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Power System Analysis

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Saadat Hadi.
t

Power system analysis / Hadi Saadat

p. cm.
lncludes bibliographical references and indexo
ISBN 0-07-012235 O
1. Electric power systems. 2. System analysis. l. Title.
TK1011. S23 1999
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 CONTENTS

PREFACE xv

1 THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW 1

L 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 ELECTRIC INDUSTRY STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2
1.3 MODERN POWER SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4
1.3.1 GENERATION....................... 4
1.3.2 TRANSMISSION AND SUBTRANSMISSION . . . .. 6
1.3.3 DISTRffiUTION...................... 6
1.3.4 LOADS........................... 8
1.4 SYSTEM PROTECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
1.5 ENERGY CONTROL CENTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
1.6 COMPUTER ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

2 BASIC PRINCIPLES 14
2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2 POWER IN SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . .. 15
2.3 COMPLEX POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19
2.4 THE COMPLEX POWER BALANCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
2.5 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
2.6 COMPLEX POWER FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
2.7 BALANCED THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS. . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
2.8 Y-CONNECTED LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.9 a-CONNECTED LOAD S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34
2.10 a-y TRANSFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
2.11 PER-PHASE ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
2.12 BALANCEDTHREE-PHASEPOWER . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
vii
vüi CONTENTS

3 GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER MODELS;

THE PER"UNIT SYSTEM 48
3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.2 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 49
3.2.1 GENERATORMODEL.................. 49
3.3 STEADY-STATE CHARACTERISTICS-
CYLINDRICAL ROTOR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
3.3.1 POWER FACTOR CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56
3.3.2 POWER ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . .. 57
3.4 SALIENT-POLE SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS . . . . . .. 62
3.5 POWER TRANSFORMER. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
3.6 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER . . . . . . .. 64
3.7 DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT PARAMETERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68
3.8 TRANSFORMER PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
3.9 THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS . . . . . . , 74
3.9.1 THE PER-PHASE MODEL OF
A THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER. . . . . . . . . .. 76
3.10 AUTOTRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77
3.10.1 AUTOTRANSFORMERMODEL. . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
3.11 THREE-WINDINGTRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
3.11.1 THREE-WINDINGTRANSFORMERMODEL . . . .. 82
3.12 VOLTAGE CONTROL OF TRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . .. 83
3.12.1 TAPCHANGINGTRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . .. 83
3.12.2 REGULATING TRANSFORMERS OR BOOSTERS .. 86
3.13 THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
3.14 CHANGE OF BASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90

4 TRANSMISSION LlNE PARAMETERS 102

4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102
4.2 OVERHEAD TRANSMISSION UNES . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
4.3 LINE RESISTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105
4.4 INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE CONDUCTOR . . . . . . . . .. 106
4.4.1 INTERNAL INDUCTANCE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 107
4.4.2 INDUCTANCE DUE TO EXTERNAL FLUX LINKAGE 108
4.5 INDUCTANCE OF SINGLE-PHASE LINES . . . . . . . . . .. 109
4.6 FLUX LINKAGE IN TERMS OF
SELF- AND MUTUAL INDUCTANCES . . . . . . . . . ... .. 110
4.7 INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE
TRANSMISSION LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.7.1 SYMMETRICALSPACING................ 112
 CONTENTS ix

4.7.2 ASYMMETRICAL SPACING. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113

4.7.3 TRANSPOSE LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 114
4.8 INDUCTANCE OF COMPOSITE CONDUCTORS . . . . . . .. 115
4.8.1 GMROFBUNDLEDCONDUCTORS . . . . . . . . . 118
4.9 INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE
DOUBLE-CIRCUITLINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.10 LINE CAPACITANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.11 CAPACITANCEOF SINGLE-PHASELINES . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.12 POTENTIALDIFFERENCEIN A
MULTICONDUCTOR CONFIGURATION . . . . . . . . . . .. 123
4.13 CAPACITANCEOFTHREE-PHASELINES . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.14 EFFECTOFBUNDLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.15 CAPACITANCE OF THREE-PHASE
DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
4.16 EFFECT OF EARTH ON THE CAPACITANCE .. . . . . . .. 127
4.17 MAGNETIC FIELD INDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133
4.18 ELECTROSTATICINDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.19 CORONA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135

5 LINE MODEL AND PERFORMANCE 142

5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.2 SHORT LINE MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
5.3 MEDIUM LINE MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.4 LONG LINEMODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT WAVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156
5.6 SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159
5.7 COMPLEX POWER FLOW
THROUGH TRANSMISSION LINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
5.8 POWER TRANSMISSION CAPABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.9 LINE COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165
5.9.1 SHUNTREACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.9.2 SHUNT CAPACITOR COMPENSATION . . . . . . .. 168
5.9.3 SERIES CAPACITOR COMPENSATION . . . . . . . . 168
5.10 LINEPERFORMANCEPROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

6 POWER FLOW ANALYSIS 189

6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
6.2 BUS ADMITTANCEMATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.3 SOLUTION OF NONLINEAR
ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 195
6.3.1 GAUSS-SEIDELMETHOD................ 195
6.3.2 NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . , 200
4 L THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW

ties for power systems research and open up new opportunities to young power
engmeers.

1.3 MODERN POWER SYSTEM

The power system of today is a complex interconnected network as shown in Figure
1.1 (page 7). A power system can be subdivided into four major parts:

• Generation
• Transmission and Subtransmission
• Distribution
• Loads

1.3.1 GENERATION
Generators - One of the essential components of power systems is the three-
phase ac generator known as synchronous generator or alternator. Synchronous
generators have two synchronously rotating fields: One field is produced by the
rotor driven at synchronous speed and excited by dc current. The other field is pro-
duced in the stator windings by the three-phase armature currents. The de current
for the rotor windings is provided by excitation systems. In the older units, the ex-
citers are de generators mounted on the same shaft, providing excitation through
slip rings. Today's systems use ac generators with rotating rectifiers, known as
brushless excitation systems. The generator excitation system maintains generator
voltage and controls the reactive power fiow. Because they lack the commutator,
ac generators can generate high power at high voltage, typically 30 kV. In a power
plant, the size of generators can vary from 50 MW to 1500 MW.
The source of the mechanical power, eommonly known as the prime mover,
may be hydraulic turbines at waterfalls, steam turbines whose energy comes from
the burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally internal com-
bustion engines burning oil. The estimated installed generation capacity in 1998 for
the United States is presented in Table 1.1.
Stearn turbines operate al relatively high speeds of 3600 or 1800 rpm. The
generators to which they are coupled are eylindrical rotor, two-pole for 3600 rpm or
four-pole for 1800 rpm operation. Hydraulic turbines, particularly those operating
with a low pressure, operate at low speed. Their generators are usually a salient
type rotor with many poles. In a power station several generators are operated in
parallel in the power grid to provide the total power needed. They are connected at
a common point called a bus.
 1.3. MODERN POWER SYSTEM 5

Today the total installed electric generating capacity is about 760,000 MW.
Assuming the United States population to be 270 million,
. . 760 X 109
Installed capaclty per caplta = 270 x 106 = 2815 W

To realize the significance of this figure, consider the average power of a

person to be approximately 50 W. Therefore, the power of 2815 W is equivalent to
2815 W
50 W = 56 (power slave)

The annual kWh consumption in the United States is about 3, 550 x 109 kWh.
The asset of the investment for investor-owned companies is about 200 billion dol-
lars and they employ close to a half million people.
With today's emphasis on environmentaI consideration and conservation of
fossil fuels, many alternate sources are considered for employing the untapped
energy sources of the sun and the earth for generation of power. Sorne of these
alternate sources which are being used to sorne extent are solar power, geothermal
power, wind power, tidal power, and biomass. The aspiration for bulk generation
of power in the future is the nuclear fusiono If nuclear fusion is harnessed economi-
cally, it would provide clean energy from an abundant source of fuel, namely water.

Table 1.1 Installed Generation Capacity

Type Capacity, Percent Fuel

MW
Steam Plant 478,800 63 Coal, gas, petroleum
Nuclear 106,400 14 Uranium
Hydro and pumped storage 91,200 12 Water
Gas Turbine 60,800 8 Gas, petroleum
Combined cycle 15,200 2 Gas, petroleum
Internal Combustion 4,940 0.65 Gas, petroleum
Others 2,660 0.35 Geothennal, solar, wind
Total 760,000 100.00
Transformers - Another major component of a power system is the transfonner.
It transfers power with very high efficiency from one level of voltage to another
leve!. The power transferred to the secondary is almost the same as the primary,
except for losses in the transfonner, and the product VI on the secondary side is
approximately the same as the primary side. Therefore, using a step-up transfonner
of turns ratio a will reduce the secondary current by a ratio of l/a. This will re-
duce losses in the Une, which makes the transmission of power over long distances
possible.
6 l. THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW

The insulation requirements and other practical desígn problems limít the
generated voltage to low values, usually 30 kV. Thus, step-up transformers are
used for transmission of power. At the receiving end of the transmission lines step-
down transformers are used to reduce the voltage to suitable values for distribution
or utilízation. In a modem utilíty system, the power may undergo four or five trans-
formations between generator and ultimate user.

1.3.2 TRANSMISSION AND SUBTRANSMISSION

The purpose of an overhead transmission network is to transfer electric energy
from generating units at various locations to the distribution system which ulti-
mately supplies the load. Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities
which permits not only economic dispatch of power within regions during normal
conditions, but also the transfer of power between regions during emergencies.
Standard transmission voltages are established in the United States by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Transmission voltage lines operat-
ing at more than 60 kV are standardized at 69 kV, 115 kV, 138 kV, 161 kV, 230 kV,
345 kV, 500 kV, and 765 kV Hne-to-line. Transmission voltages aboye 230 kV are
usually referred to as extra-high voltage (EHV).
Figure 1.1 shows an elementary diagram of a transmission and distribution
system. High voltage transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are
called high-voltage substations, receiving substations, or primary substations. The
function of sorne substations is switching circuits in and out of service; they are
referred to as switching stations. At the primary substations, the voltage is stepped
down to a value more suitable for the next part of the joumey toward the load. Very
large industrial customers may be served from the transmission system.
The portion of the transmission system that connects the high-voltage substa-
tions through step-down transformers to the distribution substations are called the
subtransmission network. There is no c1ear delineation between transmission and
subtransmission voltage levels. Typically, the subtransmission voltage level ranges
from 69 to 138 kV. Sorne large industrial customers may be served from the sub-
transmission system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are usually installed in the
substations for maintaining the transmission line voltage.

1.3.3 DISTRIBUTION
The distribution system is that part which connects the distribution substations to
the consumers' service-entrance equipment. The primary distribution lines are usu-
ally in the range of 4 to 34.5 kV and supply the load in a well-defined geographical
area. Sorne small industrial customers are served directly by the primary feeders.
The secondary distribution network reduces the voltage for utilization by
commercial and residential consumers. Lines and cables not exceeding a few hun-
 1.3. MODERN POWER SYSTEM 7

Thermal Nuclear Hydro

Station Station
~ Station
Fossil
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
--
Switching
Station
~ Very
Large
Consumers
115 -765 kV I

HV
Substation
t- - HV
Substation
HV
Substation
I
S
u
~
I
~
I
Large
b

'" /
t Consumers
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
/ 69-138 kV
s ~ Network ~
i
o
n Distribution Substations Gas
I 4-34.5 kV Turbine
I I

Medium
Consumers Distribution
I I Transformers
~ ~ Residential
Consumers
~ ~ ¡ ¡ 240/120 V

FIGURE 1.1
Basic components of a power system.
8 1. THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW

dred feet in length then deliver power to the individual consumers. The secondary
distribution serves most of the customers at levels of 240/120 V, single-phase,
three-wire; 208Y/120 V, three-phase, four-wire; or 480Y/277 V, three-phase, four-
wire. The power for a typical home is derived from a transformer that reduces the
primary feeder voltage to 240/120 V using a three-wire lineo
Distribution systems are both overhead and underground. The growth of un-
derground distribution has been extremely rapid and as much as 70 percent of new
residential construction is served underground.

1.3.4 LOADS
Loads of power systems are divided into industrial, commercial, and residential.
Very large industrial loads may be served from the transmission system. Large
industrial loads are served directly from the subtransmission network, and small
industrial loads are served from the primary distribution network. The industrial
loads are composite loads, and induction motors form a high proportion of these
load. These composite loads are functions of voltage and frequency and form a
major part of the system load. Commercial and residential loads consist largely
of lighting, heating, and cooling. These loads are independent of frequency and
consume negligibly small reactive power.
The real power of loads are expressed in terms of kilowatts or megawatts.
The magnitude of load varies throughout the day, and power must be available to
consumers on demando
The daily-Ioad curve of a utility is a composite of demands made by various
c1asses of users. The greatest value of load during a 24-hr period is called the peak
or maximum demando Smaller peaking generators may be commissioned to meet
the peak load that occurs for only a few hours. In order to assess the usefulness
of the generating plant the load factor is defined. The load factor is the ratio of
average load over a designated period of time to the peak load occurring in that
periodo Load factors may be given for a day, a month, or ayear. The yearly, or
annual load factor is the most useful since ayear represents a full cyc1e of time.
The daily load factor is
Dail L.F. = average load (1.1)
y peak load
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of (1.1) by a time period of 24 hr, we
have
Daily L.F. = average load x 24 hr energy consumed during 24 hr
(1.2)
peak load x 24 hr peak load x 24 hr
The annualload factor is
_ total annual energy
Annua1 L ..
F - --------'-- (1.3)
peak load x 8760 hr
 1.3. MODERN POWER SYSTEM 9

Generally there is diversity in the peak load between different c1asses ofloads,
which improves the overall system load factor. In order for a power plant to operate
economically, it must have a high system load factor. Today's typical system load
factors are in the range of 55 to 70 percent.
There are a few other factors used by utilities. Utilization factor is the ratio of
maximum demand to the installed capacity, and plant factor is the ratio of annual
energy generation to the plant capacity x 8760 hr. These factors indicate how well
the system capacity is utilized and operated.
A MATLAB function barcycle(data) is developed which obtains a plot of the
load cyc1e for a given intervalo The demand interval and the load must be defined
by the variable data in a three-column matrix. The first two columns are the de-
mand interval and the third column is the load value. The demand interval may be
minutes, hours, or months, in ascending order. Hourly intervals must be expressed
in military time.

Example 1.1
The daily load on a power system varies as shown in Table 1.2. Use the barcycle
function to obtain a plot of the daily load curve. Using the given data compute the
average load and the daily load factor (Figure 1.2).

Table 1.2 Daily System Load

Interval, hr Load,MW
12 A.M. - 2 A.M. 6
2 - 6 5
6 9 10
9 - 12 15
12 P.M. - 2 P.M. 12
2 - 4 14
4 - 6 16
6 8 18
8 -10 16
10 - 11 12
11 - 12 A.M. 6
The followmg commands

data = [ O 2 6
2 6 5
6 9 10
9 12 15
12 14 12
10 1. THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW

14 16 14
16 18 16
18 20 18
20 22 16
22 23 12
23 24 6];
P = data(: ,3); % Column array of load
Dt = data(:, 2) - data(:,l); % Column array of demand interval
W ,,;, P'*Dt; %Total energy, area under the curve
Pavg = W/sum(Dt) %Average load
Peak = max (P) % Peak load
LF = Pavg/Peak*100 % Percent load factor
barcycle (data) % Plots the load cycle
xlabel('Time, hr'), ylabel('P, MW')

result in

18
16
14

P, 12
MW 10

8
6

40 5 10 15 20 25
Time, hr

FIGURE 1.2
Daily load cycle for Example 1.1.

Pavg = 11.5417
Peak = 18
LF 64.12
 1.4. SYSTEM PROTECfION 11

1.4 SYSTEM PROTECTION

In addition to generators, transfonners, and transmission lines, other devices are
required for the satisfactory operation and protection of a power system. Sorne of
the protective devices directly connected to the circuits are called switchgear. They
inelude instrument transfonners, circuit breakers, disconnect switches, fuses and
lightning arresters. These devices are necessary to deenergize either for nonnal
operation or on the occurrence of faults. The associated control equipment and
protective relays are placed on switchboard in control houses.

1.5 ENERGY CONTROL CENTER

For reliable and economical operation of the power system it is necessary to mon-
itor the entire system in a control center. The modero control center of today is
called the energy control center (ECC). Energy control centers are equipped with
on-line computers perfonning all signal processing through the remote acquisition
system. Computers work in a hierarchical structure to properly coordinate different
functional requirements in nonnal as well as emergency conditions. Every energy
control center contains a control console which consists of a visual display unit
(VD U), keyboard, and light peno Computers may give alarms as advance wam-
ings to the operators (dispatchers) when deviation from the nonnal state occurs.
The dispatcher makes judgments and decisions and executes them with the aid of
a computer. Simulation tools and software packages written in high-Ievellanguage
are implemented for efficient operation and reliable control of the system. This is
referred to as SCADA, an acronym for "supervisory control and data acquisition."

1.6 COMPUTER ANALYSIS

For a power system to be practical it must be safe, reliable, and economical. Thus
many analyses must be perfonned to desig'n and operate an electrical system. How-
ever, before going into system analysis we have to model all compoIíents of elec-
trical power systems. Therefore, in this text, after reviewing the concepts of power
and three-phase circuits, we will calculate the parameters of a multí-circuit trans-
mission line. Then, we will model the transmission line and look at the perfor-
mance of the transmission lineo Since transfonners and generators are a part of
the system, we will model these devices. Design of a power system, its operation
and expansion requires much analysis. This text presents methods of power system
analysis with the aid of a personal computer and the use of MATlAB. The MAT-
IAB environment pennits a nearly direct transition from mathematical expression
12 1. THE POWER SYSTEM: AN OVERVIEW

to simulation. Sorne of the basic analysis covered in this text are:

• Evaluation of transmission line parameters

• Transmission line performance and compensatíon

• Power ftow analysis

• Economic scheduling of generation
• Synchronous machine transient analysis

• Balanced fault
• Symmetrical components and unbalanced fault

• Stability studies
• Power system control

Many MATLAB functions are developed for the aboye studies thus allowing
the student to concentrate on analysis and design of practical systems and spend
less time on programming.

PROBLEMS
1.1. The demand estimation is the starting point for planning the future electric
power supply. The consistency of demand growth over the years has led
to numerous attempts to tit mathematical curves to this trend. One of the
simplest curves is
P Poea(t-to )

where a is the average per unit growth rate, P is the demand in year t, and
Po is the given demand at year too
Assume the peak power demand in the United States in 1984 is 480 GW with
an average growth rate of 3.4 percent. Usíng MATLAB, plot the predicated
peak demand in GW from 1984 to 1999. Estímate the peak power demand
for the year 1999.
1.2. In a certain country, the energy consumption is expected to double in 10
years. Assuming a simple exponential growth given by

P = Poe at
calculate the growth rate a.
 28 2. BASIC PRINCIPLES

3. For maintaining transient stability, the power system is usualIy operated with
smallload angle Ó. Also, from (2.19) the reactive power flow is determined
by the magnitude difference of terminal voltages, (Le., Q ex: !VII - 1V21).

Example2.S
Two voltage sources VI = 120L-5 V and V2 = 100LO V are connected by a short
line of impedance Z = 1 + j7 n as shown in Figure 2.9. Determine the real and
reactive power supplied or received by each source and the power los s in the lineo

112 = 120L-::~;OOLO° = 3.135L 110.02° A

100LO° - 120L 5°
121 = 3.135L69.98° A
1 + j7
1:
8 12 = V 1 2 376.2L105.02° -97.5 W + j363.3 var
8 21 = V2 121 = 313.5L -69.98° = 107.3 W - j294.5 var

Line loss is given by

8L 81 + 8 2 = 9.8 W + j68.8 var

From the aboye results, since P¡ is negative and P2 is positive, source 1 receives
97.5 W, and source 2 generates 107.3 W and the real power 10ss in the line is 9.8
W. The real power loss in the line can be checked by

PL Rlh212 = (1)(3.135)2 = 9.8 W

Also, since Ql is positive and Q2 is negative, source 1 delivers 363.3 var and source
• 2 receives 294.5 var, and the reactive power los s in the line is 68.6 varo The reactive
power 10ss in the line can be ~hecked by

2
QL = Xlh21 = (7)(3.135)2 = 68.8 var

Example2.6
This example concems the direction of power flow between two voltage sources.
Write a MATIAB prograrn for the system of Example 2.5 such that the phase an-
gle of source 1 is changed from its initial value by ±30° in steps of 5°. Voltage
magnitudes of the two sources and the voltage phase angle of source 2 is to be kept
constant. Compute the complex power for each source and the line loss. Tabulate
the real power and plot PI , P2, and PL versus voltage phase angle ó. The following
commands
94 3. GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER MODELS; THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM

The base impedance for the load is

(11)2
ZB4 = 100 = 1.21 n
Therefore, the load impedance in per-unit is

Z - 1.1495 + j1.53267 - 095 '1 2667 pu

L(pu) - 1.21 - . +J .
The per-unit equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.30.

1 jO.20 [Link] jO.15 4

jO.16 jO.54 jO.20

FIGURE 3.30
Per-unit impedance diagram for Example 3.7.

Example 3.8
The motor ofExample 3.7 operates at full-Ioad 0.8 power factor leading at a termi-
nal voltage of 10.45 kV.

(a) Determine the voltage at the generator bus bar (bus 1).
(b) Determine the generator and the motor internal emfs.

(a) The per-unit voltage at bus 4, taken as reference is

V4 = 10.45 = 0.95L00 pu
11
The motor apparent power at 0.8 power factor leading is given by

S = 66.5 L-36.87° pu
m 100
 3.14. CHANGE OF BASE 97

0.2 + j0.45 n 0.002 + jO.0045 n

+l¡ l'2
le 1m
150kVA
VI 1000 n n El 0.8 lag

FIGURE 3.31
Transfonner circuit for Problem 3.5

3.5. A 150-kVA, 2400/240-V single-phase transformer has the parameters as

shown in Figure 3.31.
(a) Determine the equivalent circuit referred to the high-voltage side.
(b) Find the primary voltage and voltage regulation when transformer is op-
erating at fullload 0.8 power factor lagging and 240 V.
(c) Find the primary voltage and voltage regulation when the transformer is
operating at full-Ioad 0.8 power factor leading.
(d) Verify your answers by running the trans program in MATlAB and ob-
tain the transformer efficiency curve.
3.6. A 60-kVA, 4800124OO-V single-phase transformer gave the following test
results:
1. Rated voltage is applied to the low voltage winding and the high volt-
age winding is open-circuited. Under this condition, the current into the low
voltage winding is 2.4 A and the power taken from the 2400 V source is
3456 W.
2. A reduced voltage of 1250 V is applied to the high voltage winding and
the low voltage winding is short-circuited. Under this condition, the current
ftowing into the high voltage winding is 12.5 A and the power taken from
the 1250 V source is 4375 W.
(a) Determine parameters of the equivalent circuit referred to the high volt-
age side.
(b) Determine voltage regulation and efficiency when transformer is operat-
ing at full-Ioad, 0.8 power factor lagging, and a terminal voltage of 2400 V.
(c) What is the load kVA for maximum efficiency and the maximum effi-
ciency at 0.8 power factor?
(d) Determine the efficiency when transformer is operating at 3/4 full-Ioad,
0.8 power factor lagging, and a terminal voltage of 2400 V.
98 3. GENERATOR ANO TRANSFORMER MODELS; THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM

(e) Verify your answers by running the trans program in MATlAR and obtain
the transformer efficiency curve.
3.7. A two-winding transformer rated at 9-kVA, 120/90-V, 60-HZ has a core loss
of 200 W and a fuIl-load copper loss of 500 W.
(a) The aboye transformer is to be connected as an auto transformer to supply
a load at 120 V from a 210-V source. What kVA load can be supplied without
exceeding the current rating of the windings? (por this part assume an ideal
transformer. )
(b) Find the efficiency with the kVA loading ofpart (a) and 0.8 power factor.

3.8. Three identical9-MVA, 7.2-kV/4.16-kV, single-phase transformers are con-

nected in wye on the high-voltage side and delta on the low voltage side. The
equivalent series impedance of each transformer referred to the high-voltage
side is 0.12 + jO.82 n per phase. The transformer supplies a balanced three-
phase load of 18 MVA, 0.8 power factor lagging at 4.16 kV. Determine the
Hne-to-Hne voltage at the high-voltage terminals of the transformer.

3.9. A 400-MVA, 240-kV/24-kV, three-phase Y-d transformer has an equivalent

series impedance of 1.2 + j6 n per phase referred to the high-voltage side.
The transformer is supplying a three-phase load of 4oo-MVA, 0.8 power
factor lagging at a terminal voltage of 24 kV (Hne to Hne) on its low-voltage
side. The primary is supplied from a feeder with an impedance of 0.6 +
j1.2 n per phase. Determine the tine-to-line voltage at the high-voltage ter-
minals of the transformer and the sending-end of the feeder.

3.10. In Problem 3.9, with transformer rated values as base quantities, express all
impedances in per-unit. Working with per-unit values, determine the Hne-to-
Hne voltage at the high-voltage terminal s of the transformer and the sending-
end of the feeder.
3.11. A three-phase, Y-connected, 75-MVA, 27-kV synchronous generator has a
synchronous reactance of 9.0 n per phase. Using rated MVA and voltage as
base values, determine the per-unit reactance. Then refer this per-unit value
to a lOO-MVA, 30-kV base.

3.12. A 40-MVA, 20-kV/400-kV, single-phase transformer has the following se-

ries impedances:
Z¡ = 0.9 + j1.8 n and Z2 = 128 + j288 n
Using the transformer rating as base, determine the per-unit impedance of the
transformer from the ohmic value referred to the low-voltage side. Compute
the per-unit impedance using the ohmic value referred to the high-voltage
side.
 3.14. CHANGE OF BASE 99

3.13. Draw an impedance diagram for the electric power system shown in Figure
3.32 showing all impedances in per unit on a lOO-MVA base. Choose 20-kV
as the voltage base for generator. The three-phase power and line-line ratings
are given below.
GI : 90MVA 20 kV X=9%
TI: 80MVA 20/200 kV X= 16%
T2 : 80MVA 200/20 kV X=20%
G2 : 90MVA 18kV X=9%
Line: 200 kV X = 120 n
Load: 200 kV S = 48 MW +j64 Mvar

n ~

@-3 t>--+-~-Load-L_ine-+---<13f---@
FIGURE 3.32
One-Iine diagram for Problem 3.13

3.14. The one-line diagram of a power system is shown in Figure 3.33.

TI T2

tI
1 2 3 4
Line 1
220 kV I 3
T4
T3
Line 2
110 kV

FIGURE 3.33
One-line diagram for Problem 3.14

The three-phase power and line-line ratings are given below.

100 3. GENERATOR AND TRANSFORMER MODELS; THE PER-UNIT SYSTEM

G: 80MVA 22 kV X = 24%
Tl: 50 MVA 22/220 kV X = 10%
T2: 40MVA 220/22kV X = 6.0%
T3 : 40 MVA 22/110 kV X 6.4%
Une 1: 220 kV X = 121 n
Une 2: 110 kV X = 42.35 n
M: 68.85 MVA 20 kV X = 22.5%
Load: 10 Mvar 4 kV D..-connected capacitors
The three-phase ratings of the three-phase transformer are
Primary: Y-connected 40MVA, 110 kV
Secondary: Y-connected 40 MVA, 22 kV
Tertiary: D..-connected 15 MVA, 4 kV
The per phase measured reactances at the terminal of a winding with the
second one short-circuited and the third open-circuited are
Zps = 9.6% 40 MVA, 110 kV/22 kV
Zpt = 7.2% 40 MVA, 110 kV/4 kV
Zst = 12% 40 MVA, 22kV/4 kV
Obtain the T-circuit equivalent impedances of the three-winding transformer
to the common 100-MVA base. Draw an impedance diagram showing alI
impedances in per-unit on a 100-MVA base. Choose 22 kV as the voltage
base for generator.
3.15. The three-phase power and line-line ratings of the electric power system
shown in Figure 3.34 are given beIow.

~~_~t_______L_ine______~1~32~

FIGURE 3.34
One-line diagram for Problem 3.15

Gl : 60MVA 20 kV X=9%
Tl : 50MVA 20/200 kV
X 10%
T2 : 50MVA 200/20 kV
X= 10%
M: 43.2MVA 18kV X=8%
Une: 200 kV Z = 120 + j200 n
(a) Draw an impedance diagram showing all impedances in per-unit on a
100-MVA base. Choose 20 kV as the voltage base for generator.
206 6. POWER FLOW ANALYSTS

x=input('Enter initial estimates, col. vector[xljx2]->');

Dx = [1; 1]; Yo Change in variable is set to a high value
C= [4; 1];
disp ( , Iter DC Jacobian matrix Dx x');
Yo Heading for results
while max(abs(Dx)) >= 0.0001 & iter <10 YoConvergence test
i ter=i ter+l j Yo Iteration counter
f = [x(1)-2+x(2)-2; exp(x(1))+x(2)]; Yo Functions
DC = C - f; Yo Residuals
J = [2*x(1) 2*x(2) Yo Jacobian matrix
exp(x(1)) 1] ;
Dx=J\DC; Yo Change in variables
x=x+Dx; Yo Successive solutions
fprintf('Yog', iter) , disp([DC, J, Dx, x]) Yo Results
end

When the program is run, the user is prompted to enter the initial estimate.
Let us try an initial estimate given by [0.5; -1].

Enter Ini tial estimates, col. vector [Xl; X2] -¡. [0.5; -1]
Iter !::J.C Jacobian matrix !::J.X x
1 2.7500 1. 0000 - 2 . 0000 0.8034 1.3034
0.3513 1.6487 1.0000 -0.9733 -1.9733
2 -1. 5928 2.6068 -3.9466 -0.2561 1.0473
-0.7085 3.6818 1.0000 0.2344 -1.7389
3 -0.1205 2.0946 -3.4778 -0.0422 1.0051
-0.1111 2.8499 1.0000 0.0092 -1. 7296
4 -0.0019 2.0102 -3.4593 -0.0009 1.0042
-0.0025 2.7321 1. 0000 0.0000 -1. 7296
5 -0.0000 2.0083 -3.4593 -0.0000 1.0042
-0.0000 2.7296 1.0000 -0.0000 -1. 7296
After five iterations, the solution converges to Xl = 1.0042 and X2 = -1.7296
accurate to four decimal places. Starting with an initial value of [-0.5; 1], whÍch
is closer to the other intersection, results in Xl = -1.8163 and X2 0.8374.

Example 6.6
Starting with the initial values, Xl = 1, X2 = 1, and xa = 1, solve the following
system of equations by the Newton-Raphson method.

222
Xl - X2 + X3 = 11
XIX2 + X~ - 3X3 = 3
Xl - xlx3 + x2 x a = 6
258 7. OPTIMALDISPATCH OFGENERATION

known as cost functions, may present economic costs, system security, or other
objectives. Efficient reactive power planning enhances economic operation as well
as system security. The OPF has been studied by many researchers and many al-
gorithms using different objective functions and methods have been presented [11,
12,22, 23,40,42,54, 78].
In this chapter, we will Hmit our analysis to the economic dispatch of real
power generation. The classical optimization of continuous functions is introduced.
The application of constraints to optimization problems is presented. Following
this, the incremental production cost of generation is introduced. The economic
dispatch of generation for minimization of the total operating cost with transmis-
sion losses neglected is obtained. Next, the transmission loss formula is derived
and the economic dispatch of generation based on the loss formula is obtained.
A program named bloss is developed for the evaluation of the transmission 10ss
B coefficients which can be used following any one of the power flow programs
Ifgauss, Ifnewton, or decouple discussed in Chapter 6. AIso, a general program
called dispatch is developed for the optimal scheduling of real power generation
and can be used in conjunction with the bloss programo

7.2 NONLlNEAR FUNCTION OPTIMIZATION

Unconstrained Parameter Optimization
Nonlinear function optimization is an important tool in computer-aided design and
is part of a broader c1ass of optimization called nonlinear programming. The un-
derlying theory and the computational methods are discussed in many books. The
basic goal is the minimization of sorne nonlinear objective cost function subject to
nonlinear equality and inequality constraints.
The mathematical tools that are used to solve unconstrained parameter opti-
mization problems come directly from multivariable calculus. The necessary con-
dition to minimize the cost function

(7.1)

is obtained by setting derivative of 1 with respect to the variables equal to zero,

i.e.,

i = 1, ... ,n (7.2)

or

'\11=0 (7.3)
412 10. SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS ANO UNBALANCED FAULT

LV side by 30°. For the negative-sequence voltage the corresponding phase shift
is -300 • The equivalent circuit for the zero-sequence impedance depends on the
winding connections and also upon whether or not the neutrals are grounded. Fig-
ure 10.6 shows sorne of the more common transfonner configurations and their
zero-sequence equivalent circuits. We recall that in a transfonner, when the core
reluctance is neglected, there is an exact mmf balance between the primary and
secondary. This means that current can ftow in the primary only if there is a cur-
rent in the secondary. Based on this observation we can check the validity of the
zero-sequence circuits by applying a set of zero-sequence voltage to the primary
and calculating the resulting currents.

(a) y-y connections with both neutrals grounded - We know that the zero se-
quence current equals the sum of phase currents. Since both neutrals are grounded,
there is a path for the zero sequence current to ftow in the primary and secondary,
and the transfonner exhibits the equivalent leakage impedance per phase as shown
in Figure 1O.6(a).

(b) y-y connection with the primary neutral grounded - The primary neutral
is grounded, but since the secondary neutral is isolated, the secondary phase current
must sum up to zero. This means that the zero-sequence current in the secondary
is zero. Consequently, the zero sequence current in the primary is zero, reftecting
infinite impedance or an open circuit as shown in Figure 10.6(b).

(c) Y-.6. with grounded neutral - In this configuration the primary currents
can ftow because there is zero-sequence circulating current in the .6.-connected
secondary and a ground retum path for the Y-connected primary. Note that no zero-
sequence current can leave the .6. tenninals, thus there is an isolation between the
primary and secondary sides as shown in Figure 1O.6(c).

(d) Y-.6. connection with isolated neutral- In this configuration, because the
neutral is isolated, zero sequence current cannot ftow and the equivalent circuit re-
ftects an infinite impedance or an open as shown in Figure 1O.6(d).

(e) .6.-.6. connection - In this configuration zero-sequence currents circulate

in the .6.-connected windings, but no currents can leave the .6. terminals, and the
equivalent circuit is as shown in Figure 10.6(e).

Notice that the neutral impedance plays an important part in the equivalent
circuit. When the neutral is grounded through an impedance Zn. because In = 310,
in the equivalent circuit the neutral impedance appears as 3Zn in the path of 10.
 10.3. SBQUENCE IMPBDANCES 415

Solving the aboye equations results in the tine currents

I abe = Zmesh -IVmesh

The following commands

7. (a) Solution by mesh analysis

Zs=j*12; Zm=j*4; Va = 100; VL=Va*sqrt(3);
z= [(Zs-Zm) -(Zs-Zm) O
O (Zs-Zm) -(Zs-Zm)
1 1 1];
v= [VL*cos (pi/6)+j*VL*sin(pi/6)
VL*cos(-pi/2)+j*VL*sin(-pi/2)
O ];
Y=inv(Z)
Iabc=Y*V; Y. Line currents (Rectangular form)
Iabcp=[abs(Iabc), angle(Iabc)*180/pi] Y. Line currents (Polar)

result in

Iabcp =
12.6 -90.0
12.6 160.0
12.6 30.0

(b) Using the symmetrical components method. we have

V012 = Z012Io12

where

V012=[~l
and from (10.32)

Z012 =
Zs +~2Zm O
Zs - Zm
O
O
1
[
O Zs - Zm

for the sequence components of currents. we gel

We write the following commands

/
I