EVALUATION OF FUNGICIDES, BOTANICALS AND SMOKE WATER AGAINST

WILT COMPLEX PATHOGENS OF HOT PEPPER (Capsicum annuum L.) IN TOKE

KUTAYE DISTRICT, WEST SHEWA, ETHIOPIA.

ABSTRACT
Hot pepper is a widely grown vegetable, spice and condiment crop in Ethiopia. It is also a major cash
crop with high domestic and export value. Hot pepper wilt disease which caused by different soil borne
pathogens is considered as the major constraints of pepper production and productivity. Therefore, the
current study was proposed to improve production and productivity of hot pepper through development of
effective wilt management strategies among fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solutions. Hence,
field experimental study was conducted in Ambo University School of Agriculture Research Farm during
2021. Foliar and root zone spraying of commercial fungicide, botanicals and smoke water extract were
evaluated against the disease development. Disease incidence and severity and crop yield loss were used
to evaluate the treatment difference. The result revealed that all treatments were showed significant (p<
0.05) difference over untreated plot. For Ralstonia wilt the least mean disease incidence and severity was
recorded from the plot treated with commercial fungicide Difenoconazole 25% EC ( 14.75 and 22.22%)
respectively with corresponding significantly increased pod yield of 23.77t/ha. Similarly for Fusarium
wilt and Rhizoctonia root rot the least mean disease incidence and severity was recorded from the plot
treated with commercial fungicide Difenoconazole 25% EC. The economic analysis of fungicides was
also revealed that Definoconazole 25% EC was found most economic with the net benefit and marginal
rate of return of 80672 ETB and 79512.64 %, respectively. Overall, the present study was in a conclusion
commertial fungicides were effective in controlling wilt complex disease of pepper and Difenoconazole
was the best among the tested fungicides. Among plant extracts Rucinus leaf extract, Olea Europaea bark
smoke water and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke were most effective and environmentally comprehensive
method to control pepper wilt disease. Therefore difenoconazole can be used for management of pepper
wilt complex in field. Indeed the promicing botanicals and smoke water solutions can be commercialized
and used as component of integrated disease management of pepper wilt complex.
Key words: Botanicals, Fusarium oxysporum, Hot pepper, Ralstonia solanacearum, Rhizoctonia
solani, smoke water.
 1. INTRODUCTION
Hot pepper (Capsicum annum L.) is an important spice and vegetable crop in tropical areas of the
world and it belongs to the Solanaceae family, and the genus Capsicum. The genus Capsicum is
the second most important vegetable crop of the family after tomato in the world (Berhanu Y. et
al., 2011). The genus originated in Central and South America (Grubben & Denton, 2004). The
combination of four lines of evidence indicated that domestication of C. annuum could have
occurred in Mexico (Kraft et al., 2014). The Spanish and Portuguese have brought capsicum
pepper to Europe, from where especially hot pepper was widely spread to all tropical and sub-
tropical areas of the world (Grubben & Denton, 2004). C. annuum has been grown as a popular
vegetable and spice ubiquitous in the tropics and many very distinct types and landraces had
been developed at the end of the 17th C (Grubben & Denton, 2004).
Hot pepper is one of the most economically important vegetable crops used for consumption as
vegetable, spices, and industrial row materials to produce oleoresin. It is the major economic
crop in the world including Asia, Latin America, Africa, Europe and North America
(Anonymous, 2003). In Ethiopia, hot pepper has nutritional, medicinal and economic values.
Such importance of the vegetable is entrenched in the chemical composition of the fruits
(capsaicin and oleoresin). Nutritionally, hot pepper is produced as spice flavoring and color to
food while providing essential vitamins and minerals (Shumeta, 2012; Zeleke & Derso, 2015).
The nutritional value of hot pepper merits special attention. It is a rich source of vitamin A and
E. Both hot and sweet peppers contain more vitamin C to prevent flu colds than any other
vegetable crop (Boselnad and Votava, 2000). The average daily consumption of hot pepper by
Ethiopian adult is estimated at 15 g, which is higher than tomatoes and most other vegetables
(MARC, 2004). According to MOA (2011) the total area cultivated with pepper (green and red
peppers) was 89,205.16 ha and the total production was estimated to 2, 676, 44.81tons. In
Ethiopia the total production share of pepper is high as compared with other vegetables such as
lettuce, tomatoes, head cabbage, onion and others (CSA, 2016). According to FAOSTAT (2017),
a world average production of 32.3 t/ha green and 3.8 t/ha dry pepper have been reported. In
Ethiopia, average dry and green hot pepper production is 1.6 t/ha and 10.7 t/ha, respectively
(Abraham et al., 2016), which is far below the world’s average.
In 2018, the total area used for cultivation of green and red pepper in Ethiopia was 152, 7523 ha
with an estimated total production of 2,647, 22.5 t. Interestingly, this data shows that hot pepper
covers 73.1% of all the area under vegetables in Ethiopia (CSA, 2018). Despite its importance,
the production of hot pepper in Ethiopia has shown a progressive decrease through years. This is
caused by several abiotic and biotic factors (Welderufael, 2016).
Among the production constraints, bacterial and fungal pathogens are known to be significantly
important in all pepper growing areas of Ethiopia (Korobko et al., 1986; BARC, 1999). Wilt
disease of hot pepper caused by Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium spp. have been reported in
Bako and Nejo areas (BARC, 1999/2000). In addition, pod rotting caused by Phytophthora
infestans, frog eye leaf spot (Cercospora capsici) and pod bleaching (assumed to be caused by
fungi and insect damage) were found to be important in the region (BARC, 2000). In Ethiopia
among hot pepper diseases, caused by fungi Fusarium spp., Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia
solani and Cercospora capsici (Shiferaw & Alemayehu, 2014) and bacterial diseases caused by
Ralstonia solanacearum are reported as major (Kassahun et al., 2016).
Bacterial wilt is a widespread destructive disease caused by Ralstonia solanacearum that affects
many economically important crops, including hot pepper (Knapp et al., 2004). It is one of the
most challenging diseases, causing severe damage to pepper plants throughout the world,
especially in the tropical and subtropical regions, and parts of the warm temperate regions (Du et
al., 2017). The disease is known as ‘Green wilt’ disease since the leaves of the infested plant stay
green when the plant begins to show wilt symptoms (Jiang et al., 2017). The pathogen has been
reported to invade more than 450 plant species from 54 botanical families, the most susceptible
hosts being solanaeceous crops (Lebeau et al., 2011; Kurabachew and Ayana, 2016). In Ethiopia,
the percentage of bacterial wilt incidence is almost 100% on pepper, 63% on potato and 55% on
tomato (Mekonnen et al., 2015).
Fusarium wilt disease, caused by the soil-borne fungus, F. oxysporum f. sp. capsici is the most
important disease on hot pepper that reduces growth, fruit yield and quality (Sahi & Khalid,
2007; Wongpia & Lomthaisong, 2010). The pathogen causes vascular wilt on large variety of
economically important crops worldwide (Ortoneda et al., 2004). Fusarium wilt disease
significance also varies with host susceptibility, pathogen virulence, soil type, and environmental
conditions (Goldberg, 2010). In Ethiopia, clay loam soil type was found to be favorable for
fusarium wilt disease development (Mekonnen et al., 2015). Spores are disseminated by the
wind, in ground water, or by movement of the contaminated soil, stake, or equipment (Jaywant,
2016). The yield loss due to the disease is known to vary from 10-80 percent worldwide
(Loganathan et al., 2013). In Ethiopia relative yield loss of 68-71% was obtained due to the
effect of fusarium wilt from un-treated Mareko-fana variety (Teshome et al., 2012).
Rhizoctonia solani Kühn (teleomorphs: Thanatephorus cucumeris) is a worldwide destructive
soil borne pathogen causing various diseases to many economically important crops, under
diverse environmental conditions (Ogoshi A., 1987). On pepper, R. solani can cause several
types of damage at multiple growth stages such as seed decay, pre- and post- emergence
damping-off, wire stem, root rot, and hypocotyl or tap root with necrotic spots (Lopez et al.,
2009). R. solani is essentially soil-borne pathogen which inflicts heavy losses under favorable
condition (Mathur et al., 1995).
Several approaches have been adopted to manage diseases caused by R. solani involving mainly
cultural practices and chemical control. However, due to the pathogen’s wide host range, the
long-term survival of its resting structures, sclerotia, in the soil and the lack of genetic resistance,
yield losses still occur. The management of this disease is difficult owing to long saprophytic
survival ability of pathogen in soil (Singh and Malthora, 1994). Harman et al., (2004) reported
biological and cultural control measures as two alternatives feasible options to synthetic
pesticides in an integrated diseases management programme.
1.1 Statement of the problem

Hot pepper production and productivity is in decreasing trend even though it is a highly
profitable commercial spice and vegetable crop. Currently production of pepper is under severe
threat by several biotic and abiotic factors. Improper agronomic practices and inappropriate use
of fertilizers lead to the low yield of chilli (Jack et al., 2006). These problems are causing major
issues with the supply of pepper and threaten the sustainability of farmer livelihood as reported
by (Thijs, 2010). In Ethiopia among hot pepper diseases, caused by fungi Fusarium spp.,
Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia solani and Cercospora capsici (Shiferaw & Alemayehu, 2014)
and bacterial diseases caused by Ralstonia solanacearum (Kassahun et al., 2016) are the most
important one.
Moreover Mekonnen et al., (2015) reported that wilt complex pathogens were observed in all
surveyed localities of two districts of West Shewa. The report concludes that hot pepper wilt was
caused by more than one wilt causing pathogen, thus management strategies should focus on
these complex pathogens.
Fungicides such as Ridomil Gold, Carbandazim, Metalaxyl and Mancozeb are being used to
control the Fusarium wilt (Sitara & Hasan, 2011). However, for bacterial wilt of hot pepper due
to the complex nature of the pathogen, no method is useful when applied alone, and economic
considerations often influence the chemicals selected (Yuliar et al., 2015). The increased use of
pesticides in past has led to several problems, such as environmental degradation, health hazards,
pest resistance and decrease in population of beneficial insects (Groenewald, 2006). Botanicals
show antimicrobial activity against a large number of fungal and bacterial diseases (Javaid &
Rauf, 2015).
Smoke-water, which is generated by burning plant material and bubbling the smoke through
water, has been shown to enhance germination, improve growth, and promote the production of
healthier plants (Light and Van Staden, 2004). In addition, smoke-water protects against
microbial attack (De Groot, 1996). The phenolic compounds of smoke-water extract show
antimicrobial activity that reduces the growth of microorganisms. Numerous studies have shown
that phenolic compounds can inhibit the growth of soil borne pathogens (Muthukumar et al.,
2010, Yangui et al., 2008). Therefore, the current study was proposed to evaluate potential
management strategies to recommend the best management tactics among fungicides, botanicals
(plant extract) and smoke water with the following objectives.

1.2 Objectives

1.2.1 General objective

 To improve production and productivity of hot pepper through development of effective
wilt management strategies among fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solutions
1.2.2 Specific objectives
 To evaluate the efficacy of some fungicides, botanicals and smoke water against wilt
complex pathogens of hot pepper.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Description of the study area

Field experimental study was conducted at Ambo University, Guder Mamo Mezemir Campus in
Agricultural Research Farm during the academic year 2021 on normal season cropping under
rain fall. Guder is located in West Shewa Zone of Oromia region which is 126 km far from
Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia and 12 km from Ambo town. It was located between 8°
59’ 00’’N latitude and 37°46’0’’E longitude. The average elevation of the study area ranges from
1580.3-1900 m a.s.l. The agro ecology of the district includes 23% highland, 60% mid attitude
and 17% low land which generally lies in the sub-tropical zone with annual temperature ranging
between 10-29°C (TKDANO, 2020).
The district has bi-model rain fall distribution with main rainy season during June-August and
short rainy season is April - May). The district dominantly covered by clay soil and slightly
acidic with pH 5.5 – 6.0. The district receives average rainfall of 800-1100 mm (TKDANO,
2020).

Figure 1 Map of the study area. Source: (TKDANO, 2020)

2.2 Experimental Material

For field experimental study the seed of Hot pepper (Oda Haro variety) was taken from Bako
Agricultural Research center. For investigation of management option for hot pepper wilt
complex pathogens in the study area, some fungicides, plant extract and smoke water solution
were evaluated.

2.3 Preparation of plant extracts

Plant tissue samples were washed with running tap water to remove dust and other debris and
dried under shade in the lab or under forced circulation of heated air at 40 °C to reduce
deterioration of the plant drug material and ground to powder by Electrical grinder. The powder
from all the samples was carefully stored at 4°C. Water-soluble extracts were prepared as
described by Rivillas-Acevedo and Soriano-Garcia (2007), with some modifications. The
powdered material of all plants were extracted for 1 hr. at 25 °C with distilled water by the ratio
of (1:10gm/ml) under stirring conditions and left to settle overnight. The homogenate was
filtered through double-layered muslin cloth and clarified by centrifugation at 7000 x g for 30
min at 4 °C. The supernatant was sterilized by filtration through 0.22 µm sterile filters and stored
at 4°C until further use. The resulting aqueous solution was used for the microbial growth
inhibition assay.
2.4 Preparation of smoke water solution

A method of preparing smoke-water with different plant material described by Boucher and
Meets (2004) with little modifications was used to prepare smoke water. A smoke-water solution
was prepared by burning 1 kg of dry Olea Europaea bark, Olea Europaea leaf, leaf of Ocimum
lamiifolium and Rhizome of Echinops kebericho in stainless steel barrel smoker. Using
compressed air, the smoke was continuously bubbled through a 500-mL graduated cylinder filled
with distilled water for 45 min.

The smoke was drawn through the water in the flask; dissolving the water-soluble compounds
for 40 to 45 min. Bellows on the bee smoker were pumped for the duration of the process to keep
the plant material burning and to increase the amount of smoke entering the water in the flask.
Once the process of burning the plant material was completed, the system was left to cool
completely. After that, the smoke-water solution in the flask was then ready for further
treatments. Solutions of this aqueous smoke extract (500 mL) was filtered through Whatman
No.1 filter paper and used as the stock solution.

Fig. 2 Preparation of smoke water solution

2.5 Field Experimental Study

2.5.1 Crop Establishment

Seeds of hot pepper (Oda Haro variety) were obtained from Bako Agricultural Research Centre,
which was seeded on 6m2 raised nursery bed on May, 25th, 2021. Seeds of hot pepper was sown
on bed and mulched until 50% of seedlings were emerged to control weed germination, all
managements applied till the seedlings were reached for transplanting and the seedlings were
transplanted into the experimental field on July, 10th, 2021.

Each plot area was 5m2 with five rows. Spaces used between blocks, plots, rows and plants were
1m, 0.5m, 0.5m and 0.4m respectively. The total Area = width x Length = 365.4m2. Total plants
per plot and plant population on total area were 25 and 900, respectively. The field was fertilized
with NPS and urea of 200 kg and 150 kg per hectare, respectively. The NPS was applied during
transplanting and urea was applied split into two times. The first half was applied during
transplanting and the remaining half after 15 days transplanted (EARO, 2004). Other
recommended agronomic practices were carried out as required.
2.5.2 Field Experimental Design and Treatments

Treatments were consisted of three fungicides (Difenoconazole 25% EC, Propiconazole 25% EC
and Funguran OH 50% WP), four botanical Extracts of (Eucalyptus citriodora, Justicia
schimperiana, Datura stramonium and Rucinus communis), four solutions of smoke water (Olea
Europaea bark, Olea Europaea leaf, leaf of Ocimum lamiifolium and Rhizome of Echinops
kebericho) and control. The treatments were arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design
(RCBD) with three replications. Forty five days old seedlings of pepper were transplanted into
the experimental field. Five sprayings of all the treatments were under taken at an interval of 15
days, starting first spraying at 55 days after transplanting of the crop i.e. when first symptoms of
disease occurred/onset. Sufficient spray volumes were applied both to the foliage and the soil.
While applied to treatments on experimental units, plastic sheet was used to avoid cross
contamination of the treatment to other plots. One each plot of replication was maintained as
unsprayed control. Observations on disease incidence and severity were recorded before each
spray treatments and lastly 15 days after last spraying (Sharma, 2007). The recommended rate
per hectare of each fungicide (based on chemicals labelled) with 200 L of water per ha were
used. Regarding to botanicals recommended rate still now is not well known. However,
according to some researchers report application at about 2-5kg/ha (Shiberu et al., 2013) were
mentioned and 5kg/ha rate with 200 L of water were used in the current study.

2.6 Data collected

2.6.1 Disease parameters

2.6.1.1 Disease Incidence

Disease incidence was recorded by counting of plants that showing visible symptoms of
Bacterial and fungal wilt complex disease of pepper (number of plants infected) at 15 days
intervals in each plots and the data were expressed as a percentage of the total assessed plants.
Observations on disease incidence was recorded by counting treatment wise the number of plants
affected with wilt complex disease and percent disease incidence was calculated by applying the
formula used by wheeler (1969).
No .of plants showing disease symptoms
Incidence ( % )= X 100
Total no . of plants/ plot
2.6.1.2 Disease severity

Disease severity was recorded by visually estimating the percentage of leaf area diseased from
nine (9) randomly plants taken and pre-tagged and six leaves per plant in the middle three rows
of each plots were selected for recording wilt complex disease severity. The severity was
recorded every fifteen (15) days interval starting from the onset of the disease until the non-spray
treatment was no longer increased in disease severity.

The data on disease severity was recorded using 0-4 rating scale for Ralstonia solanacearum
according to (Hashen Du et al., 2016) (Table 4), 0-5 for Fusarium oxysporum according to
Ismail, (2015) (Table 5), and 0-5 for Rhizoctonia solani according to (Mannai S, et al., 2018)
(Table 6). Lastly, each of severity scale was converted into the Percentage Severity Index (PSI)
for analysis (Shakyawar et al., 2014). Per cent disease intensity was calculated by the following
formula given by McKinney, (1923).

Summation of numerical rating

PDI= X 100
No .ofleaves observed XMaximumrating

Table 1 Scoring scale of Ralstonia solanacearum

S. No Rating Scale Description

1 0 Asymptomatic
2 1 Miner symptoms with less than 20% wilted leaves

3 2 Moderate symptoms with 20-50% wilted leaves

4 3 Severe symptoms with 50-80% wilted leaves
5 4 dead plants

Source: Hashen Du et al., (2016)

Table 2 Scoring scale of Fusarium oxysporum

S. No Rating Scale Description

1 0 Healthy
2 1 One leaf yellowing

3 2 More than One leaf yellowing

4 3 One wilted leaf

5 4 More than one leaf wilted
 6 5 Completely dead/wilted plants

Source: Ismail 2015

Table 3.Scoring scale of Rhizoctonia solani

S. No Rating Scale Description

1 0 Absence of visible lesions in the collar.

2 1 1 to 25% of the collar covered with lesions
3 2 26 to 50% of the collar covered with lesions
4 3 50 to 75% of the collar covered with Lesions
5 4 Large lesions (> 75%)
6 5 Dead plant.

Source: Mannai S, et al., 2018.

2.6.1.3 Area under Disease Progress Curve (AUDPC).

AUDPC was computed from the PSI data recorded at each date of assessment as described by
Campbell and Madden (1990). AUDPC was expressed in percent-days because the severity (x) is
expressed in percent and time (t) in days. Area under Disease Progress Curves (AUDPC) was
calculated using the following formula.

Where, Yi= disease severity on the i th date, Y (i+1) = disease severity on the i+1th date, n =
number of dates.

2.7 Growth, Yield and Yield Component parameters

Data on plant height, leaf number per plant, leaf length, leaf diameter, leaf area, number of
primary branches, number of secondary branches, number of node per plant, number of pod per
plant, pod length and pod diameter were collected from nine (9) randomly selected plants. Plants
in the central three rows were used for data collection leaving aside plants in the border rows and
those at the end of each row. However, total yield, marketable and unmarketable yields were
recorded per plot base.

Plant height (cm):- Plant height was measured using a scale ruler from the ground level to the
tip of the terminal leaves of nine randomly selected plants at the maturity time. The average of
nine plants was used for statistical analysis.
Leaves number per plant: - The total number of leaves per plant was counted from nine
randomly selected plants at maturity and the average was used for statistical analysis.
Leaf length (cm):- This was measured at physiological maturity from the base to tip of the leaf
of nine plants using a ruler and the average of nine plants was used for statistical analysis.
Leaf diameter (cm):- The average leaf diameter of nine plants randomly selected was measured
using digital caliper and expressed in centimeter at maturity time.
Number of primary branches (no.):-The total number of primary branches per plant was
counted from nine randomly selected plants at maturity.
Number of secondary branches (no.):-The total number of secondary branches per plant was
counted from nine randomly selected plants at maturity.
Leaf area (cm2):- Leaf area was calculated by multiplying length and width (diameter) of each
leaf from nine randomly selected plants at maturity. The average of nine plants was used for
statistical analysis.
Number of node per plant (no.):-The average of total number of node per plant was counted
from nine randomly selected plants at maturity.
Number of pod per plant (no.):-The average of total number of pod per plant was counted
from nine randomly selected plants at maturity time.
Pod Length (Cm):-The pod length was measured at physiological maturity from the base to tip
of the pod of nine plants using a ruler and the average of nine plants was used for statistical
analysis.
Pod diameter (Cm):- The average pod diameter of nine pants randomly selected was measured
using digital caliper and expressed in centimeter at maturity time.
Marketable pod yield (t/ha):- This referred to as the weight of healthy pods from the net plot
area of each treatment at the time of harvesting was measured and expressed in ton /ha.
Unmarketable pod yield (t/ha) :- The total weight of unmarketable pods that are whitish in
color, small in size and burned in physical appearance were measured from a net plot of each
treatment at final harvest measured in kg and expressed in t/ha.
Total pod yield (t/ha) :- The total pod yield was measured from the total harvest of the net plot
as a sum of weight of marketable and unmarketable pod yields that were measured in kg per plot
and finally converted into ton ha−1.
Relative Yield loss (RYL):- The relative yield loss due to wilt complex disease of pepper was
measured as percentage yield reduction of unsprayed plots compared with the most protected
plot using the following formula of Robert and Janes (1991).

Where, RYL = relative yield loss in Percent, Yp = yield from the maximum protected plots and
YT = yield from other plots
2.8 Profitability Analysis

To determine the least cost and profitable treatments, the partial budget technique was applied to
the yield results. The mean prices of chemicals (fungicides) were collected during management
time and the market sale price of pepper pod was obtained at harvest. All costs and benefits were
calculated on hectare basis in Ethiopian birr (ETB ha- 1). The average yield was adjusted
downwards by 10% to reflect the difference between the experimental yield and the local
farmer’s yield. Potentially profitable treatments were selected from the range that was tested
using a dominance analysis procedure as described by CIMMYT (1988).

Non-dominated treatments were ranked from the lowest (framers’ practice) to the highest cost
treatments. For each pair of ranked treatments, the Marginal Rate of Return (MRR) was
calculated. The percentage of MRR between any pair of non-dominated treatments denotes the
return per unit of investment in fungicides expressed as percentage. The Partial Budget Analysis
(PBA) was calculated by the following equations;

Adjusted Yield = Average Yield - (Average Yield x 0.1)

Gross benefit = Adjusted Yield x price of the product at harvest

Net benefit = Gross benefit – Total variable cost

The MRR was computed between any pair of treatments for estimation of extra return per unit of
investment using the following formula.

MRR=DNI / DIC*100
Where, MRR - marginal rate of return, DNI- Difference in net
income compared with control and DIC - Difference in input cost compared with control.

2.9 Statistical Analysis

The data of field experimental studies were subjected to Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) as per
Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) using SAS (Statistical Analysis System) version
9.4 (SAS, 2014). Mean separation was done using Least Significant Difference (LSD) at 5%
probability level. Correlations among the disease parameters and all yield and yield components
were computed at 5% probability level

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Field Experiments
3.1.1. Symptomatology of Wilt Complex Diseases Associated With Hot Pepper Under
Experimental Field.

Symptomological characterization with the help of the pepper wilt pathogens field identification
guide was used for determination of the pathogen and disease date assessment.
3.1.1.1 Bacterial wilts (Ralstonia solanacearum)

The Hot pepper crop transplanted in the first week of July was observed regularly for the
occurrence as well as further development of the symptoms during 2021 under rainy season. The
initial symptoms of Bacterial wilt were noticed at 55 days after transplanting, which were
characterized by sudden wilting and yellowing of the leaves, followed by undersized growth,
latency, discoloration and eventually death of the plants. The wilted leaves maintain their green
color and they do not fall as the disease spreads. Under hot, humid situations, complete wilting
occurs and the plant dies. (Figure 3 B&C).
The present findings were in lined with the earlier reported by Mihovilovich et al., (2017).
Similarly, Monther and Kamaruzaman, (2010), also reported that, A plant infected with R.
solanacearum may undergo latency, which may lead the plant into expressing all these
symptoms or none of them, even under conditions that are favourable for the pathogen and
Harveson et al., 2015 reported that Further symptoms of bacterial wilt are characterized by
discoloration of the vascular system from streaky light yellow to dark brown.

A B C

Figure 3 showing symptom of Bacterial wilt of Hot pepper

Where: - A = Healthy plant that sprayed with Difenoconazole, B = Unsprayed plant that shows yellowing
of leaves and some discoloration of leaves, C = Sudden wilted plant without dropping of leaves.

3.1.1.2 Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum).

The initial symptoms of Fusarium wilt were characterized by leaf chlorosis, upward and in ward
rolling of the upper leaves, stunting, wilting and death of the plant. (Fig.4 B&C) The present
findings were in lined with the earlier report by Beckman, (1987). Similarly, MacHardy &
Beckman (1981) reported that the primary symptom of the pathogen is brown vascular
discoloration followed by upward and inward rolling of the upper leaves and subsequently
wilting of the plants was as secondary symptom.
 A C
B

Figure 4 Showing symptoms of Fusarium wilt of Hot pepper

Where: - A = Healthy plant without showing any symptom, B = A plant that shows leaf chlorosis and
dropping of lower (older) leaves. C = A plant ready to wilt.

3.1.1.3 Rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani)

The initial symptoms of Rhizoctonia root rot were characterized by post-emergence damping off,
wire stem, root rot and tap root with necrotic spot. It causes rotting of roots and stems of
seedlings. Leaves and fruits near the ground develop spots. At advanced stage, sunken water
soaked areas appear on fruits after which infected tissues collapse. White mycelial growth can be
seen on the damaged tissues which eventually turn brown (Fig. 5 B&C). This disease is prevalent
during wet and cool conditions. These findings were in lined with the earlier reported by Lopez
et al., (2009) who reported, R. solani can cause several types of damage at multiple growth
stages such as seed decay, pre- and post- emergence damping-off, wire stem, root rot, and
hypocotyl or tap root with necrotic spots.

A C
B

Figure 5 showing symptoms of Rhizoctonia root rot of Hot pepper

Where: - A = Healthy plant without showing any symptom, B = Leaf near the ground shows
some spots, C = Shows necrotic root.
3.2 Disease incidence (%)

The first symptoms of Hot pepper wilt complex diseases were observed at 55 days after
transplanting (DAT). The mean wilt complex disease incidence was recorded after 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
and th
5 sprays. For bacterial wilt disease the symptoms appear on upper leaves sudden wilting and
yellowing of the leaves, followed by undersized growth, latency, discoloration and eventually
death of the plants. The result presented in Table (4) revealed that all the treatments were
significantly influenced the bacterial wilt disease incidence on Hot pepper. The highest disease
incidence (43.71%) was recorded from untreated plot and the least disease incidence (14.75 %)
was recorded from the plot treated with Difenconazole 25% EC. Among all the tested treatments
the highest and least mean disease incidence (37.65 and 14.75%) was recorded from the plot that
treated with Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke water and Difenoconazole 25% EC
respectively. Among the botanical extracts tested, Rucinus communis leaf extract was recorded
significantly least mean disease incidence (24.79%) followed by Eucalyptus leaf extract
(25.94%), Datura leaf extract (26.17), and Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (35.70%). Thus,
plant extracts (botanicals) tested was also found equally effective as that of the fungicides and
smoke water solutions tested over control plots. Among the smoke water solutions, Olea
Europaea bark smoke water was recoded least mean disease incidence (24.04%) and
statistically, it had similar effect with Rucinus communis leaf extract (24.79%) on Pepper
bacterial wilt disease (Table 4).

The highest percent reduction in bacterial wilt incidence was obtained from the plot that treated
with Difenconazole 25% EC (66.25%) and the lowest result was obtained from the plot that
treated with Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke water (13.87%) respectively. Among plant
extracts and smoke-water, Justicia schimperiana leaf extract and Echinops kebericho Rhizome
smoke were found least effective which recorded minimum reduction of (18.31%) and (13.87%)
respectively in disease incidence (Table 4). Generally, these results revealed that all tested
fungicides and among plant extract Datura leaf extract, Eucalyptus leaf extract and Rucinus
communis were found effective in reducing the bacterial wilt incidence in Hot pepper cultivar
over control plots. The same was true; among smoke water solutions Olea Europaea bark smoke
water was also used effectively in reducing the bacterial wilt incidence in Hot pepper cultivar
over control plots. (Table 4; Fig. 6).

The symptoms of Fusarium wilt disease was characterized by leaf chlorosis, upward and in ward
rolling of the upper leaves, wilting of the plants, root rot, crown rot, stunting, wilting and death
of the plant. The mean Fusarium wilt disease incidence was ranged from 36.89 – 86.76%, against
unsprayed plot. The highest and least mean disease incidence (62.62 and 36.89%) was recorded
from the plot that treated with Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke and Difenoconazole 25% EC
respectively. From all botanicals extract tested, Rucinus communis leaf extract was recorded
significantly least mean disease incidence (45.27%) followed by Eucalyptus leaf extract
(47.52%), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (49.33%) and Datura leaf extract (54.11%). Thus,
plant extracts (botanicals) tested was also found equally effective as that of the fungicides and
smoke water solution tested over control plots. Among the smoke water solution, Ocimum
lamiifolium leaf smoke was recoded least mean disease incidence (50.26%) and statistically, it
had similar effect with Olea Europaea bark smoke (50.42%) on Pepper Fusarium wilt disease
(Table 4).
The highest percent reduction in Fusarium wilt incidence was obtained from the plot that treated
with Difenconazole 25% EC (57.48%) and the lowest result was obtained from the plot that
treated with Olea Europaea leaf smoke water (33.56%) respectively. Among plant extracts
Datura leaf extract was found least effective which recorded minimum reduction of (37.63%) in
disease incidence and among the smoke water solution Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke
water and Olea Europaea leaf smoke water was found least effective and recorded minimum
disease reduction (27.82%) and (33.56%) respectively. Generally, these results revealed that all
tested fungicides and among plant extract Rucinus communis leaf extract, Justicia schimperiana
leaf extract and Eucalyptus leaf extract were found intermediately effective in reducing the
Fusarium wilt incidence in Hot pepper cultivar over control plots. The same was true; among
smoke water solution Olea Europaea bark smoke and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke were also
intermediately effective in reducing the Fusarium wilt incidence in Hot pepper cultivar over
control plots. (Table 4 and fig. 7).

The Rhizoctonia root rot symptoms were characterized by post-emergence damping off, wire
stem, root rot and tap root with necrotic spot. The mean Rhizoctonia root rot incidence was
ranged from 32.61 – 83.64%, against unsprayed plot. From all the tested treatments the highest
and least mean disease incidence (83.64 and 32.61%) was recorded from untreated plot and the
plot that treated with Difenoconazole 25% EC respectively. From all tested fungicides
Difenoconazole 25% EC was recorded significantly least mean disease incidence (32.61 %) and
among the botanical extracts tested, Datura leaf extract was recorded significantly least mean
disease incidence (41.99%) followed by Rucinus communis leaf extract (49.04%), Eucalyptus
leaf extract (50.47%), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (55.98%) and Olea Europaea leaf
smoke (56.36%). Among smoke water solutions Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke water was
recoded least mean disease incidence (41.81%) followed by Olea Europaea bark smoke
(45.56%) on Pepper Rhizoctonia root rot disease incidence (Table 4). The highest percent
reduction in Rhizoctonia root rot incidence was obtained from the plot that treated with
Difenconazole 25% EC (61.01%) and the lowest result was obtained from the plot that treated
with Olea Europaea leaf smoke water (32.61%) respectively.

Generally, these results revealed that all tested fungicides and among plant extract Datura leaf
extract, Rucinus communis leaf extract and Eucalyptus leaf extract were found intermediately
effective in reducing the Rhizoctonia root rot incidence in Hot pepper cultivar over control plots.
The same was true, among smoke water solution Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke, Olea
Europaea bark smoke and Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke were also intermediately
effective in reducing the Rhizoctonia root rot incidence in Hot pepper cultivar over control plots.
(Table 4).

3.3 Disease Severity Index (PSI)

The Percent of disease severity was recorded five times at every two weeks at 55 days, 70 days,
85 days, 100 days and at 115 days and the percent disease reduction over control was calculated.
For bacterial wilt disease the highest mean disease severity (54.63%) was recorded from
untreated plot and the least mean disease severity (22.22%) was recorded from the plot that
treated with Difenoconazole 25% EC. Among plant extracts, Eucalyptus leaf extract (36.10%)
was statistically similar with Rucinus communis leaf extract (37.03%), which means they had
similar effect on bacterial disease of Pepper. In addition, among the smoke water solutions Olea
Europaea bark smoke and Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke were significantly least mean
disease severity (29.63%) and (32.99%) over control plots (Table 5). These results indicated that
both plant extracts and smoke water were found positive impact on bacterial wilt disease of
pepper caused by Ralstonia solanacearum. Over all, the present finding results indicated that
foliar and root zone application of fungicides, botanicals and smoke water at fifteen days interval
could be most effective to reduce the severity of bacterial wilt of Hot pepper as compared with
untreated plots.

The highest and lowest percent reduction in bacterial wilt severity was obtained from the plot
treated with Difenconazole 25% EC and Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (59.32 and 25.43%)
respectively. Among plant extracts Justicia schimperiana leaf extract and Rucinus communis leaf
extract were found least effective which recorded minimum reduction of (25.43%) and (32.21%)
respectively in disease severity. Among the smoke water solution Olea Europaea leaf smoke
water and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke were found least effective and recorded minimum
disease reduction (28.83%) and (30.52%) respectively.

Generally, these results revealed that all tested fungicides and among plant extract Datura leaf
extract and Eucalyptus leaf extract were found intermediately effective in reducing the bacterial
wilt severity in Hot pepper cultivar. The same was true; among smoke water solutions Olea
Europaea bark smoke water and Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke water were also
intermediately effective in reducing the bacterial wilt severity in Hot pepper cultivar. (Table 5
and Fig. 7).

For fusarium wilt the highest and lowest percentage of disease severity was recorded from
untreated plot and the plot treated with Difenoconazole 25% EC (61.48 and 27.41%)
respectively. From plant extracts tested, Eucalyptus leaf extract (42.22%) was identical with
Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (42.96%) which means they had similar effect on Fusarium
wilt disease of Pepper. In addition, among the smoke water solutions Olea Europaea bark smoke
and Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke were significantly least mean disease severity (34.81%)
and (37.03%) respectively (Table 5). These results indicated that both plant extracts and smoke
water were found positive impact on Fusarium wilt disease of pepper caused by Fusarium
oxysporum. As compared the control plots with all treatments the highest (61.48%) Percent of
severity index was recorded.

The highest percent reduction in Fusarium wilt severity was obtained from the plot treated with
Difenconazole 25% EC (55.42%) and followed in decreasing order of Funguran OH 50 WP
(49.40%), Propiconazole 25% EC(45.79%), Olea Europaea bark smoke (43.38%), Echinops
kebericho Rhizome smoke (39.77%), Datura leaf extract (38.56%) and Rucinus communis leaf
extract (36.15%) (Table 5). Among plant extracts Justicia schimperiana leaf extract and
Eucalyptus leaf extract were found least effective which recorded minimum reduction of
(30.12%) and (31.33%) respectively in disease severity. Among the smoke water solution
Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke and Olea Europaea leaf smoke were found least effective and
recorded minimum disease reduction (32.53%) and (33.74%) respectively.

Generally, these results revealed that all tested fungicides and among plant extract Datura leaf
extract and Rucinus communis leaf extract were found highly effective in reducing the Fusarium
wilt severity in Hot pepper cultivar over control plots. The same was true, among smoke water
solutions Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke and Olea Europaea bark smoke were also
intermediately effective in reducing the Fusarium wilt severity in Hot pepper cultivar over
control plots. (Table 5 and Fig. 7).

For Rhizoctonia root rot the highest disease severity (59.99%) was recorded from untreated plot
and the least disease severity (22.22%) was recorded from the plot treated with Difenoconazole
25% EC. From all plant extract tested Datura leaf extract was recorded significantly least mean
disease severity (31.12%) followed by Eucalyptus leaf extract (33.33%), Rucinus communis leaf
extract (34.07%), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (37.03%) respectively. Moreover Eucalyptus
leaf extract (33.33%) was statistically similar with Rucinus communis leaf extract (34.07%) that
means they had similar effect on Rhizoctonia root rot disease of Pepper. Among the smoke water
solutions Olea Europaea bark smoke was significantly least mean disease severity (28.15%)
over control plots (Table 5). These results indicated that both plant extracts and smoke water
were found positive impact on Rhizoctonia root rot disease of pepper caused by Rhizoctonia
solani. As compared the control plots with all treatments, the highest (59.99%) Percent of
severity index was recorded. Over all, the present finding results indicated that foliar and root
zone application of fungicides, botanicals and smoke water at fifteen days interval could be most
effective to reduce the severity of Rhizoctonia root rot disease of Hot pepper as compared with
untreated plots.

The highest and lowest percent reduction in Rhizoctonia root rot severity was obtained from the
plot treated with Difenconazole 25% EC and Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (62.96 and
38.28%) followed by Funguran OH 50 WP (56.79%), Propiconazole 25% EC(55.56%), Olea
Europaea bark smoke (53.09%), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (49.39%) and Datura leaf
extract (48.15%) (Table 5). Among plant extracts Justicia schimperiana leaf extract was found
least effective which recorded minimum reduction of (38.28%) in disease severity. Among the
smoke water solutions Olea Europaea leaf smoke and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke were
found least effective and recorded minimum disease reduction (40.73%) and (41.98%)
respectively.

Generally, these results revealed that all tested fungicides and among plant extract Datura leaf
extract, Eucalyptus leaf extract and Rucinus communis leaf extract were found intermediately
effective in reducing the Rhizoctonia root rot disease severity in Hot pepper cultivar over control
plots. The same was true, among smoke water solutions Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke and
Olea Europaea bark smoke were also intermediately effective in reducing the Rhizoctonia root
rot disease severity in Hot pepper cultivar over control plots. (Table 5 and Fig. 8). Commercial
fungicides are showed the best results which was in agreement with findings of Simon et al.,
(1990), who reported that spraying metalaxyl at the lower stem of Capsicum annum plants gave
effective control of wilt incidence caused by Phytophthora capsici.

All the above results on disease incidence and severity were revealed with the findings of
Different researchers at different time who reported that application of different plant extracts
has been found effective when using vegetative material of a leguminous plant, Cajanus Cajan in
greenhouse to reduce bacterial wilt incidences in tomatoes and potatoes (Cardoso et al., 2006). In
other way these results were in agreement with previous reports (Basim et al., 2006; Bowers and
Kagale et al., 2004) who found that the foliar or soil applications of leaf plant extracts effectively
reduced the incidence of fungal and bacterial diseases in host plants under field and green house
condition. Narwal et al., (2000) also stated that investigation on mechanisms of disease
suppression by plant products have suggested that the active principles present in them may
either act on the pathogen directly or induced systemic resistance in host plant resulting in
reduction of disease development ( Kagale et al., 2004; Paul and Sharma, 2002). Abd-EL-Khair
and Haggag, (2007) and Krebs et al., (2006) also mentioned that the water extracts of medicinal
plants reduced the disease severity of both early and late blight of potato plants. Singh and
Kumar, (2011) also reported that the soil treatments with botanicals viz., Mentha arvensis
significantly reduced the Fusarium wilt of Chrysanthemum with the maximum (70.0%) disease
control, followed by Tagetus patula (61.0%) and Datura stramonium (50.0%).

Table 4 Efficacy of fungicides, botanicals and smoke-water on wilt complex disease

Incidence of Hot pepper

Treatments Wilt complex pathogens

Ralstonia Fusarium Rhizoctonia

Mean DI MeanDI MeanDI MeanDI Mean MeanDI

(%) reduction (%) reduction DI (%) reduction (%)
(%) (%)

T1 (DSLE) 26.17def 40.12e 54.11bc 37.63cd 41.99bcd 49.80c

T2 (ECLE) 25.94def 40.66d 47.52cd 45.23bc 50.47bc 39.65ef
T3 (JSLE) 35.70abc 18.31efg 49.33bcd 43.15bc 55.98b 33.07f
T4 (RCLE) 24.79ef 43.27d 45.27cd 47.83b 49.04bcd 41.36e
T5 (EKRS) 37.65ab 13.87h 62.62b 27.82f 48.85bcd 41.60e
T6 (OEBS) 24.04ef 45.00d 50.42bcd 41.88cd 45.56bcd 45.53d
T7 (OELS) 33.75bcd 22.79efg 57.64bc 33.56e 56.36b 32.61h
T8 (OLLS) 28.63cde 34.50ef 50.26bcd 42.07c 41.81bcd 50.01c
 T9 (Dc) 14.75g 66.25a 36.89d 57.48a 32.61d 61.01a
T10 (Fun) 17.98fg 58.86b 44.92cd 48.22b 38.73cd 53.69b
T11 (Pc) 19.02fg 56.49c 56.89bc 34.43d 42.80bcd 48.83c
T12 (Control) 43.71a 0.00i 86.76a 0.00g 83.64a 0.00g

LSD (0.05) 4.26 3.23 4.68 3.85 1.65 2.85

C.V % 17.64 15.34 16.20 15.42 19.98 16.36

Where: - DSLE = Datura Stramonium leaf extract, ECLE = Eucalyptus citriodoria leaf extract, JSLE = Justicia
schimperiana leaf extract, RCLE = Rucinus communis leaf extract, EKRS = Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke
OEBS = Olea Europaea bark smoke OELS = Olea Europaea leaf smoke, OLLS = Ocimum lamiifolium leaf
smoke, DC = Difenconazole 25% EC, Fun = Funguran OH 50 WP, PC = Propiconazole 25% EC, DI = Disease
incidence, PSI = Percent Severity Iindex. CV= Coefficient of variation; LSD = Least significant difference. Means
in the column with the same letter (s) in superscript indicate no significant difference between treatments at 0.05
level of significance.

Table 5 Efficacy of fungicides, botanicals and smoke-water on wilt complex disease severity
of Hot pepper
Wilt complex pathogens

Ralstonia Fusarium Rhizoctonia

Treatments MeanPSI MeanPSI MeanPSI MeanPSI Mean MeanPSI

(%) reduction (%) (%) reduction (%) PSI (%) reduction (%)

T1 (DSLE) 33.33bcd 38.99de 37.77bcde 38.56c 31.12bcde 48.15d

T2 (ECLE) 36.10bc 33.91e 42.22bc 31.33e 33.33bcd 44.45e

T3 (JSLE) 40.73b 25.43h 42.96b 30.12e 37.03b 38.28f

T4 (RCLE) 37.03bc 32.21ef 39.26bcd 36.15c 34.07bcd 43.21e

T5 (EKRS) 32.99bcd 39.60d 37.03cde 39.77cd 30.37cde 49.39d

T6 (OEBS) 29.63cde 45.76c 34.81def 43.38cd 28.15def 53.09c

T7 (OELS) 38.88b 28.83g 40.74bc 33.74cd 35.56bc 40.73ef

T8 (OLLS) 37.96b 30.52ef 41.48bc 32.53cd 34.81bc 41.98ef

T9 (Dc) 22.22e 59.32a 27.41g 55.42a 22.22f 62.96a

T10 (Fun) 26.85de 50.85b 31.11fg 49.40b 25.92ef 56.79b

T11 (Pc) 27.78de 49.15c 33.33ef 45.79bc 26.66ef 55.56b

T12 (Control) 54.63a 0.00i 61.48a 0.00f 59.99a 0.00g

LSD (0.05) 3.74 3.15 5.67 4.28 5.96 3.24

C.V % 13.12 14.35 8.56 10.33 10.59 12.56

Where: - DSLE = Datura Stramonium leaf extract, ECLE = Eucalyptus citriodoria leaf extract, JSLE =
Justicia schimperiana leaf extract, RCLE = Rucinus communis leaf extract, EKRS = Echinops kebericho
Rhizome smoke OEBS = Olea Europaea bark smoke OELS = Olea Europaea leaf smoke, OLLS =
Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke, DC = Difenconazole 25% EC, Fun = Funguran OH 50 WP, PC =
Propiconazole 25% EC, DI = Disease incidence, PSI = Percent Severity Iindex. CV= Coefficient of
variation; LSD = Least significant difference. Means in the column with the same letter (s) in superscript
indicate no significant difference between treatments at 0.05 level of significance.

35

30 DSLE
Percent of Disease sever-

ECLE
25
JSLE
20 RCLE
15 EKRS
ity (%)

OEBS
10
OELS
5
OLLS
0 Dc
55 70 85 100 115
DAT DAT DAT DAT DAT Fun
Pc
Control
Increasing Time
Figure 6 Disease progress curve of Bacterial wilt disease of pepper under different
managements.
 30
DSL

Percent of Disease severity

E
25
ECL
E
20 JSLE
RCL
E
15
(%)
EKR
S
10 OEB
S
5
OEL
S
OLL
0 S
55 DAT 70 DAT 85 DAT 100 115
DAT DAT Dc
Increasing Time Fun

Figure 7 Disease progress curve of Fusarium wilt disease of pepper under different
management treatments.

35
Percent of Disease severity

30 DSLE
ECLE
25 JSLE
20 RCL
E
(%)

15 EKRS
OEBS
10 OELS
5
OLLS
Dc
0 Fun
55 DAT 70 DAT 85 DAT 100 DAT 115 DAT
Pc
Con-
Increasing Time trol

Figure 8 Disease progress curve of Rhizoctonia root rot disease of pepper under different
management treatments.
3.4 Area under Disease progress Curve (AUDPC)
The area under the disease progress curve is a very suitable summary of plant disease epidemics
that incorporates initial disease severity, the disease rate parameters and the duration of the
epidemics, which determines final disease severity. The present study revealed that statistically
significant (P< 0.05) differences had shown on the AUDPC at all treatments for those three Hot
pepper wilt diseases.

For bacterial wilt disease the highest AUDPC value of 3292.20%-days on the unsprayed plot and
the lowest AUDPC values of 1340.20% days were obtained from the plot treated with
Difenconazole 25% EC application (Fig. 9). However, among all the treatments tested, as
mentioned above control plot recorded significantly highest mean AUDPC (3292.20% in days).
Overall, it was observed that AUDPC gradually decreased with the application of
Difenoconazole 25% EC (1340.20% in days Funguran OH 50 WP (1610.70% in days),
Propiconazole 25% EC (1662.90% in days), Olea Europaea bark smoke (1981.30% in days),
Datura leaf extract (1994.80% in days), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (1995.90% in
days), Eucalyptus leaf extract (2180.50% in days), Rucinus communis leaf extract (2235.70% in
days), Olea Europaea leaf smoke (2270.00% in days), Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke
(2280.50% in days) and Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (2447.80% in days) (Fig. 14). From
this study, plots that treated with fungicides (Difenoconazole 25% EC and Funguran OH 50 WP)
were most effective to protect Ralstonia solanacearum and gave the lowest AUDPC (1370.20%
in days) and (1610.70% in days) respectively (Fig.9).

For Fusarium wilt disease the highest AUDPC value of 3697.50%-days on the unsprayed plot
and the lowest AUDPC values of 1653.80% days were obtained from the plot treated with
Difenconazole 25% EC application. It was observed that AUDPC gradually decreased with the
application of Difenoconazole 25% EC (1653.80% in days Funguran OH 50 WP (1728.30% in
days), Propiconazole 25% EC (2006.30% in days), Olea Europaea bark smoke (2101.50% in
days), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (2228.20% in days), Datura leaf extract (2272.90%
in days), Rucinus communis leaf extract (2363.10% in days), Olea Europaea leaf smoke
(2450.10% in days), Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (2496.20% in days), Eucalyptus leaf
extract (2545.00% in days), and Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (2580.60% in days) (Fig. 9).
Generally, these results indicated that all evaluated fungicides, botanicals and smoke water foliar
and root zone spray frequencies at 15-day interval had a significant reduction of Fusarium wilt
disease development on pepper crop as compared with their unsprayed check.

For Rhizoctonia root rot disease the highest AUDPC value of 3607.80%-days on the unsprayed
plot and the lowest AUDPC values of 1343.50% days were obtained from the plot treated with
Difenconazole 25% EC application (Fig. 9). However, among all the treatments tested, as
mentioned above control plot recorded significantly highest mean AUDPC (3607.80% in days).
Overall, it was observed that AUDPC gradually decreased with the application of
Difenoconazole 25% EC (1343.50% in days), Funguran OH 50 WP (1557.20% in days),
Propiconazole 25% EC (1603.70% in days), Olea Europaea bark smoke (1700.20% in days),
Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (1830.70% in days), Datura leaf extract (1875.10% in
days), Eucalyptus leaf extract (2007.40% in days), Rucinus communis leaf extract (2066.90% in
days), Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (2102.10% in days), Olea Europaea leaf smoke
(2141.10% in days), and Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (2235.20% in days) (Fig. 9).
Furthermore, Datura leaf extract was identical with Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke,
Eucalyptus leaf extract and Rucinus communis leaf extract, Olea Europaea leaf smoke and
Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke also identical with each other. From this study, plots that
treated with fungicides (Difenoconazole 25% EC and Funguran OH 50 WP) were most effective
to protect Rhizoctonia root rot and gave the lowest AUDPC (1343.50% in days) and (1557.20%
in days) respectively ( Fig. 9). Generally, these results indicated that all evaluated fungicides,
botanicals and smoke water foliar and root zone spray frequencies at 15-day interval had a
significant reduction of Rhizoctonia root rot disease development on pepper crop as compared
with their unsprayed check.
AREA UNDER DISEASE PROGRESS

RLS FOC Rhi

3697.5
3607.8
3292.2
2580.6

2496.2
2447.8

2450.1
2363.1
2545

2280.5
2235.7
2235.2

2228.2
CURVE

2180.5

2141.1

2102.1
2101.5
2066.9

2270
2007.4

2006.3
1995.9

1981.3
1875.1

1830.7

1728.3
2272.9

1700.2

1662.9
1653.8

1610.7

1603.7
1557.2
1994.8

1343.5
1340.2

Treatments

Figure 9 Histogram showing the Area under Disease Progress Curve of Ralstonia
solanacearum, Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizoctonia solani under field condition

3.5 Growth Parameters

The effect of fungicides, plant extracts (botanicals) and smoke-water solution shows significant
(P<0.05) difference on all growth parameters of hot pepper by reducing disease development.
Significantly enhanced plant height (68.54cm) was recorded in plants that treated by
Difenoconazole 25% EC which was followed by Funguran OH 50 WP (64.50 cm). Shortest plant
height (33.43cm) was recorded in control treatment, where distilled water was sprayed alone.
Overall, this results showed that fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solution had found
positive and significant impact on plant height for the effectiveness of against wilt complex
disease of Hot pepper i.e application of fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solution might
have enhanced plant height due to the encouraging ability of the fungicides, botanicals and
smoke water that reduce foliage defoliation, and the plant continues to grow.

Highest number of pepper leaves was found in plots that treated with Difenoconazole 25% EC
(91.39) as compared with untreated plot plants. Among the all treatments the lowest number of
leaves (46.50) was recorded from plot treated with distilled water only. Hence, untreated plot
was sstatistically significant difference with all the treated plots. Generally, the number of leaves
improved with the application of fungicide and plant extracts; Olea Europaea leaf smoke
(48.24), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (50.60), Rucinus communis leaf extract (52.04),
Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (55.07), Propiconazole 25% EC (60.30), Eucalyptus leaf extract
(61.97), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (68.71), Datura leaf extract (72.29), Olea Europaea
bark smoke(78.88), Funguran OH 50 WP (84.34) and Difenoconazole 25% EC (91.39) (Table
6).

The maximum leaf length was recorded from Difenoconazole 25% EC treated plot (11.03 cm)
and minimum leaf length of pepper (6.53 cm) was found in control treatment, where distilled
water was sprayed. Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke
were similar effect on leaf length and nearly similar with Eucalyptus leaf extract and
Propiconazole 25% EC those recorded (7.01cm, 7.01cm, 7.54cm and 7.68cm) respectively
(Table 6). Generally, this result showed that applied fungicides, botanicals and smoke water
solution were most effective over untreated plot on leaf length of pepper.

The highest leaf diameter was recorded from the plot treated with commercial fungicide
Difenoconazole 25% EC (1.38cm) and the lowest leaf diameter (0.44 cm) was recorded from
unsprayed plot. However, statistically significant difference was not observed among the
treatments treated with Datura leaf extract, Eucalyptus leaf extract, Olea Europaea bark smoke
and Funguran OH 50 WP. Besides, Justicia leaf extract, Rucinus leaf extract, Echinops
kebericho leaf smoke, Olea Europaea leaf smoke ,Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke and
Propiconazole 25% EC were similar effect on pepper leaf diameter. Overall, application of
fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solutions on pepper crop increased the leaf diameter.

The highest leaf area was found in plots that treated with Difenoconazole 25% EC (15.46cm2) as
compared with untreated plot plants (2.89cm2). Generally, It was observed that leaf area
gradually decreased with the application of Difenoconazole 25% EC (15.46 cm2), Funguran OH
50 WP (11.09 cm2), Datura leaf extract (10.95 cm2), Olea Europaea bark smoke(9.29),
Eucalyptus leaf extract (7.81), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (7.78 cm2), Rucinus communis
leaf extract (5.01 cm2), Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (4.61 cm2), Propiconazole 25% EC
(4.52 cm2), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (4.28 cm2) and Olea Europaea leaf smoke
(3.56 cm2) (Table 6).

From all treatments Difenoconazole 25% EC gave the highest number of primary branches (3.95)
while the control plot gave the lowest number of primary branches (2.95). However, statistically
significant difference was not observed among the treatments treated with Datura leaf extract,
Eucalyptus leaf extract, and Justicia leaf extract. In addition, Rucinus leaf extract and Olea
Europaea leaf smoke had similar effect with control on pepper primary branches. Therefore,
different treatment applications were positive impact and effective on the number of primary
branches.

The highest numbers of secondary branches were found in plots that treated with Difenoconazole
25% EC (8.08) as compared with untreated plot plants (Table 6). Among the all treatments the
lowest numbers of secondary branches (3.96) were recorded from plot treated with distilled
water only. It was observed that number of secondary branches were improved with the
application of Difenoconazole 25% EC (8.08), Funguran OH 50 WP (6.92), Olea Europaea
bark smoke(6.63), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (5.71), Datura leaf extract (5.58), Ocimum
lamiifolium leaf smoke (5.54), Propiconazole 25% EC (5.42), Eucalyptus leaf extract (5.25),
Rucinus communis leaf extract (4.96), Europaea leaf smoke (4.87) and Echinops kebericho
Rhizome smoke (4.73). Hence, the application of fungicides, botanicals and smoke water
solution was attributed to enhancing all vegetative growth of pepper.

In generally, application of plant extract led to significant promoting of the growth parameters of
pepper and all the above results were in line with the earlier findings that could be reported by
Hassanein, et al. (2010) who reported the effect of Neem (Azadirahcta indica) leaf extract
against Fusarium oxysporum, the causal agent of Hot pepper wilt disease, significantly increase
in growth parameters (shoot and root length, number of leaves, fresh and dry weight of shoots
and roots), when the plants were sprayed and irrigated with aqueous Neem extract with the
greatest improvement. It has been found stimulatory and inhibitory effect on shoot, root
elongation and dry matter of receptor plants that enables the plant to defend against wilt
pathogens. Similarly, Muthukumar et al., (2010) reported that the results obtained from screen
house application of A. pavonina, L. leucocephala and Eucalyptus spp., showed significant
control of Fusarium spp., and enhanced plant growth in term of shoot length, shoot weight, root
length and root weight. Telang (2010) screened root, stems, leaf and bark extracts of some
common and easily available plants for the Bio-control of the seed mycoflora of the Chilli and
The extracts of all the test plants were found to be inhibitory in more or less degree for the
incidence of seed mycoflora while with a few exceptions, they were found to be stimulatory for
seed germination.

However, the application of smoke water led to significant promoting of the seedling parameters
of pepper, i.e., plant height, number of leaves, Leaf length, Leaf diameter, Leaf area, Number of
primary branches and Number of secondary branches which recorded the highest results with the
level of 20%. All the above results about the promotive effect of smoke water were in agreement
with the results of (Chumpookam et al., 2012) who pointed out that the encouragement act of
smoke water might be achieved to promote seedlings uptake of some mineral nutrients or
regarding the active component of smoke extract which namely butenolide as mentioned by (van
Staden et al., 2004). Also, Merritt et al., (2006); Jamil et al., (2014) and Waheed et al., (2016)
deduced that this positive result returned to the gibberellins and/or cytokinin contained in smoke
water. On the other side, the increment in seedlings vegetative growth as results to smoke water
treatments may be due to its chemical component i.e., catechol and cyanohydrin (Wang et al.,
2017), Karrikinolide and cyanohydrin and potassium nitrate (KNO3) (Serter et al., 2018) beside
cellulose-derived smoke water as reported by Sunmonu et al., (2016) who deduced that smoke
water, promote seedlings growth by efficient mobilization of starch reserves from
cotyledons/endosperms to other seedling parts by enhancing hydrolytic enzyme activities
particularly amylase which reflected on seedlings growth. Moreover, Govindaraj, et al., (2016)
concluded that smoke water might be potentially used as a seedling growth and vigor stimulus
with lesser cost in various plant species.
Table 6. Effect of fungicides, botanicals and smoke-water on growth parameters of pepper
crops

Growth parameters

PH (cm) LN (no.) LL LD LA PB SB (no.)

(cm) (cm) (cm2) (no.)
Treatments

T1 (DSLE) 51.67cde 72.29cd 8.75abc 1.24ab 10.95b 2.61bc 5.58bcd

T2 (ECLE) 44.99defg 61.97def 7.54bc 1.04abc 7.81d 2.80bc 5.25bcd
T3 (JSLE) 48.79cdef 68.71cde 8.01bc 0.95bcd 7.78d 2.79bc 5.71bcd
T4 (RCLE) 39.50fgh 52.04fgh 6.98bc 0.73cde 5.01e 3.25abc 4.96cd
T5 (EKRS) 36.30gh 50.60gh 7.01bc 0.61de 4.28ef 2.53c 4.73cd
T6 (OEBS) 58.13bc 78.88bc 8.47abc 1.14ab 9.29c 3.92a 6.63abc
T7 (OELS) 35.96gh 48.24h 6.87c 0.56de 3.56fg 2.99abc 4.87cd
T8 (OLLS) 42.67efgh 55.07fgh 7.01bc 0.64cde 4.61ef 3.66ab 5.54bcd
T9 (Dc) 68.54a 91.39a 11.03a 1.38a 15.46a 3.95a 8.08a
T10 (Fun) 64.50ab 84.34ab 9.52ab 1.20ab 11.09b 3.98a 6.92ab
T11 (Pc) 54.15cd 60.30efg 7.68bc 0.67cde 4.52ef 3.62ab 5.42bcd
T12 (Control) 33.43h 46.50h 6.53bc 0.44e 2.89g 2.95abc 3.96d

LSD (0.05) 1.07 1.76 2.82 0.39 1.26 1.07 1.93

CV% 12.33 9.90 21.01 26.55 10.28 19.55 20.25

Where:- DSLE = Datura Stramonium leaf extract, ECLE = Eucalyptus citriodoria leaf extract, JSLE = Justicia schimperiana leaf extract,
RCLE = Rucinus communis leaf extract, EKRS = Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke OEBS = Olea Europaea bark smoke OELS = Olea
Europaea leaf smoke, OLLS = Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke, DC = Difenconazole 25% EC, Fun = Funguran OH 50 WP, PC =
Propiconazole 25% EC, PH = Plant height, LN = Leaf Number, LL = Leaf Length, LD = Leaf Diameter, LA = Leaf Area, PB = Primary
Branches, SB = Secondary Branches, LSD = Least significant difference CV = Coefficient of variation. Means in the column with the same letter
(s) in superscript indicate no significant difference between treatments at 0.05 level of significance.

3.6 Yield and Yield component parameters

The effect of fungicides, plant extracts (botanicals) and smoke-water solutions shows significant
(P<0.05) difference on all yield and yield component parameters of hot pepper cultivar.
Significantly enhanced Number of node per plant (29.75) was recorded in plants that treated with
Definoconazole 25% EC and Smallest Number of node per plant (12.43) was found in control
treatment, where distilled water was sprayed alone. It was observed that Number of nodes per
plant were improved with the application of Definoconazole 25% EC (29.75), Funguran OH 50
WP (26.77), Olea Europaea bark smoke(25.87), Datura leaf extract (23.57), Justicia
schimperiana leaf extract (23.24), Eucalyptus leaf extract (20.89), Propiconazole 25% EC
(19.87), Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (18.40), Olea Europaea leaf smoke (16.37), Rucinus
communis leaf extract (16.18) and Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (14.67) (Table 7).
Overall, this results showed that fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solutions had found
positive and significant impact on Number of node per plant for the effectiveness of against wilt
complex disease of Hot pepper over control plot.
The highest Number of pod per plant (83.18) was recorded in plot that Definoconazole 25% EC
was applied while Smallest Number of pod per plant (37.57) was found in control treatment,
where distilled water was sprayed alone (Table 7). The application of fungicides, plant extracts
and smoke water solutions were significantly effect Number of pod per plant over control.

The highest numbers of pod length were found in plots that treated with Definoconazole 25% EC
(13.13cm) as compared with untreated plot plants (6.49cm) (Table 7). It was observed that pod
length were gradually decreased with the application of Definoconazole 25% EC (13.32cm),
Funguran OH 50 WP (11.77cm), Olea Europaea bark smoke(11.35cm), Ocimum lamiifolium
leaf smoke (10.27cm), Datura leaf extract (9.74cm), Justicia schimperiana leaf extracts
(9.30cm), Propiconazole 25% EC (8.56cm), Eucalyptus leaf extract (8.00cm), Echinops
kebericho Rhizome smoke (7.50cm), Olea Europaea leaf smoke (7.19cm) and Rucinus
communis leaf extract (6.78). Generally this result indicated that the less number of pod length
were observed from control plot plants. Totally, these results showed that fungicides, botanicals
and smoke water solution had found positive and significant impact on pod length for
effectiveness against wilt complex disease of Hot pepper.

The result on pod diameter revealed that there were significant (P<0.05) difference of fungicides,
plant extracts (botanicals) and smoke-water solutions that ranged from 1.27 to 3.26cm.
Significantly enhanced Pod diameter (3.26cm) was recorded in plants that applied with
Definoconazole 25% EC and Smallest Number of Pod diameter (1.27cm) was found in control
treatment, where distilled water was sprayed alone. It was observed that Number of pod diameter
gradually increased with the application of Definoconazole 25% EC (3.26cm), Funguran OH 50
WP (2.88cm), Olea Europaea bark smoke(2.67), Datura leaf extract (2.40cm), Rucinus
communis leaf extract (1.60cm), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (2.14cm), Ocimum
lamiifolium leaf smoke (1.94cm), Eucalyptus leaf extract (1.72cm), Propiconazole 25% EC
(1.68cm), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (1.48cm) and Olea Europaea leaf smoke
(1.38cm) (Table 7). These result of present study indicated that the application of fungicides,
plant extracts and smoke water solution were significantly effect Pod diameter over control.

Maximum marketable pod yield of 23.47t/ha was obtained from the plot that treated with
Definoconazole 25% EC. This was followed by Funguran OH 50 WP (20.91t/ha) and Olea
Europaea bark smoke (19.55 t/ha) (Table 7). However, the minimum marketable pod yield of
10.25 t/ha was obtained from the control treatment. Generally, Marketable pod yield gradually
decreased with the application of Definoconazole 25% EC (23.47), Funguran OH 50 WP
(20.91), Olea Europaea bark smoke(19.55), Datura leaf extract (17.76), Eucalyptus leaf extract
(15.93), Propiconazole 25% EC (15.30), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (15.23), Rucinus
communis leaf extract (14.46), Olea Europaea leaf smoke (13.40), Justicia schimperiana leaf
extract (12.77) and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (11.82) (Table 7 and Fig. 10). These results
indicated that the application of fungicides, plant extracts and smoke water solution were
significantly effect Marketable pod yield over control.

The Mean of unmarketable pod yield of pepper ranged from 0.29 t/ha to 0.65 t/ha (Table 7).
Among the all treatments Definoconazole 25% EC was gave the lowest unmarketable pod yield
(0.29 t/ha) while the highest unmarketable pod yield of 0.65 t/ha was obtained from the control
treatments. Further, as this study there were no significant difference (P<0.05) effect among plots
treated with Datura leaf extract (0.47t/ha), Rucinus communis leaf extracts (0.44t/ha), Olea
Europaea leaf smoke (0.47t/ha) and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke (0.48t/ha). Similarly
Funguran OH 50 WP (0.35t/ha) and Olea Europaea bark smoke (0.36t/ha) had statistically
similar effect on unmarketable pod yield (Table 7 and Fig. 11).

From all treatments Definoconazole 25% EC gave significantly highest pod yield (23.77 t/ha)
followed by Funguran OH 50 WP which recorded pod yield (21.27 t/ha), Olea Europaea bark
smoke (19.91 t/ha) and Datura leaf extract (18.23 t/ha) respectively. Generally, the result of total
pod yield was gradually decreased with the application of Definoconazole 25% EC (23.77t/ha),
Funguran OH 50 WP (21.27t/ha), Olea Europaea bark smoke (19.91t/ha), Datura leaf extract
(18.23t/ha), Eucalyptus leaf extract (16.87t/ha), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (15.80t/ha),
Propiconazole 25% EC (15.73t/ha), Rucinus communis leaf extract (14.90t/ha), Olea Europaea
leaf smoke (13.87t/ha), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (13.30t/ha) and Ocimum lamiifolium
leaf smoke (12.30t/ha) (Table 7 ).

Yield losses were calculated comparative to the average yield from plots with the maximum
production against the disease (i.e plots with highest yield and lowest disease severity in each
treatment). However, the pod yield losses were reduced by all fungicides, botanicals and smoke
water solution treated plots as compared with the unsprayed plots (Table 7). The highest and
least yield loss was recorded from untreated plot and the plot that treated with fungicide
Definoconazole 25% EC (55.57 and 0.00%) and gradually increased with the application of
Funguran OH 50 WP (10.52%), Olea Europaea bark smoke (16.24%), Datura leaf extract
(23.31%), Eucalyptus leaf extract (29.03%), Echinops kebericho Rhizome smoke (33.53%),
Propiconazole 25% EC (33.82), Rucinus communis leaf extract (37.32%), Olea Europaea leaf
smoke (41.65%), Justicia schimperiana leaf extract (44.05%) and Ocimum lamiifolium leaf
smoke (48.25%) (Table 7). All these result indicates that application of fungicides, botanical and
smoke water solution were significantly reduced the wilt complex disease mean incidence and
severity and recorded significantly higher yield and yield component parameters over control.

The previous findings were consistent with that found by Abu Khouder et al., (2019) who
reported that the increase in fresh pod yield of snap bean and its components might be attributed
to the increase in its vegetative growth and dry matter accumulation. The vigor vegetative
growth caused by smoke water treatments induced more photosynthetic and mineral absorption
rates, which in turn produced high carbohydrates in plant tissues that gave rise to more cell
division and enlargement (El-Zeiny, 2002). This was reflected as producing more pod yield.
Nevertheless, the main active compound in SW i.e., butenolide act is similarly like gibberellins
and/or cytokinin, as mentioned before, which in turn causes simulation of several metabolic
processes that are considered very important for the activity of photosynthesis and the
accumulation of metabolites in reproductive organs (Jardin, 2015). Kulkarni et al., (2008 &
2010) revealed that smoke water and butenolide increased tomato fruits earlier, number and total
yield as well as for onion a significantly higher bulb diameter and bulb weight were obtained in
comparing with the untreated plant.

A B

Figure 10 showing marketable pod yield before and after harvested

Where: - A = marketable pod before harvested, B = marketable pod after harvested

A
B

Figure 11 Showing Unmarketable pod yield before and after harvested

Where: - A = Unmarketable pod before harvested, B = Unmarketable pod after harvested
Table 7. Effect of fungicides, botanicals and smoke water solution on Yield and Yield component parameters of pepper.

Treatments Yield and Yield component parameters

NN(no.) PN (no.) PL (cm) PD(cm2) MY t/ha UMY t/ha TY t ha-1 RYL (%)

T1 (DSLE) 23.57abc 71.68abcd 9.74de 2.40bc 17.76cd 0.47bcd 18.23cd 23.31

T2 (ECLE) 20.89bcde 63.67cde 8.00fgh 1.72def 15.93de 0.42cde 16.87de 29.03
T3 (JSLE) 23.24abcd 70.43bcd 9.30def 2.14cd 12.77gh 0.53abc 13.30gh 44.05
T4 (RCLE) 16.18def 48.97fgh 6.78hi 1.60ef 14.46efg 0.44bcd 14.90efg 37.32
T5 (EKRS) 14.67ef 44.36gh 7.50ghi 1.48ef 15.23ef 0.57ab 15.80ef 33.53
T6 (OEBS) 25.87ab 73.73abc 11.35bc 2.67b 19.55bc 0.36de 19.91bc 16.24
T7 (OELS) 16.37def 42.99gh 7.19ghi 1.38f 13.40fgh 0.47bcd 13.87fgh 41.65
T8 (OLLS) 18.40cdef 54.30efg 10.27cd 1.94cde 11.82hi 0.48bcd 12.30hi 48.25
T9 (Dc) 29.75a 83.18a 13.32a 3.26a 23.47a 0.29e 23.77a 0.00
T10 (Fun) 26.77ab 80.81ab 11.77b 2.88ab 20.91b 0.35de 21.27b 10.52
T11 (Pc) 19.87bcde 60.10def 8.56efg 1.68def 15.30ef 0.41cde 15.73ef 33.82
T12 (Control) 12.43f 37.57h 6.49i 1.27f 10.25i 0.31f 10.56i 55.57

LSD (0.05) 1.17 1.25 1.49 0.52 2.23 0.14 2.09 -

CV% 20.52 11.67 9.61 15.04 8.31 18.28 7.55 -

Where: - DSLE = Datura Stramonium leaf extract, ECLE = Eucalyptus citriodoria leaf extract, JSLE = Justicia schimperiana leaf extract, RCLE = Rucinus communis leaf extract, EKRS = Echinops
kebericho Rhizome smoke OEBS = Olea Europaea bark smoke OELS = Olea Europaea leaf smoke, OLLS = Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke, DC = Difenconazole 25% EC, Fun = Funguran OH 50 WP,
PC = Propiconazole 25% EC, NN = Node Number, PN = Pod Number, PL = Pod Length, PD = Pod Diameter, MY = Marketable Yield, UMY = Unmarketable Yield, TY = Yield Loss, RYL= Relative
LSD = Least significant difference, CV = Coefficient of variation. Means in the column with the same letter (s) in superscript indicate no significant difference between treatments at 0.05 level of
significance.
3.7 Cost and Benefit Analysis

Total cost production of any crop include both variable (operating) and fixed costs. Variable
operating costs vary across the treatments because of local material needs and costs. Major
variable costs for producing pepper for hectare include investment purchase for treatments, Hot
pepper seed, fungicides and managements (Labour) costs. Similarly, cost and benefit ratio was
computed for each treatment using the partial budget analysis method. The price of Hot pepper
pod at Guder from October to November was assessed and an average price was 40Birr/kg and
used to compute the total sale (Gross field benefit) and Net benefit of the total produce obtained.
The objectives of any producer is that the rate of return to be as high as possible. Thus, the
partial budget analysis was done for these experiments by ranking the treatments in order of
increasing total variable cost. The total variable cost has been calculated from the cost of
fungicides. Accordingly, the cost of the fungicides Difenconazole 25% EC l/ha, Funguran OH
50 WP kg/ha and Propiconazole 25% EC l/ha were 1720.00, 2100.00 and 1620 ETB respectively
(Table 8).
The result of the partial budget analysis revealed that economically most advantageous pod yield
with a net benefit of 80672 ETB and marginal rate of return 29312% was obtained from
application of Difenoconazole 25% EC fungicides (Table 8). According to the manual of
CIMMYT, (1988) for partial budget analysis, the application of fungicides with the marginal rate
of return above the minimum level (100%) is economical. Thus, Difenoconazole 25% EC was
found to be economically feasible than the rest of the fungicide treatments.

Table 8. Partial budget and dominance analysis for pepper pod yield under applications of
some fungicides.

Treatments Pod yield Adjusted Gross TVC Net benefit MRR

quit/ha Pod yield benefit (ETB/H) (ETB/ha) (%)
quit/ha (ETB/Ha)

Cont 102.5 92.25 36900 1150 35750 0

Pc 153 137.7 55080 3720 51360 607.393
Dc 234.7 211.23 84492 3820 80672 29312
Fun 209.1 188.19 75276 4200 71076 D

Where TVC =Total Variable Costs, ETB = Ethiopian birr, MRR= Marginal rate of return, D =
Dominance

3.8 Association of Yield, yield components and Disease Parameters

Correlations analysis between final disease Incidence, severity, AUDPC, growth parameter, yield
and yield components under fungicides, botanicals and smoke water treatments were showed
significant(p<0.05) association(Table 9). Accordingly growth parameters, yield and yields of
Pepper had significant (p<0.05) and strong positive correlated with each other’s. But,
unmarketable pod yield had significant and negatives relationship to all agronomic and yield
component parameters (Table 9). Similarly, disease parameters (Severity, Incidence and
AUDPC) of the three pathogens were significantly and negatively correlated with all agronomic
and yield component parameters except with unmarketable pod yield. That means Unmarketable
pod yield had positive correlation with all disease parameters. On other hands, Severity,
Incidence and AUDPC values were strongly and negatively correlated with plant height (PH),
Leaf number (LN), Leaf length (LL), Leaf diameter (LD), Leaf area (LA), Number of primary
branches (PB), Number of Secondary branches (SB), Number of nodes (NN), Number of Pods
(PN), Pod length (PL), Pod diameter (PD), Marketable yield (MY) and Total pod yield (TY).

Generally, all agronomic and yield and yield component parameters except unmarketable yield
had significant and positive relationship with pod yield and these results were in agreement with
those reported by Sharma et al., (2010) and Abraham et al., (2017) who advocated that
importance should be given to number of fruits per plant, fruit weight, number of primary
branches, fruit length, fruit diameter and plant height during selection process because these
characters contribute directly towards the yield.
Table 9. Correlations of plant growth, Yield, yield components and Disease Parameters
FocP RhPD RhPS FAUD RAUDP
PH LN PB SB LL LD LA NP PL PD TY MY UMY FocDI S I I RlsPDI RlsPSI P C RlsAUDPC
- -
PH 1* 0.36* 0.44 0.71* 0.61* 0.72* 0.79* 0.83* 0.77* 0.71* 0.77* 0.78* -0.74* -0.51* 0.57** -0.53** 0.56** -0.60** -0.58** -0.58** -0.56** -0.55**
-
LN 1* 0.34* 0.64* 0.69* 0.74* 0.89* 0.82* 0.77* 0.75* 0.76* 0.77* -0.55* -0.55* -0.61* -0.52** 0.57** -0.63** -0.60** -0.64** -0.58** -0.54**
-
PB 1* 0.60* 0.03* 0.29* 0.27* 0.31* 0.45* 0.29* 0.29* 0.29* -0.35* -0.25* -0.33* -0.29** 0.22** -0.36** -0.27** -0.32** -0.23** -0.22**
-
SB 1* 0.39* 0.66* 0.68* 0.60* 0.63* 0.59* 0.52* 0.51* -0.43* -0.45* -0.45* -0.43** 0.45** -0.45** -0.46** -0.44** -0.46** -0.40**
-
LL 1* 0.48* 0.68* 0.48* 0.59* 0.58* 0.59* 0.61* -0.52* -0.36* -0.45* -0.29** 0.42** -0.42** -0.44** -0.46** -0.42** -0.45**
-
LD 1* 0.85* 0.82* 0.64* 0.60* 0.67* 0.66* -0.50* -0.37* -0.43* -0.35** 0.44** -0.48** -0.43** -0.44** -0.44** -0.36**
-
LA 1* 0.86* 0.79* 0.79* 0.81* 0.80* -0.57* -0.54* -0.58* -0.52** 0.56** -0.58** -0.59** -0.58** -0.56** -0.55**
-
NP 1* 0.78* 0.69* 0.72* 0.70* -0.57* -0.52* -0.57* -0.52** 0.57** -0.58** -0.58** -0.58** -0.56** -0.53**
-
PL 1* 0.88* 0.74* 0.75* -0.57* -0.50* -0.60* -0.57** 0.55** -0.58** -0.56** -0.60** -0.55** -0.53**
-
PD 1* 0.79* 0.79* -0.47* -0.55* -0.55* -0.57** 0.50** -0.60** -0.52** -0.57** -0.50** -0.50**
-
TY 1* 0.99* -0.68* -0.57* -0.72* -0.65** 0.68** -0.69** -0.69** -0.74** -0.68** -0.67**
-
MY 1* -0.68* -0.57* -0.71* -0.64** 0.67** -0.69** -0.67** -0.73** -0.66** -0.65**
* * * ** ** ** ** ** **
UMY 1 0.60 0.64 0.53 0.65 0.65 0.59 0.64 0.65 0.57**
FocPDI 1* 0.65* 0.78** 0.67** 0.59** 0.55** 0.66** 0.67** 0.56**
* ** ** ** ** ** **
FocPSI 1 0.78 0.96 0.72 0.93 0.99 0.96 0.91**
** ** ** ** ** **
RhPDI 1 0.81 0.64 0.77 0.78 0.81 0.77**
RhPSI 1** 0.68** 0.95** 0.95** 0.99** 0.93**
** ** ** **
RlsPDI 1 0.67 0.74 0.68 0.63**
RlsPSI 1** 0.92** 0.95** 0.98**
** **
FAUDPC 1 0.95 0.90**
RAUDP 1** 0.93**
RlsAUD 1**

Where: PH = Plant height, LN = Leaf number, PB = Primary branch, SB = Secondary branch, LL = Leaf length, LD = Leaf diameter, LA = Leaf area, NN = Number of node, NP = number of Pod, PL = Pod length, PD
= Pod diameter, TY = Total yield, MY = Marketable yield, UMY = Unmarketable yield, FocPDI = Percent disease incidence of Fusarium oxysporum, FocPSI = Percent disease severity of Fusarium oxysporum, RhPDI
= Percent disease incidence of Rhizoctonia, RhPSI = Percent disease severity of Rhizoctonia, RlsPDI = Percent disease incidence of Ralstonia, RlsPSI = Percent disease severity of Ralstonia, FAUDPC = Area under
disease progress curve of Fusarium oxysporum, RAUDPC = Area under disease progress curve of Rhizoctonia, RlsAUDPC = Area under disease progress curve of Ralstonia. * means significants ** strong correlation
or highly significant.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Hot pepper is one of the important vegetable crops produced in Ethiopia, which serves as the source of
income particularly for small holders in many parts of the Country. Even though hot pepper yield losses
due to complex disease caused by fungal and bacterial pathogens are the major setback on quality and
quantity of hot pepper production. In Ethiopia among hot pepper diseases, caused by fungi Fusarium
spp., Phytophthora spp., Rhizoctonia solani and Cercospora capsici and bacterial diseases caused by
Ralstonia solanacearum are the most important one.
The pepper wilt complex resulted by bacterial wilt disease (BWD) caused by soil borne pathogen
Ralstonia solanacearum, fusarium wilt disease, caused by the soil-borne fungus, F. oxysporum f. sp.
capsici and Rhizoctonia root rot disease which caused by Rhizoctonia solani were the most important
disease on hot pepper that reduces growth, fruit yield and quality.Therefore, evaluations of the
management strategy for these disease complexes were under taken both under lab and field.
The field experiment results also revealed that the bacterial wilt disease significantly reduced by
application of Difenoconazole 25% EC to mean disease incidence (14.75%) and severity (22.22%) with
corresponding significantly increased pod yield (23.77 t/ha) followed by Funguran OH 50 WP and
Propiconazole 25% EC which recorded significantly mean disease incidence of 17.98 and 19.02% and severity,
26.85 and 27.78%, respectively and gave correspondingly increased pod yield, of 21.27 and 15.73 t/ha
respectively. Among botanicals tested, Rucinus leaf extract was found antifungal against Ralstonia
solanacearum and recorded significantly least disease incidence (24.79%) and severity (37.03%) and
increased the pod yield (18.23 t/ha) and also Olea Europaea bark smoke was recorded significantly least
disease incidence (24.04%) and severity (29.63%) and gave increased the pod yield (19.91t/ha). The
same was true for Fusarium wilt Difenoconazole 25% EC was found most effective and recorded
significantly least mean disease incidence (36.89%) and severity (27.41%) followed by Funguran OH
50 WP and Propiconazole 25% EC which recorded mean disease incidence of 44.92 and 56.89% and
severity, 31.11 and 33.33%, respectively. From botanicals tested, Rucinus leaf extract was found
antifungal against Fusarium oxysporum and recorded significantly least disease incidence (45.27%) and
severity (39.26%) followed by Eucalyptus leaf extract which recorded disease incidence and severity
47.52 and 42.22% respectively and amongst smoke water tested Ocimum lamiifolium leaf smoke was
recorded significantly least disease incidence (50.26%) and severity (41.48%) and followed by Olea
Europaea bark smoke which recorded disease incidence and severity 50.42 and 34.81% respectively.

Similarly , for Rhizoctonia root rot Difenoconazole 25% EC was also found most effective and
recorded significantly least mean disease incidence (32.61%) and severity (22.22%) followed by
Funguran OH 50 WP and Propiconazole 25% EC which recorded significantly mean disease incidence
of 38.73 and 42.80% and severity, 25.92 and 26.66%, respectively. Among botanicals tested, Datura
leaf extract was found antifungal activity against Rhizoctonia solani and recorded significantly mean
disease incidence (41.99%) and severity (31.12%) followed by Rucinus leaf extract which recorded
disease incidence and severity of 49.04 and 34.07% respectively. Among smoke water tested Ocimum
lamiifolium leaf smoke was recorded significantly mean disease incidence (41.81%) and severity
(34.81%) and followed by Olea Europaea bark smoke which recorded disease incidence and severity of
45.56 and 28.15% respectively. Among the all treatments the least AUDPC value recorded from
Difenoconazole 25% EC fungicide sprayed plots resulted in the highest yield (23.77t/ha) compared to
the mean yield (10.56t/ha) from the control in which the highest AUDPC value (3292.2, 3697.50 and
3607.80% in days) of Bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt and Rhizoctonia root rot disease was recorded
respectively. The highest yield loss of 55.57% could be recovered under unsprayed plot.

Generally, the present study is in a conclusion that the tested commercial fungicides control pepper wilt
complex disease in the field but it has negative effect on environment, human health, costly and difficult
to apply. Moreover the plant extract and smoke water solution tested also show promising results in the
disease reduction and avoid substantial yield loss while it is environmental sound, cheapest and easy to
apply.

Hence:-Based on the present findings the following points were recommended:

 Pepper growers should be encouraged to use pepper crop treatment option at priority with
aqueous plant extracts and smoke water solution because of its positive impact on environment
and low cost.

 Difenoconazole 25% EC and Funguran WP 50% were the best remedy to control the wilt
complex diseases of pepper.
 Depending on crop stage and occurrences of wilt complex diseases of pepper, further study is
needed on frequency and time of application for increasing of the efficiency of smoke water and
plant extracts.
 Further study on development of natural plants for the control of pepper wilt complex diseases
through soil drench, seed soaking, and seedling dipping should be studied to identified more
efficient application techniques.
 In addition, botanicals shelf life, frequency and the rate of application should be further
investigated.
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