Microwave Engineering - Quick Guide
Microwave Engineering - Introduction
Electromagnetic Spectrum consists of entire range of electromagnetic radiation. Radiation
is the energy that travels and spreads out as it propagates. The types of electromagnetic
radiation that makes the electromagnetic spectrum is depicted in the following screenshot.
Let us now take a look at the properties of Microwaves.
Properties of Microwaves
Following are the main properties of Microwaves.
Microwaves are the waves that radiate electromagnetic energy with shorter
wavelength.
Microwaves are not reflected by Ionosphere.
Microwaves travel in a straight line and are reflected by the conducting surfaces.
Microwaves are easily attenuated within shorter distances.
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Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer of a cable.
Advantages of Microwaves
There are many advantages of Microwaves such as the following −
Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is transmitted. For this
reason, microwaves are used for point-to-point communications.
More antenna gain is possible.
Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is more.
Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
Low power consumption as the signals are of higher frequencies.
Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight propagation.
Provides effective reflection area in the radar systems.
Satellite and terrestrial communications with high capacities are possible.
Low-cost miniature microwave components can be developed.
Effective spectrum usage with wide variety of applications in all available frequency
ranges of operation.
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Disadvantages of Microwaves
There are a few disadvantages of Microwaves such as the following −
Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
They are hefty and occupy more space.
Electromagnetic interference may occur.
Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur.
Inherent inefficiency of electric power.
Applications of Microwaves
There are a wide variety of applications for Microwaves, which are not possible for other
radiations. They are −
Wireless Communications
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For long distance telephone calls
Bluetooth
WIMAX operations
Outdoor broadcasting transmissions
Broadcast auxiliary services
Remote pickup unit
Studio/transmitter link
Direct Broadcast Satellite DBS
Personal Communication Systems P CSs
Wireless Local Area Networks W LAN s
Cellular Video CV systems
Automobile collision avoidance system
Electronics
Fast jitter-free switches
Phase shifters
HF generation
Tuning elements
ECM/ECCM ElectronicCounterM easure systems
Spread spectrum systems
Commercial Uses
Burglar alarms
Garage door openers
Police speed detectors
Identification by non-contact methods
Cell phones, pagers, wireless LANs
Satellite television, XM radio
Motion detectors
Remote sensing
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Navigation
Global navigation satellite systems
Global Positioning System GP S
Military and Radar
Radars to detect the range and speed of the target.
SONAR applications
Air traffic control
Weather forecasting
Navigation of ships
Minesweeping applications
Speed limit enforcement
Military uses microwave frequencies for communications and for the above
mentioned applications.
Research Applications
Atomic resonances
Nuclear resonances
Radio Astronomy
Mark cosmic microwave background radiation
Detection of powerful waves in the universe
Detection of many radiations in the universe and earth’s atmosphere
Food Industry
Microwave ovens used for reheating and cooking
Food processing applications
Pre-heating applications
Pre-cooking
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Roasting food grains/beans
Drying potato chips
Moisture levelling
Absorbing water molecules
Industrial Uses
Vulcanizing rubber
Analytical chemistry applications
Drying and reaction processes
Processing ceramics
Polymer matrix
Surface modification
Chemical vapor processing
Powder processing
Sterilizing pharmaceuticals
Chemical synthesis
Waste remediation
Power transmission
Tunnel boring
Breaking rock/concrete
Breaking up coal seams
Curing of cement
RF Lighting
Fusion reactors
Active denial systems
Semiconductor Processing Techniques
Reactive ion etching
Chemical vapor deposition
Spectroscopy
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Electron Paramagnetic Resonance EP RorESR Spectroscopy
To know about unpaired electrons in chemicals
To know the free radicals in materials
Electron chemistry
Medical Applications
Monitoring heartbeat
Lung water detection
Tumor detection
Regional hyperthermia
Therapeutic applications
Local heating
Angioplasty
Microwave tomography
Microwave Acoustic imaging
For any wave to propagate, there is the need of a medium. The transmission lines, which
are of different types, are used for the propagation of Microwaves. Let us learn about them
in the next chapter.
Microwave Engineering - Transmission Lines
A transmission line is a connector which transmits energy from one point to another.
The study of transmission line theory is helpful in the effective usage of power and
equipment.
There are basically four types of transmission lines −
Two-wire parallel transmission lines
Coaxial lines
Strip type substrate transmission lines
Waveguides
While transmitting or while receiving, the energy transfer has to be done effectively,
without the wastage of power. To achieve this, there are certain important parameters
which has to be considered.
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Main Parameters of a Transmission Line
The important parameters of a transmission line are resistance, inductance, capacitance
and conductance.
Resistance and inductance together are called as transmission line impedance.
Capacitance and conductance together are called as admittance.
Resistance
The resistance offered by the material out of which the transmission lines are made, will
be of considerable amount, especially for shorter lines. As the line current increases, the
ohmic loss (I 2 R loss) also increases.
The resistance R of a conductor of length "l" and cross-section "a" is represented as
l
R=ρ
a
Where
ρ = resistivity of the conductor material, which is constant.
Temperature and the frequency of the current are the main factors that affect the
resistance of a line. The resistance of a conductor varies linearly with the change in
temperature. Whereas, if the frequency of the current increases, the current density
towards the surface of the conductor also increases. Otherwise, the current density
towards the center of the conductor increases.
This means, more the current flows towards the surface of the conductor, it flows less
towards the center, which is known as the Skin Effect.
Inductance
In an AC transmission line, the current flows sinusoidally. This current induces a magnetic
field perpendicular to the electric field, which also varies sinusoidally. This is well known as
Faraday's law. The fields are depicted in the following figure.
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This varying magnetic field induces some EMF into the conductor. Now this induced voltage
or EMF flows in the opposite direction to the current flowing initially. This EMF flowing in
the opposite direction is equivalently shown by a parameter known as Inductance, which
is the property to oppose the shift in the current.
It is denoted by "L". The unit of measurement is "HenryH ".
Conductance
There will be a leakage current between the transmission line and the ground, and also
between the phase conductors. This small amount of leakage current generally flows
through the surface of the insulator. Inverse of this leakage current is termed as
Conductance. It is denoted by "G".
The flow of line current is associated with inductance and the voltage difference between
the two points is associated with capacitance. Inductance is associated with the magnetic
field, while capacitance is associated with the electric field.
Capacitance
The voltage difference between the Phase conductors gives rise to an electric field
between the conductors. The two conductors are just like parallel plates and the air in
between them becomes dielectric. This pattern gives rise to the capacitance effect
between the conductors.
Characteristic Impedance
If a uniform lossless transmission line is considered, for a wave travelling in one direction,
the ratio of the amplitudes of voltage and current along that line, which has no reflections,
is called as Characteristic impedance.
It is denoted by Z0
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−voltage
−−−−−−− −−−−−−−−−
Z0 = √
wave value
current wave value
−−−−−−−−
Z0 = √
R + jwL
G + jwC
−−
For a lossless line, R0 = √ LC
Where L & C are the inductance and capacitance per unit lengths.
Impedance Matching
To achieve maximum power transfer to the load, impedance matching has to be done. To
achieve this impedance matching, the following conditions are to be met.
The resistance of the load should be equal to that of the source.
RL = RS
The reactance of the load should be equal to that of the source but opposite in sign.
X L = −X S
Which means, if the source is inductive, the load should be capacitive and vice versa.
Re ection Co-ef cient
fl
fi
The parameter that expresses the amount of reflected energy due to impedance mismatch
in a transmission line is called as Reflection coefficient. It is indicated by ρ rho .
It can be defined as "the ratio of reflected voltage to the incident voltage at the load
terminals".
reflected voltage Vr
ρ= = at load terminals
incident voltage Vi
If the impedance between the device and the transmission line don't match with each
other, then the energy gets reflected. The higher the energy gets reflected, the greater will
be the value of ρ reflection coefficient.
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio V SWR
The standing wave is formed when the incident wave gets reflected. The standing wave
which is formed, contains some voltage. The magnitude of standing waves can be
measured in terms of standing wave ratios.
The ratio of maximum voltage to the minimum voltage in a standing wave can be defined
as Voltage Standing Wave Ratio V SW R. It is denoted by "S ".
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|Vmax |
S= 1 ≤S≤∞
|Vmin |
VSWR describes the voltage standing wave pattern that is present in the transmission line
due to phase addition and subtraction of the incident and reflected waves.
Hence, it can also be written as
1+ρ
S=
1−ρ
The larger the impedance mismatch, the higher will be the amplitude of the standing
wave. Therefore, if the impedance is matched perfectly,
Vmax : Vmin = 1 : 1
Hence, the value for VSWR is unity, which means the transmission is perfect.
Ef ciency of Transmission Lines
fi
The efficiency of transmission lines is defined as the ratio of the output power to the input
power.
P ower delivered at reception
% efficiency of transmission line η = P ower sent from the transmission end
× 100
Voltage Regulation
Voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of the voltage between the
sending and receiving ends of the transmission line.
sending end voltage− receiving end voltage
% voltage regulation = sending end voltage
× 100
Losses due to Impedance Mismatch
The transmission line, if not terminated with a matched load, occurs in losses. These
losses are many types such as attenuation loss, reflection loss, transmission loss, return
loss, insertion loss, etc.
Attenuation Loss
The loss that occurs due to the absorption of the signal in the transmission line is termed
as Attenuation loss, which is represented as
Ei − Er
Attenuation loss(dB) = 10 log10 [ ]
Et
Where
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Ei = the input energy
Er = the reflected energy from the load to the input
Et = the transmitted energy to the load
Reflection Loss
The loss that occurs due to the reflection of the signal due to impedance mismatch of the
transmission line is termed as Reflection loss, which is represented as
Reflection loss(dB) = 10 log10 [ ]
Ei
Ei − Er
Where
Ei = the input energy
Er = the reflected energy from the load
Transmission Loss
The loss that occurs while transmission through the transmission line is termed as
Transmission loss, which is represented as
Ei
T ransmission loss(dB) = 10 log10
Et
Where
Ei = the input energy
Et = the transmitted energy
Return Loss
The measure of the power reflected by the transmission line is termed as Return loss,
which is represented as
Ei
Return loss(dB) = 10 log10
Er
Where
Ei = the input energy
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Er = the reflected energy
Insertion Loss
The loss that occurs due to the energy transfer using a transmission line compared to
energy transfer without a transmission line is termed as Insertion loss, which is
represented as
E1
Insertion loss(dB) = 10 log10
E2
Where
E1 = the energy received by the load when directly connected to the source,
without a transmission line.
E2 = the energy received by the load when the transmission line is connected
between the load and the source.
Stub Matching
If the load impedance mismatches the source impedance, a method called "Stub Matching"
is sometimes used to achieve matching.
The process of connecting the sections of open or short circuit lines called stubs in the
shunt with the main line at some point or points, can be termed as Stub Matching.
At higher microwave frequencies, basically two stub matching techniques are employed.
Single Stub Matching
In Single stub matching, a stub of certain fixed length is placed at some distance from the
load. It is used only for a fixed frequency, because for any change in frequency, the
location of the stub has to be changed, which is not done. This method is not suitable for
coaxial lines.
Double Stub Matching
In double stud matching, two stubs of variable length are fixed at certain positions. As the
load changes, only the lengths of the stubs are adjusted to achieve matching. This is
widely used in laboratory practice as a single frequency matching device.
The following figures show how the stub matchings look.
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The single stub matching and double stub matching, as shown in the above figures, are
done in the transmission lines to achieve impedance matching.
Modes of Propagation
A wave has both electric and magnetic fields. All transverse components of electric and
magnetic fields are determined from the axial components of electric and magnetic field,
in the z direction. This allows mode formations, such as TE, TM, TEM and Hybrid in
microwaves. Let us have a look at the types of modes.
The direction of the electric and the magnetic field components along three mutually
perpendicular directions x, y, and z are as shown in the following figure.
Types of Modes
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The modes of propagation of microwaves are −
TEM T ransverseElectromagneticW ave
In this mode, both the electric and magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of
propagation. There are no components in ′ Z ′ direction.
Ez = 0 and Hz = 0
TE T ransverseElectricW ave
In this mode, the electric field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation,
whereas the magnetic field is not.
Ez = 0 and Hz ≠ 0
TM T ransverseMagneticW ave
In this mode, the magnetic field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation,
whereas the electric field is not.
Ez ≠ 0 and Hz = 0
HE HybridW ave
In this mode, neither the electric nor the magnetic field is purely transverse to the
direction of propagation.
Ez ≠ 0 and Hz ≠ 0
Multi conductor lines normally support TEM mode of propagation, as the theory of
transmission lines is applicable to only those system of conductors that have a go and
return path, i.e., those which can support a TEM wave.
Waveguides are single conductor lines that allow TE and TM modes but not TEM mode.
Open conductor guides support Hybrid waves. The types of transmission lines are
discussed in the next chapter.
Types of Transmission Lines
The conventional open-wire transmission lines are not suitable for microwave
transmission, as the radiation losses would be high. At Microwave frequencies, the
transmission lines employed can be broadly classified into three types. They are −
Multi conductor lines
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Co-axial lines
Strip lines
Micro strip lines
Slot lines
Coplanar lines, etc.
Single conductor lines W aveguides
Rectangular waveguides
Circular waveguides
Elliptical waveguides
Single-ridged waveguides
Double-ridged waveguides, etc.
Open boundary structures
Di-electric rods
Open waveguides, etc.
Multi-conductor Lines
The transmission lines which has more than one conductor are called as Multi-conductor
lines.
Co-axial Lines
This one is mostly used for high frequency applications.
A coaxial line consists of an inner conductor with inner diameter d, and then a concentric
cylindrical insulating material, around it. This is surrounded by an outer conductor, which
is a concentric cylinder with an inner diameter D. This structure is well understood by
taking a look at the following figure.
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