MODULE 2

Chapter 6
Bandwidth Utilization:
Multiplexing and
Spreading
Note

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing;

i.e., sharing of the bandwidth between
multiple users.
MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two

devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the
set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)
transmission of multiple signals across a single
data link. As data and telecommunications use
increases, so does traffic.
Dividing a link into channels
Categories of multiplexing
 Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)

• Signals generated by each sending device

modulate different carrier frequencies
• These modulated signals are combined into a
composite signal that is transported through the
link
• The demultiplexer uses a series of filters to
decompose the multiplexed signal into its
constituent component signals
• The individual signals are then passed to a
demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output lines
• Guard bands are strips of unused bandwidth ,
used to prevent signals from overlapping
FDM process
FDM demultiplexing
 Example

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth

of 4 kHz. We need to combine three voice channels
into a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32
kHz. Show the configuration, using the frequency
domain. Assume there are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels
to a different bandwidth, as shown in the Figure in
next slide. We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the
first channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the
second channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for
the third one. Then we combine them.
Figure
 Example

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to

be multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard
band of 10 kHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure in next slide
Figure
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

• Designed to use high data rate capability of fiber

optic cable
• WDM is conceptually same as FDM, combining
different signals of different frequencies.
Difference is that the frequencies are very high
Note

WDM is an analog multiplexing technique

to combine optical signals.
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and
demultiplexing
• We need to combine multiple light sources into
single light at the multiplexer and the reverse at
the demultiplexer
• Prism bends a beam of light based on angle of
incidence and frequency. This concept can be
used at multiplexer
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Each connection occupies a portion of time in the
link
Note

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for

combining several low-rate digital
channels into one high-rate one.
Synchronous time-division multiplexing
A round of data units from each input connection
is collected into a frame
Note

In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
 Example

For the figure in previous slide, the data rate for each
one of the 3 input connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a
time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the
duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot,
and (c) each frame?
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps.
This means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1
ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1 ms
(same as bit duration).
 Example (continued)

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third

of the input time slot. This means that the duration
of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the

duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.

Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the

duration of an input unit.
 Example

Figure shows synchronous TDM with 4 1Mbps data

stream inputs and one data stream for the output.
The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration,
(b) the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and
(d) the output frame rate.
 Example(continued)

Solution
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit
duration, or ¼ μs.
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit
duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4
times as fast as any input rate; so the output rate =
4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.
d. The frame rate is always the same as any input
rate. So the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per
second
 Example

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte
per channel, calculate the size of the frame, the
frame rate, and the bit rate for the link.

Solution
Each frame carries 1 byte from each channel; the size
of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits.
Because each channel is sending 100 bytes/s and a
frame carries 1 byte from each channel, the frame
rate must be 100 frames per second. The bit rate is
100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
Interleaving

 The process of taking a group of bits

from each input line for multiplexing is
called interleaving.
 We interleave bits (1 - n) from each
input onto one output.
Interleaving
Data Rate Management

 Not all input links maybe have the same

data rate.
 Some links maybe slower. There maybe
several different input link speeds
 There are three strategies that can be
used to overcome the data rate
mismatch: multilevel, multi slot and
pulse stuffing
Data rate matching

 Multilevel: used when the data rate of an input

link is a multiple of others
 Multislot: sometimes it is more efficient to
allot more than one slot in a frame to a single
input line.
 Pulse Stuffing: Sometimes the bit rates of
sources are not multiples of each other. The
slowest speed link will be brought up to the
speed of the other links by bit insertion, this is
called pulse stuffing.
Multilevel multiplexing
Multiple-slot multiplexing
Pulse stuffing
Synchronization
 If multiplexer and demultiplexer are not
synchronized, a bit belonging to one
channel may be received by wrong
channel
 Thus, one or more synchronization bits
are added to beginning of each frame
 These bits are called framing bits
 Synchronization information consists of
1 bit per frame, alternating between 0
and 1
Framing bits
Inefficient use of Bandwidth

 Sometimes an input link may have no

data to transmit.
 When that happens, one or more slots
on the output link will go unused.
 That is wasteage of bandwidth.
Empty slots
Statistical TDM

• Slots are dynamically allocated to improve

bandwidth
• Number of slots in a frame is less than the
number of input lines
• Multiplexer checks each input line in round-
robin fashion; it allocates a slot for an input
line if the line has data to send; otherwise it
skips the line and checks the next line
• A slot carries both data and address
• No synchronization bit
TDM slot comparison
SPREAD SPECTRUM
In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from
different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but
our goals are to prevent eavesdropping and
jamming. To achieve these goals, spread spectrum
techniques add redundancy.
Spread Spectrum
 A signal that occupies a bandwidth of B, is
spread out to occupy a bandwidth of Bss
 All signals are spread to occupy the same
bandwidth Bss
 Signals are spread with different codes so
that they can be separated at the receivers.
 Signals can be spread in the frequency
domain or in the time domain.
 Designed to be used in wireless applications
Spread spectrum
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

• Uses M different carrier frequencies that are

modulated by the source signal
• At one moment, signal modulates one carrier
frequency, next moment signal modulates another
carrier frequency.
• Although modulation is done using one carrier
frequency at a time, M frequencies are used in the
long run
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

• Pseudorandom code generator, creates a

k-bit pattern for every hopping period
• Frequency table uses this pattern to find
the frequency to be used and passes it to
frequency synthesizer.
• Frequency synthesizer creates a carrier
signal of that frequency and source signal
modulates carrier signal.
Frequency selection in FHSS
FHSS cycles
 Bandwidth sharing
• In FDM, each station uses 1/M of the bandwidth,
but allocation is fixed.
• In FHSS, each station uses 1/M of the bandwidth,
but allocation changes hop to hop
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

• Each data bit is replaced with n bits

using a spreading code.
DSSS example
• In this example, Barker sequence is
used(10110111000)
• Chip Generator uses NRZ encoding.
 DSSS
• Spread signal can provide privacy if the
intruder does not know the code
• It can provide immunity against
interference if each station uses a different
code
 Chapter 7
Transmission Media

.
Classes of transmission media
Twisted-pair cable

• Consists of two conductors(normally copper),

each with its own plastic insulation, twisted
together
• One of the wires is used to carry signals to
the receiver and the other is used as ground
reference. Receiver uses the difference
between the two.
Unshielded Twisted Pair and Shielded Twisted Pair cable
UTP connector
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable(continued)
• has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire
(usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath,
which is, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
braid, or a combination of the two.
• outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating
sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic
cover. Categories of coaxial cables
Bayone-Neill-Concelman(BNC) connectors
Optical fiber cables

• Made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the

form of light
• A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding
of less dense glass or plastic
• beam of light moving through the core is reflected
off the cladding
Propagation modes for optical channels
Modes
• Multimode: multiple beams from a light source move
through the core in different paths.
• multimode step-index fiber: the density of the core
remains constant from the center to the edges. beam of
light moves in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface,
there is an abrupt change due to a lower density; this
alters the angle of the beam's motion
• multimode graded-index fiber: is one with varying
densities. Density is highest at the center of the core
and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
• Single-mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused
source of light that limits beams to a small range of
angles, all close to the horizontal.
Modes
Fiber-optic cable connectors
UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves

without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless
communication.
Propagation methods
Propagation methods
• In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the
lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth.
These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions
from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature
of the planet.
• In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate
upward into the ionosphere where they are reflected
back to earth.
• In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals
are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to
antenna. Antennas must be directional, facing each
other and either tall enough or close enough together
not to be affected by the curvature of the earth
Wireless transmission waves
Note

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems. They can
penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use omni directional
antennas
Omnidirectional antenna
Note

Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular telephones,
satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate
walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point
line of sight communications.
Unidirectional antennas
Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.