Fledgling: A Novel

Fledgling, Octavia Butler's last novel, is the story of an apparently

young, amnesiac girl whose alarmingly un-human needs and abilities
lead her to a startling conclusion: she is in fact a genetically
modified, 53-year-old vampire. Force

Author: Octavia E. Butler

ISBN: 9781583228043
Category: Science Fiction
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Language: English
Publisher: Seven Stories Press
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.
 THE DAIRY.
The dairy should either be an isolated building or attached to the
farm-house. It must be built with a view to keeping it dry, airy, light,
cool, and above everything clean. Nothing absorbs the taint of bad
odours more quickly than milk. The best aspect for a dairy is the
north, and while the windows admit plenty of light (which develops
colour in the cream) they should be shaded with evergreens to
exclude sunshine and heat. The temperature should range between
60° and 65° F., never exceeding 65° nor descending below 55°. In a
temperature of 40° F., milk keeps fresh for a very long time, but the
cream becomes bitter before it can be skimmed. In a temperature of
70° to 72° F., the milk sours readily and yields less cream, which
latter will make a soft butter very prone to rancidity.
Where the dairy is isolated, provision must be made in the
building for washing the utensils. This will need much care to avoid
conflicting with the conditions just mentioned. The dairy site must
be well drained. The walls may be of brick, built double with an air
space between, on concrete footings 12 in. thick, with a damp-
course as described on p. 5. The best material for flooring is well-
laid Portland cement concrete; the floor should incline gently to one
corner, where an outlet can be fitted so that the floor can be
thoroughly flushed at intervals. All sharp corners, and edges, and
mouldings must be avoided, as they form nests for the collection of
dirt. The walls may be plastered throughout with material that will
make a smooth surface capable of being washed, or they may be
covered with glazed tiles. Shelves for holding the milk dishes should
be about 5 ft. from the floor and preferably of enamelled iron or thin
slate or stone slabs. Perforated shelves afford better circulation of
air. The shelves should in any case be quite independent of the walls
of the room.
 A typical dairy in Chester county, United States, is thus described
by Hazard. The main building, which is built on a hillside, is 50 ft.
long by 13 ft. wide. The room for the milk is 6 ft. below the surface
and 12 ft. from floor to ceiling. This allows ample room for
ventilation and light by side-windows. The troughs for holding the
water in which the milk is set are formed of brick and cement, with
their bottoms 1 ft. above the level of the floor of the building. They
are 28 in. wide, so as to take in two rows of ordinary milk-pans.
Across one end is a trough formed similar to the others, except that
it is so arranged as to receive and hold the water to a greater depth
than the side-troughs, so as to contain the cream-cans. In all there
is an ingenious arrangement for increasing or decreasing the depth
of the water so as to suit the temperature outside. The water is
drawn from a well by a “telegraph” pump, and the surplus is passed
off by a drain, secured against the upward passage of odours by a
“bell-trap.” During the winter no water is used, and a fire is lighted
to keep the temperature to the proper point. The utmost care is
taken in ventilation, even to a small ventilator under which to set the
lamp used when too dark for skimming without artificial light. At the
front and in each side of the main building is a wing 13 ft. square;
one of these contains the power-machine, the other the needful
arrangement for heating the water and washing pans. For working
the butter a large inclined table and lever are used, and the printing
is done by an ingenious machine for stamping and marking in
squares. This milk-house is made for a dairy of 50 cows; and it
would seem, therefore, the proper proportions are 13 ft. wide by 1
ft. in length for each cow.
A supply of ice is a valuable provision in hot weather, and in some
climates an ice-house may be considered as an essential adjunct to
the dairy.
Ventilation demands extreme care. “The position of the milk-room
with relation to the other rooms of the dairy, as the churning and the
cheese-room, and the scalding or washing-room, should be such
that air can be admitted on three sides of the room, so as to ensure
an equable supply of air all over the interior of the milk-room. The
means adopted for ensuring a supply of fresh air by the windows are
of very simple character, namely, making each window in halves, the
lower and upper halves being hinged to a bar stretching horizontally
across the centre of the window frame; the lower half being hinged
so that it opens inwards and upwards, the upper half inwards and
downwards. By adjusting the opening of the two halves, the fresh air
may be admitted in any required volume, and in any direction—
upwards towards the ceiling, and downwards towards the floor. For
removing the used air, there are many plans. One good suggestion is
that the ceiling be made up of narrow fillets so placed that spaces
are left throughout the whole surface of ceiling; through these
spaces the air passes, into the space between the inner ceiling and
the outer roof, in which are placed ventilators with valves, which
may be opened and closed as desired. If a ceiling be dispensed with
and an open roof adopted, the roof will require to be double, that is,
a hollow space between the inner and outer boarding; this will tend
to keep the temperature of the dairy more equable, than if the
boarding and slates are the only covering. The double roof is simply
made by lining the inner side of rafters with inch boarding tongued
and grooved. The inner surface of boarding will be all the better if
papered with a glazed white paper. The door of the milk-room
should be double.” (Darton.)
While efforts are required to keep the milk-room cool in summer,
there may be need of warming in winter. The best means of
warming is by hot-water pipes. In some dairies the milk pans stand
in a series of troughs on an inclined plane, and all inter-
communicating; in this way a current of warm water may be made
to surround the pans in winter, and of cold water in summer. Gauze
coverings should envelop the pans to exclude insects. Milk pans may
be made of glass, glazed earthenware, or tinned iron, 15 to 18 in.
across, and less than 6 in. deep.
Devonshire Cream.—The milk should be left in the pan till the
cream has sufficiently risen—about 12 hours in summer, and 24
hours in winter. The whole pan must then be placed over a close
range or on a stove, and left there till the milk becomes quite hot,
when the surface will look thick, and bubbles will appear. Then take
the pan back to the dairy, and skim the cream off on the following
day. The milk must not be allowed to boil, and it should be heated
slowly. The time that it takes to scald the cream will depend upon
the heat of the fire, the temperature of the milk, and other
circumstances; and it is only by practice that you will learn to know
when it is sufficiently done. In Devonshire, celebrated for its clotted
cream, the pans are of tin and shallow. They contain 10-12 qt. milk.
These, after standing 10-12 hours, are placed on an iron hot-plate,
or over a stove, until the cream has formed, which is indicated by
the air bubbles rising through the milk, and producing blisters on the
surface of the cream; it is then near boiling point, and the pan must
be removed at once to a cool place. After some hours the cream is
skimmed off with a slice. Milk which is carried from a distance, or
much agitated before being put into pans to settle for cream, never
throws up so much, nor such rich cream, as if used directly after
being milked. The last drawn milk of each milking is at all times
richer than the first, and for that reason should be set apart for
cream.
Devonshire Junket.—(a) If you cannot get milk from the cow
warm, take fresh milk, and put it in the oven, or on a hot stove, until
it becomes the same warmth as from the cow. Put a glass of brandy
and powdered sugar into it sufficient to sweeten it; add a piece of
rennet to the milk, or if you cannot get this use the essence of
rennet, which you can buy at the chemist’s. If you have used the
former, remove it in a few minutes, and leave the milk to set in solid
curd, which it will soon do; then lay over the top of it either very
good cream, quite smoothly, or Devonshire cream, or you may whip
the cream. The real Devonshire way is to remove cream from the
top of a dairy pan in one sheet, and lay it over. Ornament the top
with nutmeg.
(b) Rub 2 large lumps of sugar on a lemon, put them with 1 pint
milk and ½ pint cream in a saucepan, and make warm, but be
careful not to let it be hotter than you can hold your finger in. Have
ready in a china bowl a small teacupful of brandy, pour the milk and
cream into it; suspend a piece of rennet (which you must well wash
from all the salt) by a string, and place it in a cool place to set.
When turned enough, take it out, pour ½ pint cream on the top, add
some powdered cinnamon, and serve.
Swiss Cream.—This may be made in a mould in the following way,
and will be found extremely good. Soak 1 oz. gelatine in cold milk
for ½ hour. Steep the rind of 2 lemons in 1½ pint milk with sugar to
taste; put it over the fire, but do not let it boil. Bake up the yolks of
5 fresh eggs, and pour the flavoured milk (strained) upon them. Mix
well, and then stir over the fire until the custard thickens; add the
gelatine, and stir again over the fire without letting it boil until the
gelatine is dissolved, then pour it into a basin. Dip a mould in water,
ornament it with preserved cherries, when cool pour some of the
above cream into it, put a layer of macaroons, previously soaked in a
little white wine, another layer of custard, and so on until the mould
is quite full. Set it on ice, or in a cool place to set, and when wanted
turn it out carefully.
Butter.—The room where the cream is churned, and the butter
made, should be fitted with a table of marble or slate, and shelves
for holding the butter.
The yields of cream from milk, and butter from cream, are subject
to much variation. The richness of milk differs too at morning and
evening. But the average figures are approximately these:—12 qt. of
milk should give 1 qt. of cream, and 1 qt. of cream should afford 14
oz. of butter. Morning milk is richer than evening milk, and the last
portion drawn from the cow at each milking, is richer than the first.
Autumn milk is best for butter, summer milk for cheese.
Milk to be sold fresh as such should be cooled immediately it is
drawn from the cow, because while warm and exposed to the air,
the sugar present undergoes oxidation with consequent liberation of
lactic acid, which is indicated by the milk turning sour. When
promptly cooled, milk can be kept sweet and transported without
risk, besides which it gives up its cream more readily. The Americans
have introduced various coolers, all of which are more or less
effective.
As fast as brought in, the milk should be run through a hair sieve.
This, and also the vessels with which the milk comes in contact,
must be kept scrupulously clean by the aid of constant scalding, to
be followed by rinsing with cold water, and drying in the air. The milk
is exposed in the pans for varying periods in order that the globules
of fat may have an opportunity of separating from the milk and
floating on the surface. This process is now very commonly replaced
by the use of a hydro-extractor, in which centrifugal action breaks up
the milk into cream and “skim milk” without any need for waiting.
According to the older practice the milk is left to stand for a
considerable time, but no advantage is gained by exceeding 24
hours; in fact the best authorities say that it should be skimmed
before the surface begins to look wrinkled, as this appearance is a
symptom of incipient putrefaction. Large shallow perforated tin
ladles are used for removing the cream, which should be carefully
deposited, without splash, in white stoneware jars holding 2 to 12
gal., according to the size of the dairy. Common glazed earthenware
is to be avoided on account of injurious chemical action. Skimming
should be done twice daily, and each time an addition of cream is
made to the jar the whole contents should be well but gently stirred
with a stoneware spoon. The jars should be covered with gauze to
exclude insects. In some dairies skimming is avoided by the simple
plan of having a hole in the bottom of the milk dish by which the
milk is drawn off, leaving the cream undisturbed.
Butter consists of the fatty portion of the milk, which is separated
by the process known as “churning,” the object of which is to
rupture the envelopes which hold the fatty matter. The bulk of this
fatty matter resides in the cream. Butter may be “made” by churning
either the milk or only the cream; and these may be either in a
sweet or sour (“lappered”) state. The most general practice is to
churn the cream alone in a lappered condition. For this reason the
cream is set to ripen in stoneware jars for several days, averaging
about 3 days in summer, and 5 or 6 in winter, preferably with
occasional stirring. It is the general opinion that to get the best
butter, the operation of churning should be comparatively slow, from
¾ hour to 2 hours—an hour being a fair average, varying, however,
according to the season; the operation being much more tedious in
winter than in summer. After the butter is separated from the cream,
the buttermilk remains, containing the casein, salt, and sugar
present in the original cream, though a portion of these is taken up
with the butter. The greater the proportion of casein left in the
butter, the poorer is the latter in quality, and the more readily will it
become rancid.
Commenting on Jenkins’ pamphlet, ‘Hints on Butter-making,’ the
Field recently published the following remarks:—
“Cheese-making, owing to American importations, has recently
been so unprofitable that there is the more necessity for attention to
butter-making. Why should the dairies of France, Holland, Denmark,
and Sweden be able to supply an article in our markets which is
superior to the bulk of our own make? And why, above all, in the
matter of fresh butter, should Normandy be preferred by our large
purveyors to the home dairies, were it not that by superior
cleanliness and systematic management the quality is more
dependable? For instance, we have been told that the manager of
the Midland Hotel at Derby obtains all his butter from Normandy,
because he finds it more reliable and of better and more uniform
quality than English produce, notwithstanding that he lives in the
centre of a great dairy district, and that the foreign produce is liable
to deterioration by the journey. Here, then, the English farmer has
an opportunity which he is very wrong to neglect. Cheese does not
pay—at least, such varieties as are usually made; the demand for
milk is limited; but good sweet butter will always command a fair
and often a very high price. The reasons given by Jenkins for the
inferior butter are these: That the milk is not skimmed early enough
—often not before a certain amount of sourness has been developed
in the milk, and an appreciable amount of curd has therefore
become mixed with the cream. It is true that this curd increases the
quantity, but it affects the quality; the butter becomes rank, and
fetches a low price. Careless skimming, by taking off some of the
milk with the cream, causes the same results. Carelessness in
churning or in the manipulation of the butter, by which buttermilk
and water are left in the butter. It may be that this is sometimes
intentional, as more weight is obtained; but the quality is greatly
injured. Much handling of the butter in making up is also a source of
injury. Dirt in any form, bad smells, unskilful milking, bad food and
water given to the cows; bad water, soap, or other noxious
substances used in washing the dairy and vessels, are all causes of
bad butter which must be guarded against. Temperature being
allowed to vary, bad packing, &c., are all elements that require more
care than is usually bestowed. As regards the food, Jenkins points
out that in a wet season, grass alone cannot be depended on to give
a good result—it is too succulent in its nature, and should be
modified by the use of 4 lb. of bean meal given to each cow daily;
whilst under ordinary circumstances the ration may consist of 2 lb.
to 3 lb. of decorticated cotton cake, or 2½ lb. of bran and 2½ lb. of
oatmeal, or 3 lb. of oatmeal and 2 lb. of bean meal. And he states,
what all who have had experience will confirm, that by the use of
such food more cows can be profitably kept, and that a farmer
should look upon grass and hay as the most expensive articles of
food. Then Jenkins proceeds to describe the process of butter-
making adopted in the best districts of Normandy. We shall make no
apology for publishing these directions verbatim, as we shall thereby
assist the society in the dissemination of useful knowledge.
“1. Clean all dairy utensils by rinsing them with clean cold water,
and afterwards scrubbing them with boiling water; after which
repeat the cold rinsing.
“2. Cool the milk directly it is brought into the dairy by placing the
cans in a running stream, or by any other available method. This, we
may be permitted to observe, whilst most desirable, is often not
easily attainable. The Americans, in selecting the site for the dairy,
always prefer the base of a hill, so as to secure two very important
factors—shelter from the sun and a cold spring of water. If running
water cannot be obtained, that from a deep well may be used.
 “3. Set the milk at a temperature of not exceeding 55°F. in glazed
earthenware or tin pans. The question of whether these shall be
shallow or deep will depend upon our facilities for reducing the
temperature. If we have running water or ice, there is no doubt that
the deep cans thus surrounded offer a greater surface of milk to the
cooling influence, and this rapid and regular cooling causes the
cream to rise freely and quickly; but if we have not these facilities,
then shallow pans are preferable.
“4. Skim after 12 hours with a perforated tin saucer, and take care
that nothing but cream is removed; 12 hours after, skim a second
time; but this should not be mixed with the first skimmed cream at
all, if our object is to make the finest class of butter; but otherwise it
must be mixed with the first cream just before churning. Of course
by following this plan we do not obtain the maximum produce, but
we have the best quality. If the cream is too thick, a little pure water
may be added, but the addition of milk should be avoided.
“5. Keep the cream, until the time for changing, in the coldest
place available, in covered earthenware or tin vessels.
“6. Churn the cream at a temperature of 57° to 60° F., and obtain
this by gradually raising or lowering the temperature by placing the
vessel in a bath of warm or cold water. Use an ordinary revolving
barrel, or a midfeather churn, fitted with a spigot. The more simple
the churn, and the less mechanism, the more easily is it churned.
Thomas and Taylor’s Self-acting Eccentric Churn (Stockport,
Cheshire), which gained the first prize at Bristol, is recommended, to
be turned at from 50 to 60 revolutions per minute. Stop the churning
at once when the butter comes, however small the globules may be.
Remove the buttermilk by allowing it to run through a hair sieve, and
return any butter globules to the churn.
“7. Work the butter slowly with cold water by half filling the churn,
giving it 3 or 4 turns, and then withdrawing the water. Repeat the
working until the water comes out clear; this is of great importance.
Remove the butter by a pair of wooden patters, and press out the
water by passing it under a kneading board, or on a larger scale, by
using a revolving butter worker. The board and roller can be
obtained for 13s. 6d., of How, 13, Bishopsgate-street, E.C.; or of T.
Bradford and Co., 140, High Holborn. Avoid using the hand.
“8. Make up the butter as is most saleable, and pack it in small
packages, lined first with white paper, and then with new and clean
muslin previously well rinsed in boiling water and again cooled, &c.”
We often consider the French our inferiors in agricultural matters,
but they have built up a position upon butter and cheese which has
made two or three departments absolutely wealthy, and they still
pursue the system in a most business-like and thrifty manner. We
wish we could point to a single English county in which one-half is
done with butter that is done in Calvados; but while we are content
to grow corn at a loss, and buy our dairy produce at considerably
more than we can get it for at home, we shall continue to contribute
to the wealth of Normandy and the difficulties which beset the land
question at home. Our producers must first break the back of the
middleman, and then there will be no such facts existing as the best
fresh butter a drug at 11d. a lb. in some of our country districts,
while it is 1s. 10d. in London.
Butter, Potting.—The best month of the year in which to pot butter
is May, or, at any rate, the business should be completed before the
hot weather comes on. If the butter is to be kept for several months,
it will be necessary to put a good deal of salt with it; 1 oz. salt to 1
lb. butter will not be found too much. To ensure the proper
incorporation of the salt, it is best to add it by small quantities at a
time, kneading and re-kneading the butter till the whole is
thoroughly mixed. It must then be pressed firmly into wooden tubs,
or “kits,” as they are technically called; or stone jars may be used if
preferred. It is hardly necessary to add that great care must be
taken to have every vessel employed in the preparation as clean and
sweet as possible. Another very simple way to preserve butter is to
have a good-sized earthenware jar or pan filled with some strong
brine, and place it at hand in the dairy. Into the brine put from time
to time, as it can be spared, ½ lb. of fresh butter, each piece being
folded up separately in thin muslin. The only care required is to be
certain that the butter is always thoroughly covered with brine: it will
sometimes be necessary to put a weight on the butter, as it has a
tendency to rise to the surface when the brine is strong. The butter
will keep in this manner for weeks, or even months, and, besides the
advantage gained by this plan of being able to take out just as much
as is required for use at a time; there is the additional benefit of
having preserved fresh butter, as it does not absorb the salt.
Butter, Rancid.—(a) Rancid butter may be recovered and
sweetened by washing and kneading it well, first in new milk, and
afterwards in cold spring water, butyric acid, on which the rancidity
depends, being freely soluble in new milk.
(b) Let the butter be melted and skimmed as for clarifying; then
put into it a piece of bread, well toasted all over. In a minute or two
the butter will lose its offensive smell and taste.
(c) Beat the butter in a sufficient quantity of water, in which you
put 25-30 drops lime chloride to 2 lb. butter. After having mixed it till
all its parts are in contact with the water, it may be left in for 1-2
hours, afterwards withdrawn, and washed anew repeatedly in fresh
water.
Cheese.—When milk is curdled, it separates into two portions,
curd and whey. The former consists of the butter and casein, and
produces cheese; the latter is mainly water, with the sugar and
mineral constituents of the milk in solution. Milk for cheese-making,
which is more or less rich in cream, according to the kind of cheese,
is placed in vats at a temperature varying from about 70° to 85° F.,
with the due amounts of rennet and colouring matter, for 1-1½ hour
under cover. The rennet must be prepared from perfectly fresh
(untainted) calves’ veils soaked in soft water—the halves of 1½ veils
steeped in ½ gal. water will suffice for 250 lb. of cheese. The best
colour is liquid arnatto, ½ fl. oz. to 25 lb. cheese.
As soon as the curd has set, say 1-1½ hour, the curd is “cut” by a
special implement and broken up by the hand, a process demanding
much skill and care. This completed, the curd is subjected to
pressure, with the object of expressing the whey, which latter is
drained off. The pressure is increased and judiciously regulated as
the curd hardens, so as to remove all the whey without losing any
butter. Various appliances are in use for this purpose. When the curd
has been thoroughly freed from whey, it is broken up, salted in due
proportion, and again submitted to repeated and increasing
pressings. Finally it goes into the curing room to ripen.
Rennet.—Rennet is easily made at home, and costs less than half
what the same quantity is charged when bought ready-made. Home-
made rennet is also much stronger than the bought preparation and
is useful in making summer delicacies. Get a calf’s maw from a
butcher. They always keep them on hand, and charge about 1s.
each. Tie the skin tightly at one end, with a double loop of twine,
and leave it in a dairy or cool larder. When you want rennet, cut a
piece about 1 in. square, and soak it in a teacupful warm water all
night. Next day, take out the bit of maw, and to 1 pint cream or
milk, use 1 large tablespoonful of the liquid. As a rule, the
Gloucestershire cheese-makers do not manufacture their own rennet
but buy it ready prepared. The kind generally employed is Hansen’s
Patent Rennet Extract, which is used in the proportion of 1
teaspoonful extract to 6 gal. milk.
Cream Cheese.—Take ½ pint very richest cream and a cheese
cloth. Pour the cream into the cloth, and lay it upon one of your
dairy pans for an hour. Then take a perfectly clean knife and scrape
off any cream that may have stuck to the cloth, and lay it on the top
and sides of the cheese. Tie it up somewhat loosely, and hang it up
to drip; open it from time to time, and remove any cream that has
stuck to the cloth, and place it as before. When it stops dripping the
cheese is ready, and will turn out easily. The cheese should always
be used the same day it is made. In summer a few hours will suffice.
If you tell your dairywoman the day before, she will have thicker
cream for the cheese by keeping some of the milk that is set for
cream 12 hours or more beyond the usual time for ordinary
purposes before skimming it. The quantity of cream depends of
course on the number of your party; ½ pint is enough for 6-8
people. If the cream be rich and the cheese well made, it will be
soft, but without losing its round shape in the least. Though tied up
loosely at first, it should be gradually tightened, after being opened
from time to time as directed above.
New-milk Cheese.—Mix 4 gal. new milk with a breakfastcupful of
salt, and a small teacupful of prepared essence of rennet. The milk
should be used warm as it comes from the cow, or, if it has cooled,
all or a part of it should be heated again, so that the whole marks
about 95°F. The cheese is better if a pint or more of cream is added
to the milk, but it is not necessary. The curd and the cheese will be
hard if the milk is too hot. After about 2 hours the curd will have set.
It should then be slashed across in all directions, and some of the
whey ladled out with a cup. Next the curd should be drained in a
cloth laid over a colander, and then put into a wooden or tin cheese
mould in layers, with salt between. This should not be done until the
curd is fairly dry. The mould should be covered and turned every
day. Only a very light weight (if any) should be laid over. At the end
of 2 weeks the cheese should be put in a muslin bag, and hung up
in an airy, dry place, where the sun cannot reach it. Late in the year
try half or a third this quantity, as, though there is more waste in a
small cheese, it ripens quicker. May and June are the best
cheesemaking months. Cheese moulds are generally round or
cylinder shaped; but any strong box of wood, with gimlet holes at
top, bottom, and sides, and a lid that fits inside and not over (so
that as the cheese shrinks it still presses on it), will do for a
makeshift.
Rush Cream Cheese.—To 1 pint thick, fresh cream, add ½ pint
new milk, warm from the cow, 1 teaspoonful pounded loaf sugar,
and 1 tablespoonful rennet. Let it remain near the fire till it turns to
curd. Take the curd up with an egg slice, and fill the rush shape,
made as directed, and covered with a piece of straining cloth inside.
Lay a ¼ lb. weight on a saucer over the curd the first day;
afterwards a ½ lb. weight. Change the cloth every day until the
cheese is firm and begins to look mellow. Then dispense with the
cloths, and return the cheese to the rush shape and leave it to ripen
there. It may be ripened more quickly by keeping it from first to last
in a tolerably warm room. Although cream cheeses are generally
considered to be only in season during the summer, there is no
reason why they cannot be as readily made at any time of the year,
and of late they have come to be considered an almost
indispensable delicacy at a fashionable dinner-table. A little extra
trouble is all that is needed to ensure success. The cream and milk
must be made rather more than new milk warmth, and if rennet is
used, the cream must be covered and put in a warm place until the
curd is come. During the whole process the temperature should
never be lower than 65°F.
Sage Cheese.—This is made by colouring the milk with juice
pressed from young red sage leaves and spinach. It should be added
with the rennet to the milk.
Much obscurity has hitherto hung around the natural processes
concerned in the development of flavour in cheese. Cheeses of
different districts and of different countries possess (apart from mere
richness due to the quantity of cream fat contained) each a piquancy
characteristic of itself, which the differences in the mode of
manufacture appear frequently much too slight to adequately
account for. In the cheese-making districts of the Continent,
however, this matter has been made the subject of scientific
investigations; and already results are forthcoming which throw
much light upon the subject. Among these, the researches of
Duclaux, at the dairy station at Fau, Cantal, France, deserve
particular attention, from the suggestiveness of the conclusions
adduced. This savant has succeeded in isolating and in studying the
life history of certain microscopic organisms (microbia), in which he
recognises the primary agent that is engaged in modifying the
constituents of cheese. These organisms are nourished by the casein
or curd of the cheese, which they break up into a number of
substances of simpler constitution, some of which, like the fatty
acids, are characterised by highly piquant qualities. There are
several ferments which produce these odorous principles in different
proportions, and thus give rise to the differently flavoured cheeses;
and the skill of the dairyman largely consists (though he does not
know it) in always employing the same ferments or ripening agents,
and in preventing other and less desirable organisms from gaining a
foothold. Fortunately, in course of time, the useful ferments establish
themselves in large quantities in the dairy; they impregnate the air
of the factory, and cling to the vessels and the clothing of the
operatives. From the moment the milk is drawn, it becomes exposed
to the influence of these germs, which, developing rapidly in the
warm milk, and becoming entangled in the curd when the rennet is
added, accompany it through the operations that follow. On the
Continent it appears common to curdle the milk at a much higher
temperature than we do. Duclaux speaks of the rennet being
frequently added just as the milk comes from the cow; and if it has
been allowed to cool, it is warmed up to the natural temperature,
95°-98° F.
In making fine cheeses but little rennet is used, and the
coagulation takes a long time. The curd is soft and full of whey,
which is drained off slowly and as completely as possible, in order to
get rid of the milk sugar. That which is left is chiefly converted into
lactic acid, which renders the new cheese slightly acid. Soon,
however, the casein ferments begin to develop over the surface of
the cheese, giving rise to carbonate of ammonia, which neutralises
the acid, and leaves the cheese in the end slightly alkaline. From the
living cells of the ferment are at the same time secreted a diastase
similar to the active principle which in malt, and in all germinating
seeds, converts the starch into sugar. This penetrates the curd little
by little, and renders it soluble, and thus a yellow translucent layer
creeps gradually inward to the centre, and replaces the white and
opaque casein. When isolated, this diastase attacked curd so
strongly as to reduce it in 3 or 4 days to the consistency and
appearance of Camembert cheese; but, as the flavouring organisms
were absent, the resulting product was insipid and tasteless. This
action resembles strongly the digestion to which the cheese is
afterwards more completely subjected in the body. Indeed, the
similarity in properties between this peculiar principle and the
ferment of the pancreas is very marked. Simultaneously with the
digestive diastase there is also secreted a diastase capable of
coagulating the casein; but the cheese maker does not wait for this
to be developed, but adds to the milk some rennet, which is a
solution containing this diastase in considerable quantity. Such, in
short, is the rationale of cheese curing—first, an organised ferment
decomposes the curd, and produces in small quantities highly
flavoured compounds, which, like a condiment, give relish to the
whole mass; and secondly, a diastase, or unorganised ferment
secreted by the organism, mellows the curd and renders it more
easily soluble.
The conditions most favourable for the exclusive development of
these organisms have been learnt by long practice; but should these
conditions at any time fail to be observed, some other ferment,
incapable of producing the particular kind of ripening wished for,
may intrude itself. The chamber is then said to be “sick,” and has
sometimes to be temporarily abandoned.
Special members of the yeast and mould families are also largely
concerned in the ripening of certain cheeses, and their action is very
similar to that mentioned above. Roquefort and Pontgibaud cheeses,
for example, are ripened by Penicillium glaucum, or, in other words,
bread mould. These cheeses are kept as near as possible to 32° F.,
not because so low a temperature is most favourable to the
development of the mould, but because other ferments, and
especially such as give rise to putrefaction (vibrios), are thereby
checked. From the low temperature and unsuitable soil the ripening
is apt to proceed so slowly that it is customary to expedite the
fermentation by a liberal inoculation of mouldy bread, and by
piercing holes to enable the plant to penetrate inwards.
In Gruyère cheese are found long cells constricted in the middle
like an elongated figure of 8. These cells multiply by splitting in two
at the constricted part, forming two individuals. A gelatinous layer
surrounds each cell when young, and also divides and envelopes the
new individuals. This, however, disappears with age, leaving the cell
naked. The action of this organism is to resolve any milk sugar that
may be present into alcohol, acetic acid, and carbonic acid, and as
this latter is a gas, it forms a number of small bubbles in the cheese.
Gruyère is a cooked cheese; for in order to hasten the elimination of
the whey, and enable the curd to be pressed in the mould as quickly
as possible, the curd is heated slowly, and with constant stirring, to
about 120° F. This requires considerable care, for if the heating be
too rapid, the grains formed are large, and in the press flatten out
and adhere to one another, and so clothe the cheese with an
impenetrable layer, through which the whey is unable to escape. On
the other hand, an undercooked curd is liable to retain an excess of
whey; and the evil of this is that too much gas is given off by the
fermentation of the sugar, and consequently, instead of bubbles,
long channels appear in the cheese, which depreciate the value of
the product. Again, as the ferment is killed at a temperature very
near 120° F. (varying a little with the acidity or alkalinity of the
curd), it is very possible to destroy it by overheating, and then the
cheese becomes dry, is difficult to mature, and is said to be “dead.”
Under any circumstances the ripening of Gruyère cheese is a very
slow process.
In Duclaux’s own district of Cantal, a soft, quickly maturing,
uncooked cheese is made, which has the disadvantage of slowly
depreciating after ripening, owing to the large quantity of moisture it
contains. The practice is to curdle the milk rapidly, and then, while
the curd still retains a considerable amount of whey, to allow it to
ferment till all the milk sugar has disappeared. On pressing the
mass, there is squeezed out a certain amount of liquid and much
ferment; but the remainder, equivalent to half the weight of the
cheese, is retained, owing to a curious change in the properties of
the curd. So obstinately is this held, that, with additional pressure,
fat is forced out in preference to water. Duclaux finds, however, that
with cheese containing less fat—say, half skimmed and half raw milk
—more liquid can be extracted, and thus a better-keeping cheese
obtained. As the flavour and odour are derived almost entirely from
the alteration products of the casein, the main characteristics of the
Cantal cheese are not altered by this modification, and he
consequently recommends its adoption.
The most praiseworthy part of Duclaux’s investigations—that on
the life history of these organisms, and the isolation and
investigation of the diastases secreted by them—is of too scientific a
nature to be reproduced here. We may mention, however, that
Manelli and Mussi, in their researches on the maturing of Parmesan
cheese, have independently come to much the same conclusion as
those given above; so there is every reason to consider that we
possess now a correct explanation of the phenomena of cheese
ripening.
Apart from the interest attached to the explanation of an every-
day process, researches such as these are sure in the end to lead to
results of direct practical utility. Little by little we are getting to
understand that no process of fermentation or putrefaction can be
truly called “spontaneous.” They are as much the result of sowing as
a thistle that turns up in a field where it was not purposely planted;
and just as we can keep our agricultural crops in order by due
attention, so crops of ferments can be controlled, the valuable ones
being cultivated, and the pernicious weeds sterilised. Methods are
known to the vinegar maker by which he can rear, when he needs it,
unmixed crops of Mycoderma aceti to ferment his liquors; and the
high-class brewer already uses the microscope to ascertain the
healthiness of his yeast plant and its freedom from bacteria. May not
even cheesemaking, then, be raised from an empirical art into a
science, and each cheese factory of the future devote itself
knowingly to the cultivation of its own appropriate fungus, learning
its likes and its dislikes, and the enemies that have to be contended
with? Even the mould sowing of the Roquefort peasants might be
improved upon, and pure crops of ferment be raised to inoculate our
cheeses. Granted that even then our finest cheeses would not be
made better, yet the possibility of raising all cheese to the highest
standard of quality of which it is capable is surely sufficient to claim
for the scientific experimenter respect and encouragement.
 In France there are a variety of cheeses which vary in consistence,
constitution, flavour, and ability to keep, and these differences are
rather owing to the process of manufacture than to the nature of the
soil or the peculiarity of climate. The various denominations applied
to them, too, indicate differences in manipulation rather than any
change in their matter. Nevertheless, we are far from partaking of
the opinion of those who deny that both sun and soil have any
influence; for as with wine and cider, so with butter and cheese, the
pasture has a marked action upon aroma and quality. If we consider
the general manner or process of manufacture, we find that it
comprehends five distinct operations, which in France are called: 1st,
coagulation du lait, or the formation of the curd; 2nd, rompage, or
breaking up of the curd; 3rd, égouttage, or drainage, which is
accompanied in some cases by pressage or pressing; 4th, salaison,
or salting; and 5th, fermentation, or maturing of the cheese. It is in
the various methods, many of which differ very little from each
other, and in all of which these operations are in force, but carried
out under different conditions, that it is found possible to make 40 or
more varieties of cheese, which are divided into 4 categories; 1st,
fresh soft cheese; 2nd, salt ditto ditto; 3rd, firm or medium-pressed
ditto; 4th, cured cheese, more or less hard and pressed.
In the first category we have the Neufchâtel, the manufacture of
which is extensive and profitable in the district of Bray; the Brie, the
Pont l’Evêque, and the Camembert may be mentioned as examples
of the second; Roquefort and Dutch of the third; and Gruyère and
Parmesan of the fourth.
There are defects to which even the best cheeses are commonly
subject—defects, of the causes of which the professed cheese-
makers themselves do not always give consistent accounts. Every
good cheese should be of uniformly smooth surface, and perfectly
firm; of colour unvarying throughout the whole surface, save only
where the marks of age, necessary to certain kinds, appear. Softness
and soapiness of texture; cracks, attributed by some to the action of
lime on pasture, by others to the employment of too strong a
draught in the process of drying; and holes, caused by “heaving” or
“sweating,” are patent signs of imperfection which should warn the
most careless purchaser against the cheese in which any of them are
found. “Marbling,” the worst of all faults, is a mottled appearance of
the surface, somewhat resembling the veining of marble. It is due to
one or more of the following causes: not properly scalding the
cheese; adding the colouring (which should be put in before the
rennet) after the cheese has come; not properly squeezing out the
whey. Wherever this occurs, it imparts to the cheese an exceeding ill
flavour—in fact, makes it unfit to be eaten. It is especially dangerous
in cheeses of the North Wilts kind, where the surface is invisible to
the purchaser. Rankness of flavour, which can of course be guarded
against by those who buy their own cheese, is also to be met with in
the best kinds. This has been imputed to impurity of rennet; but, as
it is frequently found in the cheeses of Scotland, where it is
pretended that the greatest care is taken of the rennet, it may
possibly also result from bad quality of pasture. In the Scotch dairy
farms it is said to be obviated by pouring a very small quantity of
saltpetre into the pail before milking the cows.
Following are some remarks on the chief British cheeses, culled
from the Field.
Cheddar.—The manufacture of this, the king of cheeses, occupies
a large tract of country, its head-quarters being at and about
Pennard, a few miles from the cliffs of Cheddar in the Mendips. For
richness combined with delicacy of flavour, and, indeed, for every
good quality that may become a cheese, it is without a rival. None
can serve better its purpose at dinner. This cheese is made of
circular shape, of large surface, and considerable depth; its price
about 13d. per lb. at a good cheesemonger’s. It is mostly white, but
is occasionally coloured red, for which purpose Nicholl’s “colouring”
is used. It is said to make no perceptible difference in the flavour.
Cheddar, to be in perfection, must be kept for at least 2 years before
being eaten, when it will not show any outward signs of decay. It is
said, that the facility of exportation given by railways at present has
caused much of this cheese to be moved before it is properly ripe,
thereby producing a considerable general deterioration of its quality
in the markets. Yet by taking a little pains, and by selection of right
places of purchase, the best of it may still be obtained.
Cheshire.—This justly celebrated cheese, though for delicacy of
flavour inferior to Cheddar, was, and is still by many good judges,
held to be the best of English cheeses. In taste it is a good deal
stronger, not to say coarser, than Cheddar, but it is equally rich in
substance. Perhaps, owing to its strength, it may be considered as
better adapted for dinner than luncheon. It is of large size, and
circular in shape. Like Cheddar, it must be kept at least 2 years
before eating, and no cheese is more improved by age. It is for the
most part made in the county the name of which it bears, though, of
course, the general area of its distribution exceeds the limits of that
county, and very good specimens of it may be had at some distance
beyond the borders. Much of its excellence is, however, said to be
imparted by the peculiarity of the soil of Cheshire itself, and by the
salt springs with which that soil abounds. At least, wherever such
salt springs are most found, the cheese there produced has always
been deemed of superior quality. The price of the best quality in
London shops is mostly the same as that of Cheddar.
Cottenham.—Some say that it is a much superior cheese to Stilton.
In external appearance it closely resembles Stilton, and might easily
be mistaken for it. The interior, however, which is of a far richer and
creamier texture, is very different. The flavour is fuller, though
equally delicate; and although Cottenham, to be really good,
requires, like Stilton, to be kept until decay shows itself, yet it is in
itself not so insipid but that it may be eaten before that decay is very
fully developed. The veins with which it will then be marked are of a
brownish hue. It is about the same size as Stilton, or perhaps a little
larger, and its price ought to be about the same as the price of that
cheese.
Daventry.—A rare cheese of remarkably pleasant flavour, very
delicate of taste, and possibly rich of substance. It is of medium size,
flat and circular of shape, of whitish colour, and should be marked
when fit for eating with veins, somewhat after the manner of Stilton,
but of deeper green than is usual with that cheese.
Dorset (Double), or Blue Vinney.—This cheese is generally known
throughout a large tract of country, but is in fact a poor enough
cheese, and only adapted to make a tolerable luncheon off. It is
circular and flat, of white colour, mottled with a network of blue
veins; whence its name, though the etymology of the name has
disappeared in the popular spelling of it.
Dunlop.—This, the most famous—indeed, the only famous—Scotch
cheese, is made in the counties of Ayr, Renfrew, Lanark, and
Galloway, in various sizes from ¼ to ½ cwt. In texture and taste it
somewhat resembles double Gloucester, and, like it, is well adapted
for toasting.
Gloucester, Double and Single.—Double Gloucester is also a very
rich cheese, but with a certain poverty of flavour, by reason of which
it can hardly be recommended for use at dinner, although at
luncheon it may not be unacceptable. Its taste is peculiarly mild, and
this, combined with its waxy texture, which allows it to be cut into
thin slices without crumbling, admirably adapts it for toasting, for
which purpose it is, with hardly an exception, the best cheese we
possess. It is of circular shape, and generally weighs about 22 lb.
The single Gloucester is currently reported to be of the same
substance and richness as the double; but in fact, as a rule, is made
of far poorer materials, being composed of milk skimmed overnight,
or partially thereof; it is also of only about half the weight and
thickness. It is fit for nothing but toasting.
Leicester—commonly called in London shops Derbyshire—is chiefly
made in the county from which it takes it name; it is in shape flat
and circular, and very shallow, of moderate size, and coloured a
deepish red. It is a good second-rate cheese, and if any one shall
desire a serviceable article, whether for luncheon or dinner, very
equal in quality and agreeable of taste, let him try Leicester. The
price should be 9-10d. per lb.
 North Wilts.—This, which derives its name from the county of its
birth, is a rich and nice little cheese, of a very delicate and agreeable
flavour. From the extreme mildness of its taste, it is far fitter for the
luncheon than for the dining-table. In shape it is cylindrical, with a
smooth hard rind, and weighs about 10-12 lb. It is coloured red with
arnatto. The price in London is 10-11d. per lb.
Stilton.—At Stilton, in Huntingdonshire, where the coaches of the
great north road were wont to stop for luncheon, this cheese was
first introduced to the public. Its sole connection with Stilton is its
name, the cheese itself having been made in the neighbourhood of
Melton Mowbray. Since then it has extended itself over most of the
rich lowlands of Leicestershire and a portion of Nottinghamshire. In
shape it is cylindrical, the outside covered with a whitish rind, very
thick and rough. The flavour of a good Stilton is exquisite, though,
perhaps rather cloying as compared with the finer sorts of “plain”
cheese. It is unfit to be eaten—indeed, is of a nauseous insipidity—
until pretty well covered with blue veins. This will occur in about 2
years, and should be allowed to come on gradually and naturally, by
merely keeping the cheese moist enough not to check the decay.
Many artifices, however, are resorted to in order to hasten its
maturity, as by placing it in a damp but warm cellar; sinking it,
wrapped in brown paper, in a hotbed, &c. The practice of pouring
port wine into Stilton is condemned by some as at once wasting
good wine and spoiling good cheese. Stilton will be found most
acceptable both at luncheon and dinner. In size it averages 12 lb.,
and its price is from 1s. 6d. per lb. There is, however, no cheese so
unequal in quality, whether from accidents to which it is liable during
manufacture, or from whatever other cause, and the utmost care
must be taken in its purchase.
Subjoined is an account of the best known foreign cheeses, from
the same source.
Camembert.—This cheese, which is made in Brittany, is a kind of
cross between the “real” and “cream” cheese. It reminds one much
of the best privately made cream cheese of our own country, with a
rich and peculiar flavour superadded. It is of a soft and creamy
texture, of a yellowish white, flat and very shallow, with a dark
brown rind, very thick and soft. It may be confidently recommended
as a real delicacy, rather for the dinner than the luncheon-table. The
price of Camembert cheeses, which are o£ small size, is about 9-
10d. each.
Cream Cheeses.—In this production the palm must be yielded by
the English to the foreign market. Our own cheeses of the kind,
including the best of private manufacture, are made to be eaten at
once, and will not bear keeping, by which process the Continental
cheese, more skilfully put together, is much improved.
The principal foreign cream cheeses are Stracchino (Milan), which
is a long way the best; Brie (Meaux), Marolles, and Pont l’Evêque, all
very good of their kind, and Neufchatel, which last is, of all, the
most commonly met with on this side of the Channel. Neufchatel,
frequently called “Bondon,” from being made of the shape and size
of the bondon (Ang. “bung”) of a cask, is made at Neufchatel, in
Normandy. It is simply a white cream cheese, and when fresh,
extremely insipid—in fact, hardly equal to our own Yorkshire and
Bath cheeses. By keeping, however, until it becomes “ripe,” it
acquires a flavour by no means to be despised, though hardly on a
level with some of the cream cheeses already mentioned.
Crême de Brie has been alluded to as once the crême de la crême
of cheeses, and even now “running a good second” to Roquefort. La
Brie is situated near to Paris, in the Department of Seine et Marne,
with proximity, together with the difficulty of distant transport and
the fondness of the Parisians for the thing itself, causes the most
dainty to be almost entirely eaten in Paris. Imitations of it are many,
and, as a rule, as worthless as is the genuine article valuable, for of
all the French cheeses it is the most expensive by reason of its not
keeping sound beyond a few days, and the large quantities in which
it is partaken of at a meal. Brie is a soft, creamy cheese, made in
rounds of large size but of little thickness.
 Dutch (Holland and Belgium).—This cheese is perhaps better
known in kitchens than in the upper regions. It has, however, many
good points, and is of by no means disagreeable flavour, though,
owing to the process of making, a little too salt for delicate taste. It
is also in general very safe, and very equal in quality. Being
extremely mild, it is hardly suited to the dinner table, but affords an
excellent luncheon. For domestic use it is eminently serviceable, and
will be found (which is a great merit) generally acceptable in the
kitchen. It is of a spherical oval shape, softish in texture, and
coloured red. Its cheapness is also a recommendation, as it costs
but 8d. or 9d. a lb. An imitation of this cheese is made in the district
of Calvados, Normandy.
Gorgonzola (North of Italy).—This is an excellent cheese, and one
that bears a close resemblance to Stilton. It has, however, so
strongly marked and distinct a character of its own, that it would be
injurious to institute a comparison between it and any other cheese.
In texture and marking it is not altogether unlike Stilton, but is of
deeper yellow, and the veins of a greener hue. It is equally good for
luncheon and dinner, having great delicacy combined with fulness of
flavour. Price about 1s. 5d. a lb.
Gruyère.—Gruyère is made in the Canton of Fribourg, and in the
Vosges, the Jura, and Ain. The best cheeses of this kind are selected
for exportation. Gruyère is a flat cheese of some 3 in. in depth, of a
pale yellow colour, and plain surface, marked sparsely with large
holes, which contain moisture. The rule laid down on the “plain”
cheeses of England as to uniformity of colour in the surface of
cheese holds good abroad as well as at home, but uniformity of
surface in foreign plain cheeses need not be so closely looked for. In
fact, the holes that abound in some of these cheeses constitute
neither blemish nor unsoundness. The odour of Gruyère is strongish,
but the taste mild and delicate. If anything, it is a little cloying. It is
a fair cheese, but cannot be called more than fair, for dinner; but will
serve very well for luncheon, though perhaps likely to pall on the
taste if eaten constantly at this meal. The wholesale price is 11d. a
lb.