Wave Optics

Introduction
Optics is the branch of physics which includes the study of light and the phenomena
associated with its generation, transmission and detection. Light is visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Its properties are classified into three categories as follows.
(1) Geometrical optics
(i) Reflection
(ii) Refraction
(iii) Dispersion
(2) Physical optics
(i) Interference
(ii) Diffraction
(iii) Polarization
(3) Quantum optics
(i) Lasers
(ii) Non-linear effects
Geometrical optics assumes that light travels in straight lines and is concerned with the
laws controlling the reflection, refraction, and dispersion of rays of light where as physical optics
deals with phenomena that depend on the wave nature of light. Quantum optics considers light as
made up of tiny bundles of energy called photons.
Interference
One of the best phenomena that provide direct evidence for the wave nature of light is
interference. Thomas young demonstrated the concept of interference of light in 1802 itself.
Examples are the multiple colours on soap bubbles as well as on floating oil film when viewed
under sun light. Interference is based on the principle of superposition of waves.
Interference can be defined as the superposition of two or more coherent waves with each
other such that the intensity modifies maxima and minima which results in a new wave pattern.
Constructive interference
If two waves are in phase with the amplitudes A1 and A2 and superpose with each other
then the crest of one wave will coincide with the crest of the other wave and the amplitude
reaches to a maximum. The resultant wave will have amplitude is A = A1+A2.

Destructive interference
If two waves are out of phase with the amplitudes A1 and A2 and superpose with each
other then the crest of one wave will coincide with the trough of the other wave and so will tend
to cancel out. The resultant wave will have amplitude is A = |A1-A2|.
The condition for destructive interference is the path difference should be equal to odd
Conditions for Interference
1. The two light sources emitting light waves should be coherent.
2. The two sources must emit continuous light waves of same wavelength and frequency.
3. The separation between the two sources should be small.
4. The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
5. To view interference fringes, the background should be large.
6. The amplitudes of the light waves should be equal or nearly equal.
7. The sources should be narrow.
8. The sources should be monochromatic.
Interference in thin film by reflection
When light is incident on a plane parallel thin film, some portion gets reflected from the
upper surface and the remaining portion is transmitted into the film. Again, some portion of the
transmitted light is reflected back into the film by the lower surface and emerges through the
upper surface. These reflected light beams superimpose with each other, producing interference
and forming interference patterns.
Consider a transparent plane parallel thin

monochromatic light ray AB be incident at an

film. BE and BC are the reflected and transmitted

l
BC will be reflected into the film and emerge
through the film in the form of the light ray DF.
These two light rays superimpose and depending
upon path difference between them, they produce interference patterns.
To know the path difference, let us draw the normal DG and BE. From the points D and G
onwards, the light rays travel equal distances. By the time the light ray travels from B to G, the
transmitted light ray has to travel from B to C and C to D.
The path difference between light rays (1) & (2) is
Path difference = µ(BC+CD) in film BG in air ----------- (1)
=
BC = =

To calculate BG, first BD which is equal to (BH+HD) has to be determined.

= =
BH = t
Similarly, HD = t
BD = BH + HD = 2t
 =
BG = BD
= 2t
=µ
BG = 2µt
From eqn(1), we have
Path difference = - 2µt
= 2µt
At the point B, reflection occurs from the upper surface of the thin film. Light ray(1)

Total path difference = 2µt

phase and undergoes constructive interference. The condition for bright fringe is 2µt = (2n-

meet out of phase and undergoes destructive interference. The condition for dark fringe is 2µt

film. When a planoconvex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air
film of increasing thickness is formed between the two. The thickness of the film at the point of
contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed in the
reflected light, alternate dark and bright rings concentric around the point of contact between the
lens and the glass plate are seen. These circular rings were discovered by Newton and are called

Experimental arrangement
The planoconvex lens (L) of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface on

light falls on a glass plate G held at an angle of 45 with the vertical. The glass plate G reflects
normally a part of the incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass
plate P. A part of the light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens L and a part is
transmitted which is reflected back from the plane surface of the plate. These reflected rays
interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of circular rings. These rings are seen
near the upper surface of the air film through the microscope.

A part of the incident monochromatic light AB is reflected at B in the form of the ray (1)
with an additional phase (or path) change. The other part of the light is refracted through BC.
Then at C, it is again reflected in the form of the ray (2) with additional phas
 As the rings are observed in the reflected light, the path difference between them is 2µt

At the point of contact

out of phase and interface destructively. Hence the central spot is dark.

2t = (2n-

For monochromatic light, the bright and dark rings depends on thickness of the air film.

centre at the point of contact. Thus, we get bright and dark circular rings with the point of contact
as the centre.

placed on a glass plate P. The convex surface of the lens is the part

corresponding to the

From the property of the circle, NA x NB = NO x ND

Substituting the value, r x r = t x (2R-t)
r2 = 2Rt t2
As t is small, t2 will be negligible
r2 = 2Rt
t=
 For bright ring, the condition is
2t = (2n-
2( ) = (2n-
r2 =
Replacing r by D/2, the diameter of nth bright ring will by
=
D=
D
D
For dark ring, the condition is

2
r2
D2
D
D
With increase in the order (n), the rings get closer and the fringe width decreases and is
shown in fig.
Determination of wavelength of a light source

Let Dm and Dn are the diameters of mth and nth dark rings respectively. Then
Dm2 n
2

Dn2 - Dm2 = 4(n-

setup. With the help of a travelling microscope, the readings for

different orders of dark rings were noted from one edge of the
rings to the other edge. The diameters of different orders of the
rings can be known. A plot between D2 and the no.of rings gives a
straight line as shown in fig.
From the graph,
=
The radius R of the planoconvex lens can be obtained with the help of a spherometer.

Determination of refractive index of a liquid

 The experiment is performed when is an air film between the glass plate and the
planoconvex lens. The diameters of mth and nth dark rings are determined with the help of a
travelling microscope. We have
Dn2 - Dm2 = 4(n- ---------- (1)
The system is placed into the container which consists of the liquid whose refractive index
(µ) is to determined. Now, the air film is replaced by the liquid film. Again, the diameters of the
same mth and nth dark rings are to be obtained. Then we have
Dn 2 Dm 2 = -------- (2)
From (1) & (2), we have
µ=
Using the above formula, µ can be calculated.
Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of obstacles and spreading of light
waves into the geometrical shadow region of an obstacle placed in the path of light is called
diffraction. The phenomenon of diffraction can be divided into two types.
1) Fraunhofer diffraction
2) Fresnel diffraction.
Fraunhofer diffraction
In this diffraction, the source and screen are placed at infinite distances from the obstacle.
Due to the above fact, we need lenses to study the diffraction. This diffraction can be studied in
any direction. In this case, the incident wave front is plane.
Fresnel diffraction
In this class of diffraction, the source & the screen are placed at finite distances from the
obstacle. To study this diffraction, lenses are not necessary as the source &screen are at a finite
distance. This diffraction can be studied in the direction of propagation of light. The incident
wave fronts are either spherical or cylindrical.
Comparison of Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction
1) Either a point source or an 1) Extended source at infinite distance is
illuminated narrow slit is used used.
2) The wavefront undergoing diffraction 2) The wavefront undergoing diffraction
is either spherical or cylindrical. is a plane wavefront.
3) The source and the screen are finite 3) The source and the screen are at
distances from the obstacle producing infinite distances from the obstacle
diffraction. producing diffraction.
4) No lens is used to focus the rays. 4) Converging lens is used to focus
parallel fringes.
Difference between interference and diffraction
Interference Diffraction
1) Superposition is due to two separate 1) Superposition is due to secondary
 wavefronts originating from two wavelets originating from different
coherent waves. parts of the same wavefront.
2) The fringes normally have equal 2) The width between the fringes is
widths. never equal.
3) All the bright fringes have the same 3) The intensity of bright fringes usually
intensity. decreases with increase of order.
4) The intensity of dark fringes is not
4) All the dark fringes have zero zero.
intensity.
Fraunhofer diffraction at single slit
1
of monochromatic light of

the slit is focused by means of a convex lens on a screen placed in the focal plane of the lens.
According to Huygens-Fresnel, every point on the wavefront in the plane of the slit is a source of
secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions. These wavelets travelling
normal to the slit, i.e., along the direction OPo are brought to focus at Po by the lens. Thus, Po is a
bright central image. The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle with the normal are
focused at a point P1 on the screen. Depending on path difference, the point P 1 may have
maximum or minimum intensities. To find intensity at P1, let us draw the normal AC from A to
the light ray at B.
The path difference between the wavelets from A & B in the direction is given by
Path difference = BC = AB =e
Corresponding phase difference = x path difference
= e
Let the width of the slit be divided
into n equal parts and the amplitude of the
phase
difference between any two successive
waves from these parts would be
[total phase] = [ e ]=d
Using the method of vector addition
of amplitudes, the resultant amplitude R is
given by
R=

=a

=a where =

=a < since is very small>

= na
 =A
Intensity = I = R2 = A2 ( )2 -------------- (1)
Principal maximum
The resultant amplitude R can be written in ascending powers of as
R= [ ]

=A[ ]
I will be maximum, when the value of R is maximum. For maximum value of R, the
negative terms must vanish i.e.,
=0

Then R = A
Imax = R2 = A2
The condition means that the maximum intensity is formed at Po and is known as
principal maximum.
Minimum intensity position
I will be minimum, when
=
=
=
=
Thus, we obtain the points of minimum intensity on either side of the principal maximum.
For m = 0, = 0, which corresponds to principal maximum.
Secondary maxima
In between these minima, we get secondary maxima. The positions can be obtained by
differentiating the expression of I wrt and equating to zero. We get
= [ A2 ( )2 ] = 0
A2 2 =0
Either = 0 or =0
= 0 gives position of minima
Hence the position of secondary maxima are given by
=0
=

The values of satisfying the above

eqn are obtained graphically by plotting the
curves y = and y = on the same
graph. The points of intersection of the two curves gives the values of which satisfy the above
equation. The plots of y = and y = are shown in fig.
The points of intersection are
= 0, ,
Using the above values in eqn (1), we get the intensities in various maxima.
= 0, Io = A2 ( principal maximum)

= , I1 = A2 [ ]2 ( 1st secondary maximum)

= , I2 = A2 [ ]2 ( 2nd secondary maximum)

and so on
Intensity distribution
The variation of I wrt is shown in fig. the diffraction pattern consists of a central
principal maximum for = 0. There are secondary maxima of decreasing intensity on either of it
at positions = ,
positions =

Fraunhofer diffraction at a double slits

Let S1 & S2

incident normally on the two slits. The light diffracted from these slits is focused by a lens on the
screen placed in the focal plane of the lens. The diffraction at two slits is the combination of
diffraction as well as interference, the pattern on the screen is the diffraction pattern due to a
single slit on which a system of interference fringes is superimposed. When a plane wavefront is
incident normally on two slits, the secondary wavelets from the slits travel uniformly in all
directions. The wavelets travelling in the direction of incident light come to a focus at P 0 while
the wavelets travelling in a direction making an angle , come to focus at P1.
From the study of diffraction due to single slit, the resultant amplitude = A where =
. Since we use double slit, from each slit we get a wavelet of amplitude A in a
direction . These two wavelets interfere and meet at a point P 1 on the screen. To calculate the
path difference between the wavelets, let us draw a normal S1K to the wavelets through S2.
Path diff = S2K
= (e+d)
Phase diff = (e+d) =
To find the resultant amplitude at P1 we use vector addition method is which the two sides
of a triangle are represented by the amplitudes through S 1 & S2. The third side gives the resultant
amplitude. From the fig,
(OH)2 = (OG)2 + (GH)2 + 2(OG)(GH)
R2 = (A )2 + (A )2 + 2(A )(A )
= 2A2( )2[1+ ]
= 2(A )2(1 + 2 1)
= 4A2( )2 )
Let =
R2 = 4A2( )2
The resultant intensity I = R2 = 4A2( )2
From the above expression, it is clear that the resultant intensity is the product of two
factors, i.e.,
1) A2( )2 which represents the diffraction pattern due to a single slit.
2) which gives the interference pattern due to wavelets from double slits. The
resultant intensity is due to both diffraction and interference effects.
Diffraction effect
 The diffraction term A2( )2 gives the principal maximum at the centre of the screen
with alternate minima and secondary maxima of decreasing intensity. We get principal maxima
for = 0. We get minima for =0
=
=
=
The position of secondary maxima occurs for
= ,
Interference effect
The interference term gives the equidistant bright and dark fringes. The maxima
will occur for =1
=
=
=
The minima will occur for =0
=
= (2n+1) /2
Intensity distribution
When both effects are combined then we get the resultant intensity variation. From fig, it is
clear that the resultant minima are not equal to zero, still they have some minimum intensity due
to interference effect.
Diffraction grating
An arrangement which consists of a large
number of parallel slits of the same width and
separated by equal opaque spaces is known as
diffraction grating. Fraunhoffer used the first grating
consisting of a large number of parallel wires placed
side by side very closely at regular intervals. Now
gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant
parallel lines on a transparent material such as glass
with a fine diamond point. The ruled lines are
opaque to light while the space between any two
lines is transparent to light and act as a slit.

N (e+d) = 1 = 2.54 cm
(e+d) = cm
There will be nearly 30,000 lines per inch of a grating. Due to the above fact, the width of
the slit is very narrow and is comparable to wavelengths of light. When light falls on the grating,
the light gets diffracted through each slit. As a result, both diffraction and interference of
diffracted light gets enhanced and forms a diffraction pattern. This pattern is known as
diffraction spectrum.