stud width for the same depth.
Generally, it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but
where necessary spans can go up to the maximum.
2. For economical spans C16 timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.2N/mm2,
fm,k = 16N/mm2, fc,0,k = 17N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,000N/mm2.
3. For maximum spans C24 timber is assumed with fv,k = 4N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2, fc,0,k = 21N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
4. The following spacings have been considered: for economical design a
spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm.
5. The following timber sizes have been considered:
Economical 75mm × 38mm
Maximum 75mm × 47mm
Economical 100mm × 38mm Commonly available
Maximum 100mm × 75mm
Economical 150mm × 47mm Commonly available, LTB
Maximum 150mm × 75mm
Economical 200mm × 47mm Commonly available, LTB
Maximum 200mm × 100mm
Economical 300mm × 75mm LTB
Maximum 300mm × 150mm
6. The above sizes have been chosen in line with Exova BM TRADA’s Wood
Information Sheet 2/3-37: Softwood sizes, published in 2015, and should
all be generally available. The ones noted as commonly available are
target cross-sectional sizes of structural softwoods commonly available
in the UK, from a market survey by BM TRADA in 2014. Due to the large
number of merchants each offering their own range of sizes, these data
may not be definitive.
7. For LTB the depth-to-breadth ratio is generally limited to 1:3 (provided
the ends are held in place by suitable brackets or noggings). Where
LTB is highlighted above, this is not the case and the joists will require
restraint from the sheathing board.
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
9. The load duration is taken as instantaneous and therefore kmod = 1.1.
10. It is assumed the studs can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
11. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
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 12. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
13. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
14. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
15. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load.
16. The factor kh is considered for timbers 75mm and 100mm deep.
17. Deflection is limited to height/300. Different cladding types will have
different deflection criteria. While it is possible that deflections could
be limited to as much as height/150 at this stage in the design, it is
recommended to work to height/300 unless a supplier has already been
agreed and has confirmed greater deflections are acceptable.
18. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear
deflection­; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of
shear deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
19. As the horizontal loads are short term only, no allowance has been
made for creep.
20. For loadbearing walls, studs should be fire-boarded to provide fire
protection.
21. The axial capacity of the walls has been calculated for three heights:
3m, 6m and 9m (equating to one, two and three storeys of unrestrained
height). The axial capacity is based on a medium-term loading. Two hori-
zontal load cases are considered, 0.2kN/m2, which equates to an internal
wall, and 2kN/m2, which equates to an external wall. A further reduction
to account for eccentricity of load has not been considered but, if load is
applied at the face and not in the centre of the wall, a further reduction
should be considered. There are three main considerations:
1. Where the maximum height of the panel under wind loading (either
0.2kN/m2 or 2kN/m2) is less than height being considered, an axial
capacity of 0 is shown.
2. Where the bearing capacity of the floor to wall interface is less than the
axial capacity of the wall then the bearing capacity is given. This assumes
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

the floor and wall construction are of the same type and grade.
3. In all other cases the axial capacity, calculated in accordance with
EC5, is given. The axial capacity assumes the studs are restrained in
the minor axis by the sheathing board. Provide a minimum of 12mm
OSB or plywood on at least one face to ensure that this is achieved.
In some instances it can be seen that a range of values have been given.
The smaller value is for the 2kN/m2 case and the larger value is for the
0.2kN/m2 case. Where only one value is given both cases have the same
capacity.
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 5.3.2 I-joist stud walls

2.0
1.5
1.25
300

Variable action (kN/m2)

1.0
Wall thickness (mm)

0.75
2.0
1.5

Maximum span
250

Economical

1.25

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
200

1.25
1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
150

1.25
1.0
0.75
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height (m)
Bending stress
<30% M, <60% M, >60% M
Figure 5.13: Spans for I-joist stud walls (see Table 5.15)

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 Key considerations
Economical = narrow I-joist at 600 centres.
Maximum span = wide I-joist at 300 centres.
Loading is horizontal wind action, conservatively use 0.75kN/m2 for internal
walls.
All spans are governed by deflection.
An allowance for 12mm sheathing board on at least one face should be
made. The depth of wall may well be governed by non-engineering consid-
erations such as insulation, acoustics or detailing of the facade.

Table 5.15: Data for I-joist stud walls

Variable action (kN/m2) Depth (mm) 150 200 250 300
Height (m)
0.75 Economical 4.1 5.3 6.4 7.4
Maximum 5.2 9.0 10.6 12.3
1.0 Economical 3.7 4.8 5.8 6.7
Maximum 4.7 8.2 9.6 11.2
1.25 Economical 3.5 4.5 5.4 6.2
Maximum 4.4 7.6 8.9 10.4
1.5 Economical 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.9
Maximum 4.1 7.2 8.4 9.8
2.0 Economical 3.0 3.8 4.6 5.3
Maximum 3.7 6.5 7.6 8.9
Maximum axial load Economical 3m 201 301 301 301
(kN/m) 6m 0–10 0–301 0–301 301
9m 0 0 0–20 0–301
Maximum 3m 501 901 901 901
6m 0–30 901 901 901
9m 0 0–80 0–901 80–901
Note 1. Maximum axial load is governed by the bearing of the floor joists on the wall plate and
the wall plate on the I-joist studs. If the floor joists are face-fixed, a greater axial capacity may
be achieved.

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 Notes
1. Unlike other timber materials, timber I-joists are a product and are
made by a variety of manufacturers. The materials used, sizes and
therefore capacity varies by manufacturer. The data presented are based
on a variety of options and the depths approximately match available
products (±10mm). As a result, exact technical data cannot be provided
in the same way as for other materials.
2. Two conditions have been considered: an economical design, which
should offer sensible spans at the minimum cost, and maximum spans,
where the cost will be significantly greater due to higher specification
joists and a greater number of joists for the same depth. Generally,
it is recommended that economical spans should be used, but where
necessary, spans can go up to the maximum.
3. The following spacings have been considered: for economical design a
spacing of 600mm and for maximum span a spacing of 300mm.
4. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
5. The load duration is taken as instantaneous and therefore kmod = 1.1.
6. It is assumed the studs can share loads, therefore a ksys = 1.1 is taken.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as the appropriate values for the
different materials considered in line with EC5.
8. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
9. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load.
10. Deflection is limited to height/300. Different cladding types will have
different deflection criteria. While it is possible that deflections could
be limited to as much as height/150 at this stage in the design, it is
recommended to work to height/300 unless a supplier has already been
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
agreed and has confirmed greater deflections are acceptable.
11. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 10% allowance is made to account for the effects of
shear deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
12. As the horizontal loads are short term only, no allowance has been
made for creep.
13. For loadbearing walls, studs should be fire-boarded to provide fire
protection.

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 14. The axial capacity of the walls has been calculated for three heights:
3m, 6m and 9m (equating to one, two and three storeys of unrestrained
height). The axial capacity is based on a medium-term loading. Two hori-
zontal load cases are considered, 0.2kN/m2, which equates to an internal
wall, and 2kN/m2, which equates to an external wall. A further reduction
to account for eccentricity of load has not been considered but, if load is
applied at the face and not in the centre of the wall, a further reduction
should be considered. There are three main considerations:
1. Where the maximum height of the panel under wind loading (either
0.2kN/m2 or 2kN/m2) is less than the height being considered an
axial capacity of 0 is shown.
2. Where the bearing capacity of the floor to wall interface is less than
the axial capacity of the wall then the bearing capacity is given. This
assumes the floor and wall construction are of the same type and
grade.
3. In all other cases the axial capacity, calculated in accordance with
EC5, is given. The axial capacity assumes the studs are restrained in
the minor axis by the sheathing board. Provide a minimum of 12mm
OSB or plywood on at least one face to ensure this is achieved.
In some instances it can be seen that a range of values have been given.
The smaller value is for the 2kN/m2 case and the larger value is for the
0.2kN/m2 case. Where only one value is given, both cases have the same
capacity.
Finally, note that for I-joists there are two bearing interfaces: the floor
joists bearing on the wall plate and the wall plate bearing on the I-joist
wall stud. As the area in this second case is constant for a set flange
size, regardless of beam depth, we see that the depth of construction
has little impact on the capacity in many cases.

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 5.3.3 Unilam walls

2.0
1.5
150

1.25
1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
Wall thickness (mm)

Variable action (kN/m2)

125

1.25
1.0

Maximum span
0.75
Economical

2.0
1.5
100

1.25
1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
1.25
75

1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
50

1.25
1.0
0.75
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Height (m)
Bending stress
<30% M, <60% M, >60% M

Figure 5.14: Spans for unilam walls (see Table 5.16)

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 Key considerations
Economical = C16 timbers screwed or staked together.
Maximum span = C24 timber and is effectively glulam on its side.
Loading is horizontal wind action; conservatively use 0.75kN/m2 for internal
walls.
All spans are governed by deflection.
The overall depth of wall may well be governed by non-engineering consid-
erations such as insulation, acoustics or detailing of the facade.
Unlike joisted walls, where around openings additional members can be
added for strength, for unilam the thickness will be governed by openings
unless wind posts are added.

Table 5.16: Data for unilam walls

Variable action Depth (mm) 50 75 100 125 150
(kN/m2) Height (m)
0.75 Economical 3.0 4.5 6 7.5 9.0
Maximum 3.3 5.0 6.6 8.3 10
1.0 Economical 2.7 4.0 5.4 6.8 8.1
Maximum 3 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.1
1.25 Economical 2.5 3.7 5.0 6.3 7.5
Maximum 2.8 4.2 5.6 7.0 8.4
1.5 Economical 2.3 3.5 4.7 5.9 7.1
Maximum 2.6 3.9 5.3 6.6 7.9
2.0 Economical 2.1 3.2 4.3 5.4 6.4
Maximum 2.4 3.6 4.8 6.0 7.2
Maximum axial Economical 3m 0–30 100–110 250–2601 3101 3601
load (kN/m) 6m 0 0–20 0–70 0–130 200–230
9m 0 0 0–30 0–60 0–100
Maximum 3m 0–50 160–170 3101 3701 4301
6m 0 0–40 0–100 180–200 320–340
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

9m 0 0 0–40 0–80 0–150

Note 1. Maximum axial load is governed by the bearing of the floor plate on the wall. If the
floor is faced fixed, a greater axial capacity may be achieved.

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 Notes
1. Unilam is an upcoming material that can be manufactured in different
ways. The economical option assumes lower grade timber mechani-
cally interconnected, whereas the maximum span option is assumed
to be a glued laminated material and is commercially available. Unlike
other materials, the economical option may not be cheaper but may be
preferred for other reasons.
2. For economical spans C16 timber is assumed with fv,k = 3.2N/mm2,
fm,k = 16N/mm2 and E0,mean = 8,000N/mm2.
3. For maximum spans C24 timber is assumed with fv,k = 4N/mm2,
fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
4. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
5. The load duration is taken as instantaneous and therefore kmod = 1.1.
6. It is assumed planks are connected and therefore share loads, so a
ksys = 1.1 is taken.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
8. A shear factor kc,r = 1 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
11. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load.
12. The factor kh is considered for timbers 50, 75 and 100 deep.
13. Deflection is limited to height/300. Different cladding types will have
different deflection criteria. While it is possible that deflections could
be limited to as much as height/150 at this stage in the design, it is
recommended to work to height/300 unless a supplier has already been --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

agreed and has confirmed greater deflections are acceptable.

14. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
15. As the horizontal loads are short term only, no allowance has been
made for creep.

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 16. The axial capacity of the walls has been calculated for three heights:
3m, 6m and 9m (equating to one, two and three storeys of unrestrained
height). The axial capacity is based on a medium-term loading. Two hori-
zontal load cases are considered, 0.2kN/m2, which equates to an internal
wall, and 2kN/m2, which equates to an external wall. A further reduction
to account for eccentricity of load has not been considered but, if load is
applied at the face and not in the centre of the wall, a further reduction
should be considered. There are three main considerations:
1. Where the maximum height of the panel under wind loading (either
0.2kN/m2 or 2kN/m2) is less than the height being considered an
axial capacity of 0 is shown.
2. Where the bearing capacity of the floor to wall interface is less than
the axial capacity of the wall, then the bearing capacity is given. This
assumes the floor and wall construction are of the same type and
grade.
3. In all other cases the axial capacity, calculated in accordance with
EC5, is given.
In some instances it can be seen that a range of values have been given.
The smaller value is for the 2kN/m2 case and the larger value is for the
0.2kN/m2 case. Where only one value is given both cases have the same
capacity.
17. For loadbearing walls, unilam has some inherent fire resistance. Where
the fire rating exceeds the resistance, fire-boarding should be allowed for.
18. The design of walls for fire is a highly complex process. Applying the
same rationale as note 16, a fire resistance has been considered for
two cases: maximum axial load and 50kN/m of factored load both with
a height of 3m. A ratio of permanent and variable actions has been
applied to convert the ULS loads into the accidental load case assuming
a gk = 1.5kN/m2 and a qk = 2.5kN/m2, with an accidental partial safety
factor of 1 for the gk and 0.3 for the qk. Under fire loading the wind load
can be ignored.
Unilam wall fire rating (minutes)
Wall thickness (mm) Maximum axial load 50kN/m
50 0 0
75 30 30
100 30 60
125 60 90
150 90 120
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 5.3.4 CLT walls

2.0
1.5
1.25
180

1.0
0.75
2.0

Variable action (kN/m2)

1.5
Wall thickness (mm)

1.25
140

1.0

Maximum span
0.75
Economical

2.0
1.5
1.25
100

1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
1.25
80

1.0
0.75
2.0
1.5
1.25
60

1.0
0.75
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Height (m)
Bending stress
<30% M, <60% M, >60% M

Figure 5.15: Spans for CLT walls (see Table 5.17)

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 Key considerations
Loading is horizontal wind action; conservatively use 0.75kN/m2 for internal
walls.
All spans are governed by deflection.
The overall depth of wall may well be governed by non-engineering consid-
erations such as insulation, acoustics or detailing of the facade.
Unlike for other materials there is not an economical and maximum span
value provided for CLT.
Unlike joisted floors and unilam, CLT has some minor axis bending strength
and moderate holes may be formed without the requirement for trimmers.
For large openings, trimmers cannot always be placed within the thickness of
the CLT and their inclusion may govern the depth of the structure.

Table 5.17: Data for CLT walls

Depth (mm) 60 80 100 140 180
Variable action (kN/m2) Height (m)
0.75 3.9 5.3 6.2 9.2 11.4
1.5 3.5 4.8 5.6 8.3 10.4
1.25 3.3 4.4 5.2 7.7 9.6
1.5 3.1 4.2 4.9 7.2 9.0
2.0 2.8 3.8 4.3 6.6 8.2
Axial Load panels 3m 0–60 120–150 150–200 4601 5701
spanning vertically 6m 0 0 0–50 150–200 270–350
(kN/m)
9m 0 0 0 0–90 0–160
Note 1. Maximum axial load is governed by the bearing of the floor plate on the wall. If the
floor is face-fixed, a greater axial capacity may be achieved.

Notes
1. The tables and graphs in Section 5 are based on the design principles
as given by the IStructE’s Cross-laminated timber construction – structural
design.
2. CLT manufacture is generally standardised, with the exception of KLH
who supply slightly different thicknesses and layering.

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 3. The CLT panels considered have been chosen to include some minor
axis strength to allow for openings. The following build-ups have been
considered (values in bold are oriented in the direction of the span,
plain values are perpendicular to the span).

Lamination thickness (mm)

60 3s 20 20 20
80 3s 30 20 30
100 5s 20 20 20 20 20
140 5s 40 20 20 20 40
180 5s 40 30 40 30 40
(Table derived from MM Holz’s brochure MM crosslam)

4. The following timber properties are assumed. GL24 timber with

fv,k = 3N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2, E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2, Gmean = 650N/mm2
and Grollingshear = 65N/mm2
5. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
6. For the maximum span under wind load the load duration is taken as
instantaneous and therefore kmod = 1.1.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.
8. A shear factor kc,r = 1 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. Neither shear nor bending govern the design in any case considered.
11. Deflection is limited to height/300. Different cladding types will have
different deflection criteria. While it is possible that deflections could
be limited to as much as height/150 at this stage in the design, it is
recommended to work to height/300 unless a supplier has already been
agreed and has confirmed greater deflections are acceptable.
12. The wall has some inherent fire resistance. However, due to the change
in thickness of the different laminations, and the change in orienta-
tion between laminations, specific advice should be sought from the
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

manufacturer­.

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 13. The axial capacity of the walls has been calculated for three heights:
3m, 6m and 9m (equating to one, two and three storeys of unre-
strained height). The axial capacity is based on a medium-term loading.
Approximate axial capacities are calculated using the following
approach. The radius of gyration is calculated using Ieff and the total
area (which is conservative). However, the axial capacity is calculated
using only the area of timber acting in the direction of load applica-
tion. A reduction is applied to account for bending stresses due to load
eccentricity and wind load. A range of 10%–30% has been considered.
As can be seen from the graph, under wind loading, where the design
is governed by deflection, the bending stress never exceeds 30% of the
capacity.

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In calculating the load capacity there are three main considerations:
1. Where the maximum height of the panel under wind loading (either
0.75kN/m2 or 2kN/m2) is less than the height being considered an
axial capacity of 0 is shown.
2. Where the bearing capacity of the floor to wall interface is less than
the axial capacity of the wall, then the bearing capacity is given. This
assumes the floor and wall construction are of the same type and
grade.
3. In all other cases the axial capacity, calculated in accordance with
EC5, is given with a reduction range of 10%–30%.
Based on the above the range of minimum values is provided.
14. Note the values assume the panel is spanning vertically; if spanning
horizontally the axial capacity will be significantly less.

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 5.4 Beams
5.4.1 Sawn timber beams

5
Vibration

Size (mm x mm)

4
300 x 150
Span (m)

275 x 150
3
Deflection
Bending
250 x 100
2 200 x 100

150 x 75
1

4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Total factored load (kN/m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration
Figure 5.16: Spans for sawn timber beams (see Table 5.18)
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 Key considerations
Loading is factored permanent and variable action in kN/m.

Table 5.18: Data for sawn timber beams

Beam size Total factored load (kN/m) 4 8 12 16 20
(mm × mm) Vibration Spans (m)
150 × 75 Vibration 2.6 2 1.6 1.4 1.2

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
No vibration 2.6 2 1.6 1.4 1.2
200 × 100 Vibration 3.8 3 2.5 2.2 1.9
No vibration 3.8 3 2.5 2.2 1.9
250 × 100 Vibration 4.5 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.4
No vibration 4.9 3.8 3.2 2.7 2.4
275 × 150 Vibration 5.4 4.5 4.1 3.7 3.3
No vibration 5.9 4.9 4.2 3.7 3.3
300 × 150 Vibration 5.7 4.8 4.3 4 3.6
No vibration 6.3 5.3 4.6 4 3.6
Minimum bearing length (mm) 50 75 100 100 125

Notes
1. All timber beams have been designed using C24 timber with
fv,k = 4N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2.
2. The following timber sizes have been considered:
150mm × 75mm
200mm × 100mm
250mm × 100mm   Generally available
275mm × 150mm   Generally available   Paired (see note 4)
300mm × 150mm   Generally available
3. The above sizes have been chosen in line with Exova BM TRADA’s Wood
Information Sheet 2/3-37: Softwood sizes and should all be generally
available.
4. Where timbers are noted as being ‘paired’, the size is not typically
available, but by pairing timbers and bolting through at regular centres,
the same structural solution can be achieved. Also for lateral torsional
buckling, the depth-to-breadth ratio is limited to 1:3 so LTB does not
need to be considered.

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 5. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
6. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
7. For beams, load sharing is not assumed and therefore ksys = 1.
8. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
9. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
10. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
11. Shear does not govern the design in any case considered.
12. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are to be considered then additional calculation will be required.
13. The minimum bearing length assumes a value of kc,90 = 1.5 and the
effective area is the bearing length plus 30mm times by the width. The
minimum values provided are recommended for ‘buildability’.
14. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
15. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
16. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term
only.
17. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.
18. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the beam. The mass per metre
is taken as the permanent action and 10% of the variable action. If the
variable action is predominantly storage load, a greater percentage
could be considered as the greater the mass of the floor, the lower the
natural frequency.
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 19. Beams should generally be fire-boarded to protect against fire. For
larger beam sizes, the joists may have some inherent fire resistance that
should be calculated for the specific load conditions.
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 5.4.2 Glulam beams

20

18

16
Vibration
14

Size (mm x mm)

Span (m)

12

10 1000 x 360
920 x 360
8 840 x 320
760 x 320
680 x 320
6 600 x 280

4 520 x 200
Bending Shear 440 x 160
2 360 x 160
280 x 120
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Total factored load (kN/m)
Governed by
Bending, Shear, Vibration

Figure 5.17: (a) Spans for glulam beams (see Table 5.19).

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 Key considerations
Loading is factored permanent and variable action in kN/m.
For spans greater than 10m an allowance for precambering should be made.

Table 5.19: Data for glulam beams

Beam size Load kN/m 5 10 20 30 40 50
Spans (m)
280 × 120 Vibration 5 4.2 3.3 2.2 1.6 1.3
No Vibration 5.4 4.4 3.3 2.2 1.6 1.3
360 × 160 Vibration 6.5 5.5 4.6 3.8 2.8 2.3
No Vibration 7 5.9 4.9 3.8 2.8 2.3
440 × 160 Vibration 7.6 6.4 5.4 4.6 3.5 2.8
No Vibration 8.1 6.8 5.7 4.6 3.5 2.8
520 × 200 Vibration 9.1 7.7 6.4 5.8 5.2 4.1
No Vibration 12.2 8.2 6.9 6.2 5.2 4.1
600 × 280 Vibration 11.1 9.3 7.8 7.1 6.6 6.2
No Vibration 15.8 12.5 8.3 7.5 7 6.6
680 × 320 Vibration 12.6 10.6 8.9 8 7.5 7.1
No Vibration 18.7 14.8 11.8 10.3 8 7.5
760 × 320 Vibration 13.7 11.5 9.7 8.7 8.1 7.7
No Vibration 20.9 16.6 13.2 11.5 10.4 8.2
840 × 320 Vibration 14.8 12.4 10.4 9.4 8.8 8.3
No Vibration 23.1 18.3 14.5 12.7 11.5 10.3
920 × 360 Vibration 16.3 13.7 11.5 10.4 9.7 9.1
No Vibration 26.3 20.9 16.6 14.5 13.1 12
1000 × 360 Vibration 17.3 14.6 12.2 11.1 10.3 9.7
No Vibration 28.6 22.7 18 15.7 14.3 13.1
Minimum bearing length (mm) 75 75 100 125 125 150
Beam width < 300mm
Beam width > 300mm 75 75 125 175 225 250

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 25
24

22

Size (mm x mm)

20
Span (m)

18

16
Deflection
14
1000 x 360
12 620 x 360
Bending
10 520 x 200 600 x 280 680 x 320 760 x 320 840 x 320
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Total factored load (kN/m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 5.17: (b) Spans for glulam beams no vibration requirement

Notes
1. All timber beams have been designed using GL28h timber with
fv,k = 3.5N/mm2, fm,k = 28N/mm2 and E0,mean = 12,600N/mm2.
2. The following timber sizes have been considered:
280mm × 120mm
360mm × 160mm
440mm × 160mm
520mm × 200mm   Check availability
600mm × 280mm   Check availability
680mm × 320mm   Check availability
760mm × 320mm   Check availability
840mm × 320mm   Check availability
920mm × 360mm   Check availability
1000mm × 360mm Check availability
3. Glulam sizes are metric. Table 3.12 of the TRADA/IStructE Manual gives
suggested sizes and availability. For those sizes where it states check
availability, large glulam manufacturers will supply but there may be a
significant lead. For LTB the depth-to-breadth ratio is limited to 1:3, so
LTB does not need to be considered.

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 4. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
5. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
6. For beams load sharing is not assumed and therefore ksys = 1.
7. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.
8. A shear factor kc,r = 0.67 is taken (see Eurocode 5 NA Table NA.4).
9. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.
10. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are to be considered then additional calculation will be required.
11. The minimum bearing length assumes a value of kc,90 = 1.75 and the
effective area is the bearing length plus 30mm times by the width.
The minimum values provided are based on load/m as the values do
not vary significantly with depth but more with load. This is due to the
changing width in line with the increasing load.
12. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

••For instantaneous load, span/300

••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250
••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
For spans greater than 10m the requirement for the deflection to be
less than 20mm has been removed; however, a precamber for the beam
should be considered instead for this case.
13. The deflection does not explicitly include an allowance for shear deflec-
tion; instead a 5% allowance is made to account for the effects of shear
deflection, which is more than adequate for most cases.
14. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term
only.
15. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.

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 16. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5
of EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the beam. The mass per
square metre is taken as the permanent action and 10% of the variable
action. If the variable action is predominantly storage load, a greater
percentage could be considered as the greater the mass of the floor, the
lower the natural frequency.
17. Glulam beams have some inherent fire resistance. This should be
calculated as it is greatly governed by the ratio of permanent action to
variable action. If the fire rating required exceeds the available capacity,
beams can be fire-boarded to protect against fire.

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 --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.4.3 LVL beams

10

Vibration 1000 x 75
Span (m)

Size (mm x mm)

6

800 x 75

4 600 x 75
Shear
Deflection
400 x 75

2 200*75
10 20 30 40 50
Total factored load (kN/m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration
Figure 5.18: Spans for LVL beams (see Table 5.20)

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Key considerations
Loading is factored permanent and variable action in kN/m.
Beams are assumed to be fully restrained for LTB. If beams are not fully
restrained, LTB will govern design and will rapidly reduce the strength of
the beams.

Table 5.20: Data for LVL beams

Beam size Total factored load (kN/m) 10 20 30 40 50
(mm × mm) Vibration Spans (m)
200 × 75 Considered 2.7 2.1 / / /
Not considered 2.7 2.1 / / /
400 × 75 Considered 5.0 4.2 3.5 3.2 2.9
Not considered 5.2 4.2 3.5 3.2 2.9
600 × 75 Considered 6.8 5.7 5.2 4.8 4.1
Not considered 7.1 5.9 5.2 4.8 4.1
800 × 75 Considered 8.4 7.1 6.4 5.9 5.4
Not considered 8.8 7.2 6.4 5.9 5.4

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1000 × 75 Considered 10.0 8.4 7.6 7.0 6.5
Not considered 10.3 8.5 7.6 7.0 6.5
Minimum bearing length (mm) Bearing connections not recommended

Notes
1. All timber beams have been designed using LVL-S with
fv,0,edge,k = 5.7N/mm2, fm,0,edge,k = 44N/mm2, E0,mean = 13,500N/mm2 and
G0,mean = 600N/mm2.
2. LVL is available in a variety of depths and thicknesses. The greatest
thickness available is 90mm. However, this is not generally available
in the UK. Therefore a thickness of 75mm has been assumed. LVL is
produced in sheets that the beams are cut from, therefore standard
metric sizes have been assumed; however, other depths may be specified.
3. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
4. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
5. For beams load sharing is not assumed and therefore ksys = 1.
6. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.2.
7. The peak shear stress is taken as 1.5 × VEd/AEff.

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 8. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are to be considered then additional calculation will be required.
9. The minimum bearing length assumes a value of kc,90 = 1.0 and the
effective area is the bearing length plus 30mm times by the width. Due
to the breadth-to-depth ratio of LVL, with the exception of very shallow
beams, it is recommended that the load is transferred using the full
depth of the section, rather than in bearing.
10. LVL beams are particularly susceptible to LTB due to the slenderness of
the beams, especially for deeper sections. If beams are not restrained,
LTB must be considered and may reduce the capacity of the beam to
zero for longer spans.
11. Deflection is based on the following three conditions:
••For instantaneous load, span/300
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, span/250

••For long-term load allowing for the effects of creep, an upper limit of
20mm is also imposed to avoid the use of expensive head restraints
for internal partitions.
12. The deflection includes shear deflection.
13. The long-term deflection includes kdef = 0.6. The creep deflection is
calculated for the full permanent action and 30% of the variable action.
The additional variable action is considered to act in the short term only.
The design assumes gk of 1kN/m2 and a qk of 1.5 kN/m2 as this produces
the most conservative ratio for long-term deflection calculations.
14. For vibration design the fundamental frequency is limited to no less
than 8Hz. While a frequency below this may be acceptable, a response
factor should be calculated. For very sensitive environments, such as
laboratories and hospitals, even if the frequency is above 8Hz, it may
still be a problem and a full dynamic analysis is recommended.
15. The natural frequency is calculated in accordance with equation 7.5 of
EC5. (EI)l is taken as the stiffness EI of the beam. The mass per metre is
taken as the permanent action and 10% of the variable action. The same
load is considered as for note 13 above as again this produces the most
conservative result. If the variable action is predominantly storage load,
a greater percentage could be considered as the greater the mass of the
floor, the lower the natural frequency.
16. Beams should be fire-boarded to protect against fire.

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 --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.4.4 Flitch beams

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8

Size (mm depth)

6
Span (m)

5
Deflection

4 300
275
3
Bending
250

2 150 200
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Total factored load (kN/m)
Governed by
Bending, Deflection, Vibration
Figure 5.19: Spans for flitch beams (see Table 5.21)

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 Key considerations
Loading is factored permanent and variable action in kN/m.
Timber flitch beam width is determined not just by the loads and stresses
but also by the degree to which the bolts are to be visual, flush or capped.
Timber flitch beams are expensive and should be used either to repair
existing timber beams or as a one-off solution to solve a specific design
problem. If a large number of flitches are required in a new design, alterna-
tives such as glulam or LVL should be considered.

Table 5.21: Data for flitch beams

Beam size Total factored load (kN/m) 10 20 30 40 50
(mm × mm) Max spans (m)
150 2.7 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.2
200 4 3 2.5 2.1 1.9
250 5.3 4.2 3.4 3 2.6
275 6.7 5.3 4.5 3.9 3.5
300 7.3 5.8 5 4.3 3.9
Minimum bearing length (mm) 100 180 220 260 280

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 Notes
1. All timber beams have been designed using C24 timber with
fv,k = 4N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2, E0,mean = 11,000N/mm2 and
E0.05 = 7,400N/mm2.
2. All steel plates are grade S275.
3. The following sizes have been considered:
150mm deep – pair of 150mm × 37mm timbers
with 125mm × 10mm steel plate
200mm deep – pair of 200mm × 47mm timbers
with 175mm × 12mm steel plate
250mm deep – pair of 250mm × 47mm timbers
with 225mm × 15mm steel plate
275mm deep – pair of 275mm × 75mm timbers
with 250mm × 20mm steel plate
300mm deep – pair of 300mm × 75mm timbers
with 275mm × 20mm steel plate
These correspond to standard timber sizes; if a deeper beam is required
then the use of LVL or glulam should be considered.
4. Exova BM TRADA’s Guidance Document 9: How to design a bolted steel
flitch beam23 recommends the load is applied to the timbers and so the
steel flitch should be 25mm shallower than the timbers.
5. The steel width has been limited to ensure a class 1 plastic beam; in
practice a narrower plate could be used as long as it does not become
slender and locally buckle if the timber shrinks away.
6. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.
7. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
8. For beams, load sharing is not assumed and therefore ksys = 1.
9. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3 for timber.
10. The applied load is based on a UDL and not a point load; if large point
loads are to be considered then additional calculation will be required.
11. The timber and steel are designed in accordance with Exova BM TRADA’s
Guidance Document 9: How to design a bolted steel flitch beam and the
load is split relative to the stiffness. The timber E value is taken as the
mean value as this is conservative for the design of the timber elements
(which govern design).
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 12. The long-term creep is not considered at this stage as the timber,
as it creeps, puts the load back onto the stiffer steel plate, therefore
minimising­the effects. However, in full detailed design it should be
considered.
13. Deflection is based on span/300 for the total load as creep is not
considered.
14. The deflection does not include an allowance for shear deflection.
15. The deflection assumes a gk of 1kN/m2 and a qk of 2.5 kN/m2; for other
load combinations the capacity may be changed by a small percentage.
16. LTB has been considered. Generally the beam should be fully restrained
by the floor it is supporting. If this is not the case LTB does not need
to be considered if the span is less than approximately 2m, otherwise a
suitable reduction to account for LTB should be made.
17. Vibration has not been considered in this case. A full vibration analysis
should be carried out. However, the slip plane between the timber
and the steel will lead to significant damping, making vibration less of
a concern.
18. There is very little guidance on how to deal with steel timber flitch
beams under fire loading. EC5 cl.[Link] gives some guidance for steel
connection plates, which could be considered similar.

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 5.5 Columns
5.5.1 Sawn timber columns

1000

300
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Size (mm square)

Axial load (kN)

250

100
200

150

10 100
3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000
Height (mm)
C16 Economic
C24 Maximum

Figure 5.20: Spans for sawn timber columns (see Table 5.22)

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 Key considerations
For columns greater than 150mm2, columns are formed from two timbers
bolted together at regular centres.
For large column sections (250mm2 and 300mm2) columns will be expensive
and difficult to source seasoned (kiln dried). It is therefore recommended that
columns are treated as green and are designed as class 3.
For rectangular columns the capacity can be approximated by taking the
capacity of the square column with the same dimension as the smaller
dimensions of the rectangular column and multiplying by the ratio of the
large dimension divided by the square dimension.
For bearing connections the column size will be governed by the bearing
capacity of the beams. See the bearing values in the table provided.
The axial capacities provided include a 30% reduction to account for
moments due to eccentricity of load application. An assessment should be
made to check this assumption.

Table 5.22: Data for sawn timber columns

Column height Square column dimension (mm2)
(mm) 100 150 200 250 300
C16 C24 C16 C24 C16 C24 C16 C24 C16 C24
3,000 10 20 80 110 210 280 310 400 480 610
4,500 0 10 40 50 120 160 220 290 390 510
6,000 0 0 20 30 70 100 140 190 270 370
Bearing 20 30 50 60 90 100 140 160 200 220
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Notes
1. For C16 timber fc,0,k = 17N/mm2, fc,90,k = 2.2N/mm2 and E0.05 = 5,400N/mm2.
2. For C24 timber fc,0,k = 21N/mm2, fc,90,k = 2.5N/mm2 and E0.05 = 7,400N/mm2.
3. The sizes have been chosen in line with Exova BM TRADA’s Wood
Information Sheet 2/3-37: Softwood sizes and should all be generally
available.
4. Axial capacity is calculated in accordance with EC5 cl.6.3.2.
5. Bearing capacity is calculated in accordance with EC5 cl.6.1.5
6. bc = 0.2 is accordance with EC5 equation 6.29.

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 7. kc,90 is taken as 1.5, which assumes a significant point load does not
occur near to the bearing support point.
8. The effective area is taken as bearing breadth times by the bearing
length plus 30mm. This can be increased if the beam extends beyond
the face of the support (see Figure 6.2 of EC5).
9. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.3.
10. It is assumed the timber is service class 1 except for the largest columns
(250mm and 300mm), which may be green and hence service class 3.
11. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8 for
service class 1 and kmod = 0.65 for service class 3.
12. Moments from connection can significantly affect the capacity of
columns. Ideally in timber structures bearing connections should be
achieved, especially if the load from beams either side is not approxi-
mately equal. However, face-fix connections can be used but these will
reduce the capacity.
13. The bearing capacity is dependent on the beam grade, not the column
grade; it is assumed the column and beam are the same grade.
14. Columns should also be considered for fire. A generic study of column
fire rating has been provided below but should be considered further.
This is based on a gk of 1kN/m2, a qk of 2.5kN/m2 and a factor of safety
for live load of 0.3.

Size (mm2) Rating (minutes)

Two sides exposed Four sides exposed
100 0 0
150 30 30
200 30 30
250 60 60
300 90 60

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 --`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

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 5.5.2 Glulam columns

2000

Size (mm square)

Axial load (kN)

400

320

280
200 200 240
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Height (mm)
GL24c Economic
GL28h Maximum
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Figure 5.21: Spans for glulam columns (see Table 5.23)

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 Key considerations
For rectangular columns the capacity can be approximated by taking the
capacity of the square column with the same dimension as the smaller
dimensions of the rectangular column and multiplying by the ratio of the
large dimension divided by the square dimension.
For bearing connections the column size will be governed by the bearing
capacity of the beams. See the bearing values in the table provided.
The axial capacities provided include a 30% reduction to account for
moments due to eccentricity of load application. An assessment should be
made to check this assumption.

Table 5.23: Data for glulam columns

Column Square column dimension (mm2)
height 200 240 280 320 400
(mm)
GL24c GL28h GL24c GL28h GL24c GL28h GL24c GL28h GL24c GL28h
3,000 310 390 490 620 690 890 930 1,200 1,500 1,940
4,500 200 240 380 460 590 730 830 1,050 1,410 1,810
6,000 120 150 250 290 430 520 670 820 1,260 1,580
9,000 60 70 120 140 220 260 370 430 830 980
Bearing 120 120 180 180 240 240 310 310 480 480

Notes
1. For GL24c timber fc,0,k = 21.5N/mm2, fc,90,k = 2.5N/mm2 and
E0.05 = 9,100N/mm2.
2. For GL28h timber fc,0,k = 28N/mm2, fc,90,k = 2.5N/mm2 and
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
E0.05 = 10,500N/mm2.
3. Axial capacity is calculated in accordance with EC5 cl.6.3.2.
4. Bearing capacity is calculated in accordance with EC5 cl.6.1.5.
5. bc = 0.2 is in accordance with EC5 equation 6.29.
6. kc,90 is taken as 1.75, which assumes a significant point load does not
occur near to the bearing support point.
7. The effective area is taken as bearing breadth times by the bearing
length plus 30mm. This can be increased if the beam extends beyond
the face of the support (see Figure 6.2 of EC5).
8. It is assumed that the timber is service class 1.

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 9. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
10. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.25.
11. Moments from connection can significantly affect the capacity of
columns. Ideally in timber structures, bearing connections should be
achieved, especially if the load from beams either side is not approxi-
mately equal. However, face-fix connections can be used but these will
reduce the capacity.
12. The bearing capacity is dependent on the beam grade, not the column
grade; it is assumed the column and beam are the same grade and that
the beams are glulam.
13. Columns should also be considered for fire. A generic study of column
fire rating has been provided below, but should be considered further.
This is based on a gk of 1kN/m2, a qk of 2.5kN/m2 and a factor of safety
for qk of 0.3.

Size (mm2) Rating (minutes)

Two sides exposed Four sides exposed
200 60 30
240 60 30
280 60 60
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

320 90 60
400 120 90

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 5.5.3 LVL columns

133 x 240
100

Size (mm square)

133 x 133
Axial load (kN)
--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

90 x 240

75 x 240

90 x 90

10 75 x 75
2500 3000 3500 4000
Height (mm)
Not typically available in UK
Available in UK

Figure 5.22: Spans for LVL columns (see Table 5.24)

Square LVL columns are not generally available. The information is provided so that it can be
quickly converted for different rectangular dimensions (see the first note above the table).

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 Key considerations
For rectangular columns the capacity can be approximated by taking the
capacity of the square column with the same dimension as the smaller
dimensions of the rectangular column and multiplying by the ratio of the
large dimension divided by the square dimension.
133mm sections are highly unusual in the UK but may be available from
some suppliers; specify with caution.
For bearing connections the column size will be governed by the bearing
capacity of the beams. See the bearing values in the table provided.
The axial capacities provided include a 30% reduction to account for
moments due to eccentricity of load application. An assessment should be
made to check this assumption.

Table 5.24: Data for LVL columns

Column height (mm) Column dimension (mm)
75 90 133
75 240 90 240 133 240
3,000 10 40 30 80 130 250
4,500 0 20 10 30 60 110
6,000 0 10 0 20 30 60
9,000 0 0 0 0 10 30
Bearing 15 45 20 65 45 85

Notes
1. The tables are based on LVL-S Table 3.16 of the TRADA/IStructE Manual
with fc,0,k = 35N/mm2, fc,90,k = 3.4N/mm2 and E0.05 = 11,600N/mm2.
2. Axial capacity is calculated in accordance with EC5 cl.6.3.2.
3. Bearing capacity is calculated in accordance with EC5 cl.6.1.5.
4. bc = 0.1 is in accordance with EC5 equation 6.29.
5. kc,90 is taken as 1 as timber is neither glulam or softwood.
6. The effective area is taken as bearing breadth times by the bearing
length plus 30mm. This can be increased if the beam extends beyond
the face of the support (see Figure 6.2 of EC5).
7. It is assumed the timber is service class 1.
8. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.

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 9. The partial factor for material is taken as 1.2.
10. Moments from connection can significantly affect the capacity of
columns. Ideally in timber structures, bearing connections should be
achieved, especially if the load from beams either side is not approxi-
mately equal. However, face-fix connections can be used but these will
reduce the capacity.
11. The bearing capacity is dependent on the beam grade, not the column
grade; it is assumed the column and beam are the same grade.
12. Columns should be considered for fire. Due to the narrow nature of LVL
columns, the capacity is rapidly reduced during a fire; therefore, if fire
protection is required, appropriate fire boarding should be provided.

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 5.6 Moment connection capacity
As noted in Section 4.8, it is preferable in timber design to avoid the use of
moment connections. However, there are times when a moment connection
may be necessary. Under these circumstances, the depth of the timber will
often be governed by the capacity of the connection. In this section the beam
sizes included in Sections 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 have been used and the moment
capacity calculated for different numbers of fixings.

Please note that shear and bearing have not been considered here, but were
considered in the development of all the other tables and therefore should
be practically achievable as long as the appropriate bearing lengths can be
achieved.

The following notes apply to Sections 5.6.1–5.6.6.

1. Values in bold are governed by member capacity, not connection capacity.

2. It is assumed that the minimum bolt/dowel spacing is 5d in both direc-
tions, both between bolts/dowels and to the different edges of the
member. At detailed design stage the edge distances should be calculated
according to load direction and grain.
3. In most cases a combination of shear, moment and axial load will exist.
While it is a simplification which needs to be carefully reviewed at design
stage, the sum of the utilisation of the moment, axial and shear should be
kept to less than 1 at this stage.
4. To achieve the required fire rating it may be necessary to cover the bolt
head with a timber plug. The additional width of member should be
allowed for in this case.
5. It is essential that full detailed connection design is carried out at the
detailed design stage as the above is based on a number of assumptions,
which in some cases could lead to a non-conservative solution.
6. A large number of connector diameters and spacings were considered,
and the values presented from section 5.6.1 to 5.6.6 represent optimal
solutions based on spacing of 5d. Revised spacing may lead to a further
increase in capacity.
5 Initial sizing 157
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 5.6.1 Timber beam – bolts – timber-steel-timber

--`,`,,`,,`````,`,,`,,,,,,````-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Table 5.25: Moment capacity for timber beam – bolted timber-steel-timber
connection
Section size Recommended Number Number Moment Shear/axial
(mm) bolt diameter of bolt of bolt capacity capacity kN
(mm) columns1 rows1 kNm (ULS) (ULS)
150 × 75 10 1 2 0.3 13
10 2 2 1 20
200 × 100 10 1 3 1 20
10 2 3 3 35
250 × 100 10 1 4 3 25
10 2 4 7 50
275 × 150 10 1 4 4 35
10 2 4 9 60
300 × 150 10 1 5 8 40
12 2 4 15 80
20 32 22 30 100
Note 1. Number of bolt columns refers to the number of vertical lines of bolts in the beam,
number of rows refers to the number of horizontal lines of bolts in beams. Number of rows is
constrained by the beam depth. For columns the arrangement can be kept the same (as in the
above figure) unless the number of rows is less than the number of columns (see note 2 below).
Note 2. Number of bolt columns is for beams, group orientation will need to be switched for
columns to enable them to fit, assuming the column and beam are the same size.

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 5.6.2 Timber beam – bolts – steel-timber-steel

Table 5.26: Moment capacity for timber beam – bolted steel-timber-steel

connection
Section size Recommended Number Number Moment Shear/axial
(mm) bolt diameter of bolt of bolt capacity capacity kN
(mm) columns1 rows1 kNm (ULS) (ULS)
150 × 75 10 1 2 0.3 14
10 2 2 1 20
200 × 100 10 1 3 1 20
10 22 32 3 35
250 × 100 10 1 4 3 25
10 2 4 7 45
275 × 150 10 1 4 3 25
24 22 12 7 50
300 × 150 10 1 5 7 35
20 2 2 15 80
20 32 22 30 100
Note 1. Number of bolt columns refers to the number of vertical lines of bolts in the beam,
number of rows refers to the number of horizontal lines of bolts in beams. Number of rows is
constrained by the beam depth. For columns the arrangement can be kept the same (as in the
above figure) unless the number of rows is less than the number of columns (see note 2 below).
Note 2. Number of bolt columns is for beams, group orientation will need to be switched for
columns to enable them to fit, assuming the column and beam are the same size.
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 5.6.3 Timber beam – dowels – timber-steel-timber

Table 5.27: Moment capacity for timber beam – dowel timber-steel-timber

connection
Section size Recommended Number Number Moment Shear/axial
(mm) bolt diameter of bolt of bolt capacity capacity kN
(mm) columns1 rows1 kNm (ULS) (ULS)
150 × 75 10 1 2 0.2 10
10 2 2 0.9 15
200 × 100 10 1 3 1 15
10 2 3 3 30
250 × 100 10 1 4 2 20
10 2 4 6 40
275 × 150 10 1 4 3 25
10 2 4 8 50
300 × 150 10 1 5 7 35
10 2 5 15 60
20 32 22 30 90
Note 1. Number of bolt columns refers to the number of vertical lines of bolts in the beam,
number of rows refers to the number of horizontal lines of bolts in beams. Number of rows is
constrained by the beam depth. For columns the arrangement can be kept the same (as in the
above figure) unless the number of rows is less than the number of columns (see note 2 below).
Note 2. Number of bolt columns is for beams, group orientation will need to be switched for
columns to enable them to fit, assuming the column and beam are the same size.

160 Structural timber elements: a pre-scheme design guide

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 5.6.4 Glulam beam – bolts – timber-steel-timber

Table 5.28: Moment capacity for glulam beam – bolted timber-steel-timber

connection
Section size Recommended Number Number Moment Shear/axial
(mm) bolt diameter of bolt of bolt capacity capacity kN
(mm) columns1 rows1 kNm (ULS) (ULS)
320 × 120 10 1 5 1 35
16 2 3 4 80
16 3 3 9 100
400 × 160 10 1 7 6 60
10 2 7 11 100
20 3 3 20 175
480 × 200 12 1 7 13 90
16 2 5 25 175
16 3 5 40 250
560 × 240 16 1 6 20 100
16 2 6 40 200
16 3 6 70 300
16 4 6 100 350
640 × 240 16 1 7 30 125
16 3 7 100 350
24 52 42 200 500
Note 1. Number of bolt columns refers to the number of vertical lines of bolts in the beam,
number of rows refers to the number of horizontal lines of bolts in beams. Number of rows is
constrained by the beam depth. For columns the arrangement can be kept the same (as in the
above figure) unless the number of rows is less than the number of columns (see note 2 below).
Note 2. Number of bolt columns is for beams, group orientation will need to be switched for
columns to enable them to fit, assuming the column and beam are the same size.
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 5.6.5 Glulam beam – bolts – steel-timber-steel

Tablee 5.29: Moment capacity for glulam beam – bolted steel-timber-steel

connection
Section size Recommended Number Number Moment Shear/axial
(mm) bolt diameter of bolt of bolt capacity capacity kN
(mm) columns1 rows1 kNm (ULS) (ULS)
320 × 120 16 1 3 2 45
16 2 3 5 80
20 32 22 10 100
400 × 160 16 1 4 5 60
20 2 3 11 100
20 3 3 20 150
480 × 200 16 1 5 10 70
24 2 3 20 150
24 3 3 40 200
560 × 240 16 1 6 15 90
16 2 6 30 150
16 3 6 50 200
24 42 32 80 300
640 × 240 16 1 7 25 100
24 3 4 80 300
24 52 42 200 450
Note 1. Number of bolt columns refers to the number of vertical lines of bolts in the beam,
number of rows refers to the number of horizontal lines of bolts in beams. Number of rows is
constrained by the beam depth. For columns the arrangement can be kept the same (as in the
above figure) unless the number of rows is less than the number of columns (see note 2 below).
Note 2. Number of bolt columns is for beams, group orientation will need to be switched for
columns to enable them to fit, assuming the column and beam are the same size.

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 5.6.6 Glulam beam – dowels – timber-steel-timber

Table 5.30: Moment capacity for glulam beam – dowel timber-steel-timber

connection
Section size Recommended Number Number Moment Shear/axial
(mm) bolt diameter of bolt of bolt capacity capacity kN
(mm) columns1 rows1 kNm (ULS) (ULS)
320 × 120 10 1 5 1 30
16 2 3 3 60
16 3 3 7 90
400 × 160 10 1 7 5 50
10 2 7 10 90
20 3 3 15 125
480 × 200 12 1 7 11 70
16 2 5 20 125
16 3 5 35 200
560 × 240 16 1 6 15 80
16 2 6 35 175
16 3 6 60 250
16 4 6 90 300
640 × 240 16 1 7 25 100
16 3 7 90 300
24 52 42 200 400
Note 1. Number of bolt columns refers to the number of vertical lines of bolts in the beam,
number of rows refers to the number of horizontal lines of bolts in beams. Number of rows is
constrained by the beam depth. For columns the arrangement can be kept the same (as in the
above figure) unless the number of rows is less than the number of columns (see note 2 below).
Note 2. Number of bolt columns is for beams, group orientation will need to be switched for
columns to enable them to fit, assuming the column and beam are the same size.

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 Notes on connection capacity Tables 5.6.1–5.6.3
1. All timber beams have been designed using C24 timber with
fv,k = 4N/mm2, fm,k = 24N/mm2 and E0.5 = 11,000N/mm2.
2. The following timber sizes have been considered:
150mm × 75mm
200mm × 100mm
250mm × 100mm   Generally available
275mm × 150mm   Generally available   Paired
300mm × 150mm   Generally available
3. Unless noted otherwise the timber sizes are ‘most commonly available’
in accordance with Table 3.8 of the TRADA/IStructE Manual. Where
timbers are noted as being ‘paired’ the size is not typically available but
by pairing timbers and bolting through at 600 c/c the same structural
solution can be achieved.
4. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
5. The material factor of safety is taken as 1.3.
6. It is assumed the timber is service class 1.
7. Connector capacities are based on the values given in the TRADA/
IStructE Manual, Tables 6.23, 6.22 and 6.28 for Sections 5.6.1, 5.6.2 and
5.6.3 respectively.
8. The value of nef is taken from the TRADA/IStructE Manual, Table 6.18.
As the exact angle of load application is not known for each bolt (as it
is a function of the sum vector of moment, axial and shear) the ratio of
nef to n is based on the most conservative value.
9. The above tables are based on the smallest value for connector capacity
considering the load is either applied parallel or perpendicular to the
grain with the appropriate factors being applied in each direction. While
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this is typically conservative, the final design should consider the stress
vector for each fixing and ensure it does not exceed the capacity.
10. For shear/axial design the capacity is the multiple of the number of
fixings times the capacity of an individual fixing.
11. For moment capacity the distance of the fixing from the centroid is
taken into consideration by assuming the fixing furthest from the
centroid reaches full capacity and the force in all other bolts is the ratio
of the distance to the centroid divided by the furthest distance. The sum
of the bolt forces multiplied by the lever arm is then used to calculate
the maximum moment. Note that as timber is not plastic not all bolts
are fully utilised.
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 12. To maximise the lever arm the bolts are spaced as widely as possible in
the depth of the member. Therefore the actual spacing may be greater
than 5d between bolts but is set to 5d to the edge. For example a
275mm deep beam with 10mm fixings has an edge distance of 50mm
and a spacing between bolts of 58mm.
13. In achieving the full moment capacity given the moment connection
will rotate quite considerably. Whilst steel moment connections are
normally considered fully fixed, timber moment connections should
be considered semi-rigid and an allowance for the connection rotation
should be made in detailed design, especially if calculating deflections.
Therefore, whilst the published values are achievable care should be
taken in using them as the deflection requirements may not enable the
full moment capacity to be reached.

Notes on connection capacity Tables 5.6.4–5.6.6

1. All timber beams have been designed using GL28h timber with
fv,k = 3.5N/mm2, fm,k = 28N/mm2 and E0.5 = 12,600N/mm2
2. The following timber sizes have been considered:
320mm × 120mm
400mm × 160mm
480mm × 200mm
560mm × 240mm   Check availability
640mm × 240mm   Check availability

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3. Glulam sizes are metric. Table 3.12 of Exova BM TRADA’s Manual of
timber building structures to EC5 by R. Harris gives suggested sizes and
availability. For those sizes where it states check availability, large
glulam manufacturers will supply but there may be a significant lead-in.
4. The load duration is taken as medium term and therefore kmod = 0.8.
5. The material factor of safety is taken as 1.25.
6. It is assumed the timber is service class 1.
7. Connector capacities are based on the values given in the TRADA/
IStructE Manual, tables 6.23, 6.22 and 6.28 for Sections 5.6.4, 5.6.5 and
5.6.6 respectively.
8. The value of nef is taken from the TRADA/IStructE Manual, Table 6.18.
As the exact angle of load application is not known for each bolt (as it
is a function of the sum vector of moment, axial and shear) the ratio of
nef to n is based on the most conservative value.

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 9. The above tables are based on the smallest value for connector capacity
considering the load is either applied parallel or perpendicular to the
grain with the appropriate factors being applied in each direction. While
this is typically conservative, the final design should consider the stress
vector for each fixing and ensure it does not exceed the capacity.
10. For shear/axial design the capacity is the multiple of the number of
fixings times the capacity of an individual fixing.
11. For moment capacity the distance of the fixing from the centroid is
taken into consideration by assuming the fixing furthest from the
centroid reaches full capacity and the force in all other bolts is the ratio
of the distance to the centroid divided by the furthest distance. The sum
of the bolt forces multiplied by the lever arm is then used to calculate
the maximum moment. Note that as timber is not plastic not all bolts
are fully utilised.
12. To maximise the lever arm the bolts are spaced as widely as possible in
the depth of the member. Therefore the actual spacing may be greater

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than 5d between bolts but is set to 5d at the edge. For example, a
320mm deep beam with 10mm fixings has an edge distance of 50mm
and a spacing between bolts of 55mm.
13. In the final design the location of bolts and dowels should be such that
they also avoid the laminations in the timber.
14. In achieving the full moment capacity given the moment connection
will rotate quite considerably. Whilst steel moment connections are
normally considered fully fixed, timber moment connections should
be considered semi-rigid and an allowance for the connection rotation
should be made in detailed design, especially if calculating deflections.
Therefore, whilst the published values are achievable care should be
taken in using them as the deflection requirements may not enable the
full moment capacity to be reached.

5.7 Estimating moisture movement

Timber frame buildings can be subject to quite significant settlement which
can have a knock-on effect on the cladding design and detailing. The settle-
ment is typically caused by a combination of the following:

•• drying shrinkage of the timber

•• axial shortening of the walls/columns/floor plates
•• creep of the walls/columns/ floor plates
•• bedding-in of the structure.
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 Typically bedding in of the structure can be limited by completing the frame
structure before installing the external envelope.

In other structures the majority of the settlement is due to column short-

ening. However, in timber structures the floor plate is typically sandwiched
between the columns/walls (see Section 3.4.2) and, due to the anisotropic
nature of timber, the shrinkage and movement of the floor plate is as much
as 70% of the settlement and is typically more than 50%.

While detailed calculations should be carried out at the detailed design

stage, a very approximate estimate of the storey-to-storey settlement can be
calculated using the following method.

5.7.1 Column/wall shortening

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Axial shortening under instantaneous load

The axial shortening is a function of Young’s Modulus, the storey height and
the design stress. If the design stress is not known it can be approximated
to the number of storeys times by 1 for walls and by 2 for columns. As you
move up the building the number of storeys reduces. The Young’s Modulus
is typically 8,000N/mm2 for C16 timber and approximately 11,000N/mm2 for
C24 and engineered timber.

Axial shortening due to creep

In addition to the axial shortening, a further shortening of the walls/columns
occurs during the lifetime of the building due to creep. This can be calculated
by multiplying the short-term axial shortening by kdef, which allows for the
service class of the timber. kdef can be found in a number of sources, including
EC5 Table 3.2. For sawn timber, glulam and LVL it is 0.6 for service class 1; 0.8
for service class 2; and 2 for service class 3.

Axial shortening due to drying out

Timber dries out over its lifetime. As it dries it shrinks. The degree of
shrinkage is a function of the change in moisture content and the direction of
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 the timber grain. Most timber typically has a moisture content of 14%–20%
or less when delivered to site, and this reduces to about 8%–12% once the
timber has dried in the building. An estimate of the column/wall shortening
is given by assuming 0.01% shortening for every 1% change in moisture
content. For sawn timber a conservative assumption of change in moisture
content is 8%. For engineered timber (CLT, glulam, LVL, etc.) 4% is typical.
Note that for sawn timber this number can be reduced by specifying extra dry
timber and ensuring the timber is stored in a dry area during construction.

5.7.2 Total column/wall shortening

The total column wall shortening is the sum of the three above values and
is typically in a range of 2mm–10mm.

5.7.3 Floor plate settlement

Compression settlement under instantaneous load

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The compression settlement is a function of Young’s Modulus, the floor depth
and the design stress. The same design stress can be assumed as for the wall/
column above. Young’s Modulus is typically 270N/mm2 for C16 timber and
370N/mm2 for C24 and engineered timber.

Compression settlement due to creep

In addition to the compression settlement under instantaneous load, a
settlement of the floor plate during the lifetime of the building occurs due
to creep. This can be calculated by multiplying the short-term settlement by
kdef, which allows for the service class of the timber. kdef can be found in a
number of sources, including EC5 Table 3.2.

Settlement due to drying out

An estimate of the settlement due to drying out is given by assuming 0.2%
shortening for every 1% change in moisture content. The change in moisture
content can be assumed to be the same as for walls/columns.

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 Reduced inherent
airtightness with
CLT system Upper wall panel

Floor panel
Floor stiffener, eg
hardwood dowel/non-shrink
grout. CLT contractor to
confirm preferred method Lower wall panel

Figure 5.23: Stiffener to minimise floor plate settlement

Total floor plate settlement

The floor plate settlement is the sum of the three above values and is
typically in a range of 2mm–20mm.

Minimising floor plate settlement

If floor plate settlement is problematic it can be significantly reduced by
introducing a floor stiffener (Figure 5.23), which can take the form of a steel
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bar, hardwood timber dowel or non-shrink grout. The stiffener is designed to

carry the axial load and has significantly higher stiffness in the direction of
load application and should be less susceptible to moisture movement. It can
be used at every floor but often the settlement at the lowest floors is critical
and so it may only be required here.

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 6 Next stage
This book should only be used for initial sizing during scheme design. Once
the timber products have been selected and the scheme has been signed
off a comprehensive detailed design should take place. The following notes
are intended to act as a guide for this next phase of design. In addition, the
scheme should be costed against other options. At the end of this section
are some important notes for costing by Andrew Wylie, Group Director at
BuroHappold Engineering.

The vast majority of timber design is covered by EC5 and TRADA/IStructE’s

Manual for the design of timber building structures to Eurocode 5.24 The detailed
design of all elements covered in this book has been completed using these
two sources. The only exceptions are given below.

When specifying timber we strongly recommend the use of Exova BM TRADA’s

National structural timber specification,25 which covers all the products in this
book.

6.1 Sawn timber and glulam

The material properties of both sawn timber and
glulam have both been updated since the publication
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of the TRADA/IStructE Manual. See the following codes

for the most up-to-date material properties:

Sawn Timber: BS EN 338 Structural timber. Strength

classes.26
Glulam: BS EN 14080 Timber structures. Glued laminated
timber and glued solid timber. Requirements.27

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 The design of members in shear and bearing has also been updated in
EC5 since the publication of the TRADA/IStructE Manual. Therefore see EC5
directly for this element of design.

When designing timber members under bending, the effects of shear

deflection­should be considered alongside the effects of flexure. The TRADA/
IStructE Manual provides a few standard cases. Alternatively a finite element
(FE) analysis will provide deflection due to both flexure and shear as long as
the correct value of the shear modulus is entered.

Sawn timber comes in a variety of different sizes. Although the UK does not
have a single unified sizing scheme, Exova BM TRADA’s Wood Information
Sheet 2/3-37: Softwood sizes shows which sizes are most commonly available.

TRADA has also produced software for sizing joists and beams, and connec-
tions; see [Link]/software.
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Finally, Exova BM TRADA has also published span tables for a variety of
softwood grades and sizes; see Eurocode 5 span tables.28

6.2 I-joists
I-joists are produced by a number of different manufac-
turers. Each manufacturer provides different products;
as a result there is no unified design code or guide
that can be used. Generally they have approximately
the same performance. To design I-joist systems we
recommend you refer to the literature from specific
manufacturers who often provide both load span tables and design informa-
tion such as the moment capacity and stiffness.

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 6.3 Unilam
Unilam is not a recognised product in design guides or
codes of practice. However, the design is the same as for
any other joisted system, it is just that the joist spacing
is zero. Therefore, EC5 (especially Part 2: Bridges) and
the associated design guides can be used.

For Brettstapel – a form of unilam in which hardwood timber stakes are used
to bind the softwood – a bespoke specification is required to ensure the
correct moisture content of the woods and performance of the panel. This
has been specified on a small number of projects in the UK, such as Coed-y-
Brenin. We recommend speaking to TRADA’s advisory line (tel: 01494 569601)
and carrying out further research before progressing.

6.4 Cross-laminated timber

CLT is not straightforward to carry out detailed design
calculations with. This is due to the change in orienta-
tion of fibres in the depth of the panel and the effect
this has on the shear interaction between layers (a
phenomenon known as rolling shear). As a result, the
size and shape of each panel needs to be known before it can be designed.

Usually, the CLT contractor will carry out the detailed design and will engage
a specialist designer. It is recommended that, before tender, a CLT supplier be
asked to review the design and provide design advice.

If further information is required regarding the design of CLT, see the

IStructE’s Timber Engineering Notebook series No. 13: Cross-laminated timber
construction – structural design.

The modelling of CLT in FE packages is particularly tricky as the effective

stiffness in each direction is a function of both the panel type and size. It is

6 Next stage 173

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 recommended that you seek specialist advice before embarking on modelling
complex two-way spanning structures in FE.

Most FE packages will not let you change the physical properties of the
panel in each direction (breadth and depth) and as a result the ‘I’ value is
fixed. However, you can often adjust the ‘E’ value in each direction. Therefore
the E value used should be adjusted such that the EinputI is equal to the
EIeffective of the panel. In theory this should be calculated and applied to every
panel in turn as the EIeff varies depending on panel size and also stress type.

6.5 Laminated veneer lumber

The design of LVL is covered in detail in the TRADA/
IStructE Manual. In addition, further advice can be
found in the Exova BM TRADA publication Structural
timber composites.29 While this guide is now dated,
it does provide some additional design advice and a
number of example calculations that are particularly
useful for the consideration of buckling.

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6.6 Flitch beams
The design of timber flitch beams is covered by Exova
BM TRADA’s Guidance Document GD9: How to design a
bolted flitch beam and is also included in Eurocode 5:
timber design essentials for engineers.30 The two guides
cover most basic design guidance and specifically the
load sharing between the steel and timber members
under a variety of circumstances. However, neither guide provides specific
guidance on dynamics, which can be key in the design of timber structures.

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 6.7 Robustness and disproportionate collapse
The design for robustness should be carried out in accordance with the
Building Regulations Approved Document A and EC1. For practical guidance
on how to implement these requirements, reference should be made to
IStructE’s Practical guide to structural robustness and disproportionate collapse
in buildings.

Further guidance specifically for timber frame buildings is provided in the

BRE document Multi-story timber frame buildings – a design guide, specifically
chapter 2.31

In addition, for platform frame construction, reference should be made to

the Structural Timber Association’s Timber frame structures – platform frame
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construction (part 3), which provides further advice and sample calculations.

6.8 Moisture movement

Finding clear guidance on moisture movement in timber frames is not
straightforward. The TRADA/IStructE Manual provides some guidance in
sections 2.8, 10.11 and 12.2, especially around the detailing of platform
frame construction. The Structural Timber Association also provides guidance
within Differential movement in platform timber frame.32

Section 4 of the BRE’s Multi-storey timber frame buildings provides further

guidance around moisture movement. The final page of Exova BM TRADA’s
Worked example – 12-storey building of cross-laminated timber also provides a
clear and concise sample calculation, which formed the basis of much of the
guidance in Section 5.7.33

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 6.9 Connections
The design of connections is covered in detail in the
TRADA/IStructE Manual.

As a starting point, Exova BM TRADA’s Concise illustrated

guide to timber connections provides a detailed and
well-illustrated look at a variety of different connection
types.

TRADA has also produced software that includes design of connections; see
[Link]/software.

6.10 Costing
(Contributed by Andrew Wylie of BuroHappold Engineering)

There are many issues that affect the cost of any structure. When costing a
familiar material, these issues are often well understood and can be consid-
ered adequately. However, as there is often a lack of familiarity among cost
consultants on how to cost timber structures, we have found that there is
a tendency to apply unnecessary costs for risk or inflate rates for perceived
unknowns. These should always be challenged to check that they are being
fairly applied.

A common approach when costing a timber structure is to compare the

cost element by element to other known materials (for example, a precast
concrete plank compared with a CLT plank). This approach often misses the
associated cost and programme benefits of the timber option. Depending on
the design we would recommend considering the following factors.

Programme
Timber can be fabricated off site, which will save on-site time and hence
reduce ‘prelims’ (as well as offering health and safety benefits). Timber
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 s­ tructures are quick and easy to connect to. For example, fixing suspended
services to a timber soffit is far quicker than to a concrete equivalent.
Furthermore, for loadbearing structures the walls can be prefabricated to
high levels of accuracy, reducing the need for installation measuring and
hence reducing lead-in for follow-on trades such as windows.

A lighter structure
When comparing the cost of the timber frame it is important to take into
account the reduced size of the building foundation resulting from the lower
dead load of the structure. This can be of significant benefit when founding
in poor ground conditions. Other frame elements, for example steel frame
structure supporting timber floors, also have the potential to be lighter and
less costly.

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Architectural finishes
Timber frames are often left exposed, eliminating the requirement for plas-
terboard or other finishes. It should be noted, however, that there is a big cost
variation associated with the visual quality of finish of the structural element
and it is important that this is costed correctly.

Exchange rate
Most structural timber in the UK is sourced from Europe and is subject to
variations in the exchange rate. Correctly estimating the rate, while under-
standing the risk/benefit of the rate changing, is very important to costing.

Method/installation costs
Greater care is required on site to handle and install a timber structure.
Temporary weather proofing might also be necessary until the building
envelope is complete if the timber is exposed and there are concerns over
water staining.

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 Fire treatment
For timber, there are two different considerations for fire: the spread of the
flame and the failure of the structural members.

To protect against surface spread of flame, fire protection or treatment will

be required for exposed timber walls and soffits. This typically occurs when
solid timber walls and floors are used, but can occur in other situations. For
larger buildings, timber walls should be fully encapsulated for the duration
of a fire, unless a detailed fire analysis has been carried out.

For beams and columns, structural integrity is required during a fire. This
can normally be dealt with by the charring of the outer faces of the timber
protecting the intact core of the timber structure. As such, no additional
protection coating is usually required for the primary timber frame elements,
provided sufficient additional area exists for the section to work in the fire
load case. However, any connections with exposed steel elements will still
require fire protection.

Internal partitions
For loadbearing timber construction, some internal partitions are built as
part of the structure. As these are often listed under a separate package to
structure on a cost consultant’s schedule, it has been known for the cost of
internal partitions to be double counted in this case and therefore the cost
consultant should confirm this is not the case.

Design with standard sizes

As with many other construction materials, designing with standard size
components and strength classes is most cost efficient. However, special
elements can always be produced and manufacturer’s guidance should be
sought. Transport costs for non-standard/oversized elements can often be
considerable.

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 Durability
Timber is a highly durable material and will last indefinitely in a protected
dry environment. However, just like steel and concrete, durability of external
frame elements must be considered. With the appropriate selection of
material and correct detailing to minimise direct wetting and any risk of
trapped or ponding water, it is possible to minimise or eliminate the need for
treatment. However, in some cases where this is not possible, some protective
treatment may be required and the need for periodic inspection and mainte-
nance should be allowed for in the cost plan.

Also, while not a cost consideration, the weathering and natural discoloura-
tion of externally exposed timber should be communicated to the client at
an early stage of the project.
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6 Next stage
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 References
1. BS EN 1991-1-1:2002 Eurocode 1. Actions on structures. General actions.
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, BSI

2. BS EN 1995-1-1:2004+A2:2014. Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures.

General. Common rules and rules for buildings, BSI

3. Manual for the design of timber building structures to Eurocode 5, ISBN

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978-0901297440, IStructE/TRADA Technology, 2007

4. WIS 4-11: Wood-based panel products and timber in fire, BM TRADA, 2014

5. Lancashire, R. and Taylor, L., Timber frame construction, 5th edition, ISBN
978-1900510820, TRADA Technology, 2011

6. The Building Regulations for use in England: Approved Document B ( fire

safety), Volumes 1 and 2, NBS, 2013

7. WIS 2/3-3: Flame retardant treatments for timber products, Exova BM

TRADA, 2017

8. WIS 4-32: Acoustic performance in residential timber frame developments,

Exova BM TRADA, 2017

9. Practical guide to structural robustness and disproportionate collapse in

buildings, ISBN 978-1906335175, IStructE, 2010

10. IStructE, Practical guide to structural robustness and disproportionate

collapse in buildings.

11. Timber frame structures – platform frame construction (part 3), Structural
Timber Association, 2014

12. Holloway, A., Mettem, C., Ross, P., Green oak in construction, ISBN
978-1900510455, TRADA Technology, 2007

13. WIS 2/3-65: Principles of Green oak construction, BM TRADA, 2015

References
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 14. WIS 2/3-67: Specifying British-grown timbers, Exova BM TRADA, 2017

15. WIS 2/3-58: Sustainable timber sourcing, Exova BM TRADA, 2016

16. Wide-span wood sport structures, TRADA Technology and Wood for Good,
2007

17. Ross, P., Hislop, P., Mansfield-Williams, H. and Young, A., Concise illustrated

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guide to timber connections, ISBN 978-1900510851, TRADA Technology,
2012

18. WIS 2/3-37: Softwood sizes, Exova BM TRADA, 2016

19. BS EN 1995-1-2:2004 Eurocode 5. Design of timber structures. General.

Structural fire design, BSI

20. Structural Timber Association, Cross-laminated timber construction –

structural design, Institution of Structural Engineers, 2015

21. MM crosslam, MM Holz, 2013/02

22 BS 8103-1:2011. Structural design of low-rise buildings. Code of practice for

stability, site investigation, foundations, precast concrete floors and ground
floor slabs for housing, BSI

23. Guidance Document 9: How to design a bolted steel flitch beam, TRADA
Technology, 2008

24. Harris, R., Manual of timber building structures to EC5, ISBN

978-0901297440, Institution of Structural Engineers, 2007

25. National structural timber specification v2, ISBN 978-190959466, Exova

BM TRADA, 2017

26. BS EN 338:2016. Structural timber. Strength classes, BSI

27. BS EN 14080:2013. Timber structures. Glued laminated timber and glued

solid timber. Requirements, BSI

28. Eurocode 5 span tables, 4th edition, ISBN 978-1909594142, TRADA

Technology, 2014
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 29. Bedding, B., Gordon, J. A. and Mettem, J. A., Structural timber composites,
TRADA Technology, 1996

30 Eurocode 5: Timber design essentials for engineers, ISBN 978-1900510707,

TRADA Technology, 2009

31. Grantham, R. and Enjily, V., Multi-storey timber frame buildings – a design
guide, ISBN 978-1860816055, BRE

32. Differential movement in platform timber frame, Structural Timber

Association, 2008

33. Worked example – 12-storey building of cross-laminated timber, TRADA,

2009

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References
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184
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