1)Explain Schneiderman’s Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design

Ben Shneiderman, an American scientist and expert in human-computer interaction, developed a

set of eight golden rules that help designers create user-friendly interfaces. These principles are
still widely used today to evaluate and improve the usability of digital products.

1. Strive for Consistency

Whether it is the layout, the size of the button, the color code or the tone used when writing the
page, it is important to be consistent throughout the site. This consistency will allow you to
develop your identity and not lose users as they navigate your site.

🟢 Example: In a simple note-taking app, if the “Add Note” button is blue and placed at the
bottom right on the homepage, it should be the same in all other sections like folders or
archived notes.

2. Enable Frequent Users to Use Shortcuts

Allow your users to access all parts of the website with a minimum of clicks. To do this, you not
only need to establish a good hierarchy in the menu, but also make things clear. You should
think about incorporating features for advanced users and for beginners.

🟢 Example: In a text editor app, allowing users to press Ctrl + S to save, or Ctrl + Z to undo,
speeds up tasks for frequent users without needing to click menu buttons.

3. Offer Informative Feedback

If your users have performed or are performing actions on your website, it is best to display
feedback immediately so that they have an idea of where their processes are.

🟢 Example: In a food delivery app, after placing an order, showing a message like “Your order
has been placed! Estimated delivery in 30 minutes” gives the user assurance that their action
was successful.

4. Design Dialog to Yield Closure

Every user action should have a clear start and end. Let users know that their task is complete.

🟢 Example: In a simple survey form, after submitting, a message like “Thank you for your
response!” confirms the completion of the process.

5. Offer Simple Error Handling

Prevent errors where possible, but when they occur, guide the user clearly on how to fix them.

🟢 Example: On a login page, if a user enters a wrong password, show a message like “Incorrect
password. Please try again or click 'Forgot Password' to reset.”
6. Permit Easy Reversal of Actions

Allow users to undo actions easily so they feel safe exploring your app.

🟢 Example: In a photo gallery app, if a user deletes a photo, show an “Undo” option for a few
seconds, so they can recover it if the deletion was accidental.

7. Support Internal Locus of Control

We need to give control and freedom to the users, so that they can feel that they are in control
of the system themselves, giving them some form of free will helps to reassure the user.

🟢 Example: In a simple alarm clock app, letting users set their own alarm tone, snooze time,
and repeat settings gives them control over how the app behaves.

8. Reduce Short-Term Memory Load

The limitation of human information processing in short-term memory requires that displays be
kept simple, multiple page displays be consolidated, window-motion frequency be reduced.
Keep the design simple and clean.

🟢 Example: On a to-do list app homepage, showing only today’s tasks instead of all tasks from
all dates helps the user focus and reduces confusion.

2)List out and explain Norman’s Seven Principles for Transforming Difficult Tasks into Simple
One.

1. Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head

2. Simplify the structure of tasks

3. Make things visible

4. Get the mapping right

5. Exploit constraints (Physical, Cultural, Technological)

6. Design for error

7. When all else fails – standardize

Norman's Seven Principles of Design aim to make systems easy and intuitive for users , to help
designers turn complex tasks into simple interactions.

1. Use Both Knowledge in the World and Knowledge in the Head

Knowledge in the world: Information built into the environment (e.g., labels, signs,
instructions).Knowledge in the head: What the user already knows or remembers. Design tip:
Don’t rely only on memory—provide clear visual cues, icons, and guidance that reduce cognitive
load.

2. Simplify the Structure of Tasks

Break down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps.Provide feedback, automation, or
default options to reduce effort. Design tip: Streamline processes (e.g., autofill forms, guided
steps) to prevent overwhelming the user.

3. Make Things Visible

Clearly show how to use something and what actions are possible. Important information or
controls should be easily noticeable. Design tip: Use clear icons, labels, and interface cues (e.g.,
button highlights, progress bars).

4. Get the Mapping Right

Mapping refers to the relationship between controls and their effects. Good mapping means the
user's mental model aligns with the system model. Design tip: Arrange controls and displays
logically (e.g., stove knobs mapped to burner positions).

5. Exploit Constraints

Constraints guide users toward correct actions by limiting choices.Types: Physical (e.g., USB
fits only one way), Cultural (e.g., red = danger), Technological (e.g., greyed-out options). Design
tip: Use constraints to prevent error and simplify decision-making.

6. Design for Error

Assume users will make mistakes. Build systems that: Prevent errors,Offer undo
options,Provide helpful error messages. Design tip: Allow for recovery and guide users gently
when something goes wrong.

7. When All Else Fails – Standardize

If visibility, constraints, and mappings don’t work, use familiar standards.Users rely on
consistency (e.g., Ctrl + C for copy, hamburger menu for navigation). Design tip: Stick to widely
recognized conventions for icons, layouts, and interactions.

3) Describe Nielsens ten Heuristics. (Answer not available)

4) Define Heuristics evaluation and explain in detail.

Heuristic Evaluation is a usability inspection method in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

where a small group of usability experts evaluates a user interface based on established
usability principles, called heuristics. The goal is to identify usability issues in the design so they
can be addressed early in the development process.
Heuristics Used for Evaluation

The most commonly used heuristics are the 10 Usability Heuristics by Jakob Nielsen, which
serve as the foundation for most heuristic evaluations. These are:

1. Visibility of System Status: The system should always keep users informed about what is
going on through timely and appropriate feedback.

2. Match Between System and the Real World :The design should use familiar language,
concepts, and conventions that reflect real-world situations.

3. User Control and Freedom: Users should be able to easily undo and redo actions to recover
from mistakes.

4. Consistency and Standards: The interface should follow platform and industry conventions,
ensuring similar elements behave similarly.

5. Error Prevention: The design should prevent problems from occurring by eliminating error-
prone conditions or confirming risky actions.

6. Recognition Rather Than Recall: Minimize memory load by making options, objects, and
actions visible. The user shouldn't have to remember information from one part of the system to
another.

7. Flexibility and Efficiency of Use: The design should cater to both new and experienced users
by offering shortcuts and customizable features.

8. Aesthetic and Minimalist Design: Interfaces should not contain irrelevant or rarely needed
information. Every extra unit of information competes with the relevant information.

9. Help Users Recognize, Diagnose, and Recover from Errors: Error messages should be
expressed in plain language, clearly indicating the problem and suggesting a solution.

10. Help and Documentation: While it's best if a system can be used without documentation, it
may be necessary to provide help and support in an accessible way.

Steps to Conduct a Heuristic Evaluation

1. Select Heuristics for Evaluation- Usually Nielsen's 10 heuristics are used, but custom
heuristics may also be included depending on the context.

2. Choose Evaluators- Ideally, 3 to 5 usability experts are selected. Multiple evaluators provide
diverse perspectives and can uncover more usability issues.

3. Brief the Evaluators-Evaluators are informed about the system's background, the users' goals,
and the main tasks, so they can evaluate effectively.
4. First Evaluation Phase- Evaluators freely explore the interface to get a general sense of the
design and identify areas of interest.

5. Second Evaluation Phase- Evaluators go through the interface systematically using the
selected heuristics, inspecting each element and interaction.

6. Recording of Issues- Evaluators note down usability issues, linking each one to the violated
heuristic, and rate their severity (low, medium, high).

7. Reporting and Suggestions- After the evaluation, findings are compiled into a report along
with suggested improvements.

6)Define cognitive walkthrough. Explain cognitive walkthrough with an example:

A Cognitive Walkthrough (CW) is a usability evaluation method that focuses on assessing the
learnability of a system, especially from the perspective of a new or inexperienced user. Unlike
traditional usability testing, this method does not involve actual users but relies on experts to
simulate user behavior. Its goal is to identify potential usability issues in the early stages of
design before full development or user testing occurs.

Key Characteristics

 Task-Based: Reviewers walk through the interface by following specific user tasks.

 Expert-Driven: Conducted by a team of UX experts, product owners, developers, and

domain specialists.

 Structured Evaluation: Each step of a user task is analyzed using a predefined set of
questions.

 Workshop Setting: Typically done in a group setting where one person facilitates, and
another records the findings.

The 4 Key Analysis Questions

At each step of a task, reviewers answer the following questions to determine if a user would
succeed:

1. Will users try to achieve the right goal?

 Do users recognize that the action is necessary for completing their task?

2. Will users notice that the correct action is available?

 Is the interface element that performs the action visible and obvious?

3. Will users associate the correct action with the intended outcome?
  Do they understand the meaning of the labels/icons and know what to do?

4. After performing the action, will users know they’re making progress?

 Is the system feedback clear and confirms task progression?

 If the answer to any of these is “No,” that step is marked as a fail, and possible design
changes are discussed.

Example Scenario In a health-clinic tablet interface for patient check-in: Patients might fail to
identify themselve as “New” or “Returning” users due to confusing button labels or layout. The
group would suggest improving clarity, like asking upfront whether the user is new or existing.

Ideal Use Cases

Systems with novel, complex, or unfamiliar workflows.

Early-stage prototypes or conceptual designs.

Situations where user testing is too costly or impractical.

7) Explain contextual evaluation in brief

Contextual evaluation, often referred to as Contextual Inquiry, is a field-based, user-centered

research technique used to understand how users interact with a product in their natural
environment. This method focuses on observing and interviewing users in the context of real
tasks, to gather deep insights into their goals, behaviors, and challenges.

In Human-Computer Interaction (HCI), understanding the user in context is essential to design

interfaces that are intuitive and natural. Contextual inquiry goes beyond marketing data—it
captures the real practices, intentions, and work strategies of users that are crucial for effective
design.

The core premise is simple:

 Go where the user works,

 Observe the user in action,

 Ask questions about what they are doing and why,

 Create a conceptual model of their understanding,

 Test your hypotheses through discussion with the user.

This leads to an in-depth understanding of the user's work context, problems, and best practices,
helping designers align their solutions with user needs.
Nature of the Method

Qualitative (sometimes qualitative + quantitative)

Rooted in Ethnography, Psychology, Ergonomics, and Design

Yields tacit knowledge—insights users are often unaware of themselves

Generates data for creating user mental models

Advantages

Uncovers rich, detailed, and implicit information

Helps formulate accurate conceptual models

Supports Human-Centered Design (HCD) principles

Disadvantages

Not statistically significant

Requires highly skilled researchers in multidisciplinary domains

Steps and Techniques

Conducted in the user’s natural setting

Alternates between observation and discussion

Use open-ended questions (avoid leading the user)

Build a shared interpretation of the task with the user

Common Tools: Observation notes and diaries, Open-ended questionnaires, Focus group
interviews, Photo/video recordings , Storyboards, mind maps, affinity diagrams

Data Analysis and Models Used: Insights from contextual inquiry are analyzed using the
following models:

1. Flow Model – Shows interaction, coordination, communication among people

2. Sequence Model – Represents the linear steps in task execution.

3. Cultural Model – Captures social norms and cultural influences affecting the task

4. Artifact Model – Documents and physical items used or produced during tasks

5. Physical Model – Describes the spatial or environmental layout (e.g., office space, screen
layout)
8) What is keyboard level model. Compare it with GOMS.

The Keyboard-Level Model (KLM) is a sub-type of the GOMS family of models (specifically a
simplified version of GOMS), designed to predict how long an expert user will take to perform a
routine, error-free task on an interactive system using a keyboard, mouse, and other input
devices.

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5) With a block diagram explain model of interaction or 9) Explain Norman’s model of
interaction

Donald Norman’s Interaction Model, also known as the Seven Stages of Action Model or Gulf
Model, focuses on the user’s view of the interface. It explains how users interact with systems
and helps identify reasons for interface failures from the user’s point of view.

Seven Stages of Norman’s Interaction Mode

Norman’s model consists of two main phases – Execution and Evaluation, with a total of seven
stages:

Execution Phase (User to System):

1. Forming the Goal – What the user wants to achieve.

2. Forming the Intention – Deciding how to achieve the goal.

3. Specifying the Action – Choosing a specific action on the interface.

4. Executing the Action – Performing the action using the interface.

Evaluation Phase (System to User):

5. Perceiving the System State – Observing how the system responds.

6. Interpreting the System State – Understanding what the response means

7. Evaluating the Outcome – Comparing the result with the original goal.

Example: Task – Save My Sketch

  Goal: Save the sketch to folder HCIDesign234.

 Intention: Choose the "Save" option.

 Execution: Click on "Save".

 Perception: Observe the progress bar.

 Interpretation: System shows file saved.

 Evaluation: Check if file exists in folder.

Gulf of Execution & Gulf of Evaluation

Norman used the concept of two 'gulfs' to explain where interaction problems may arise

Gulf of Execution: The gap between the user’s goal/intention and the system’s allowed actions.

→ Can the user figure out how to do it?

Gulf of Evaluation: The gap between system’s response and the user’s ability to understand it.

→ Can the user understand what happened?

A good design minimizes both gulfs by providing intuitive actions and clear feedback.

Importance of Norman’s Model

Helps identify where users might struggle or fail in interaction. Provides a framework to improve
interface design. Encourages user-centered thinking by analyzing every step of user interaction.