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Western Political Thought Updated

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Western Political Thought Updated

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Varun Kumar

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01

Plato
• Plato is the author of three large scale Political works :

© Saar Concepts
1. The Republic
2. The Statesman
3. The Laws
• Plato’s early childhood coincided with the period of Political Instability following the defeat of Athens in
the Pelopennesian War of 431 BC to 404 BC.
→ An immediate consequence of the defeat was the overthrow of Democracy in Athens
and establishment of an Oligarchy – ‘Tyranny of Thirty’
– Plato hoped that this Oligarchy will provide Political stability.
– But the rule of ‘Thirty Tyrants’ proved even more brutal.
– A counter revolution took place and democracy was restored
▪ It was this democratic government which gave Socrates death

• Socrates death was the defining moment in Plato’s career :

– In 399 BC Plato leaves Athens and remains in voluntary exile till 386 BC.
– He came to the conclusion that all existing states are bad.
– Plato associate the ills of his time with the group of teachers and orators active in
fifth century Athens – ‘Sophists’
– The Republic is the rejection of Worldview of Sophists.
→ In the dialogue the main sophist is ‘Thrasymachus’.
• The Republic is an enquiry into the nature of dikaisyne – Justice
→ It begins with the question ‘ What is Justice’

• Traditional definition of Justice :

→ Cephalus : Justice is giving each man his due
→ Polymarchus : Justice is doing good to friends and harm to enemies.

• Definition given by Thrasymachus :

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→ Justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger.
– This definition represents the Political amoralism of Sophists
→ Definition rejected by Socrates :
– Ruling is an art of Ruler like medicine is an art of Doctor.
– Doctor practices his art for the benefit of patients similarly Ruler will practice
his art for the benefit of his subjects.

• Thrasymachus reforms his definition and says – It is in the interest of stronger for others to be just and
he himself unjust, Injustice is better than justice.
– Political Immoralism of Sophists.
• Thrasymachus’ line of argument :
→ Good life consists in disregarding all limits and restrictions.
→ Justice means compliance with laws – accepting limits.
→ Laws are rules made by strong and imposed on wreaks – a device to control them.
→ So the interest of the ruler is best served when his subjects are just and he himself unjust.

• So according to Thrasymachus :
→ Injustice is preferable to Justice – Superior man knows that good life is a matter of

• But according to Socrates : -

▪ If we live a life in which all limits are ignored – we will not be to get what we want.
– Example : Musician tuning his instrument or doctor prescribing medicine to
patients Neither too less nor too much.
▪ The successful conduct of human activity depends upon observing limits
– The limits which that activity demands
▪ Justice to individual is what sharpness to knife – it is the virtue that enables soul to
perform its activity properly.
• In order to understand what justice means for an individual we first need to see what justice means at
the level of Polis or State :
– By considering Justice on a larger scale we shall be better able to understand it on smaller
or individual scale ) State is individual writ large.

• What then constitute justice at the level of State ?

– Socrates answers this question by describing the development of an imaginary or
or ‘Ideal State’ which he calls ‘Kallipolis’
→ A simple state would originate in the fact that human beings need to cooperate
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in order to meet their basic needs.
→ Meeting of basic needs will produce more sophisticated needs and so more
complex structure will have to be devised to meet those needs.

• At the end point of its evolution state will contain three occupational groups :-
▪ Guardian : embody wisdom of the state
▪ Auxiliaries : military class embody courage of the state
▪ Producers : they will embody temperance or self control.
– They will recognize that it is necessary for them to submit to the rule of
Guradians.
• According to Socrates :-
→ Justice will not be a separate virtue in addition to courage, wisdom and self-restraints.
→ Justice will be the situation when the guardian, Auxiliaries and producer function together
in such a way to secure the good of whole community.
▪ Justice is a matter of everyone doing the job for which they are best suited and
not interfering with anyone else.
▪ Justice will be established when auxiliaries and producer remain within the limits
prescribed to them by the guardian.

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• In the similar way Individual soul has three parts or three functions :
▪ Reason
▪ Spirit or emotion
▪ Appetite or desire
• Justice is present in the soul when appetite and spirit are guided by reason in such a way as to
secure the good of the whole body :
→ Our happiness depends upon our having a properly ordered soul.
→ The just man would be happy, contented,well adjusted individual whose desire will not
out strip his needs.
• But there are very few people who are just in this sense :
→ This is because most people lack knowledge about of Justice.
→ People live in a world of opinion and belief and not of Knowledge.
– The world is unstable because opinions and beliefs can easily be changed.
– This is one of the danger of democracy.

• Only true just men are those who have knowledge rather than opinion :
→ They are Philosophers – Lover of wisdom
→ It is the philosophers who have the responsibility of governing the state.

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• Knowledge is distinct from opinion :
→ Socrates agrees that world of common experience is full uncertainties
▪ But away from this changing world there exist a world which does not change
▪ This is world of forms or world of ideas – where there exist a perfect version
of everything – Theory of forms
• Only through philosophical education one can know the world of forms and thus get knowledge.
▪ Rousseau called the Republic ‘ a finest treatises on Education’
• Things that we see and ideas or belief that we have in the ‘world of sight’ are only imperfect copies of
the ‘Forms’ :
→ Philosophers are those who have understood the ‘Forms’ , they thus have true
knowledge and not opinion.

• For Socrates , the best state would be an aristocracy presided over by those who have understood the
‘Forms’ through philosophical education :
→ These people will do what is good because they know what is good.

• The educational and social system of the ideal state will require them to live in such a way as to
abolish from their mind any thought of private gain or glory :
→ Communism of Wives and Property – They will have no families and private property.
→ Children will have common parents – state will organize mating seasons.
• According to critics :
→ Plato does not believe in the capacity of ordinary human being to organize their lives without
paternalistic supervision – Karl Popper calls him ‘Enemy of Open society’
→ Plato advocate for a totalitarian state
– Guardian will use ‘myth’ as a device to control the public.
– They will spread the ‘Noble Lie’ or ‘Myth of the metal’
▪ God have made men of gold, silver and bronze and each should know his

• But Plato is quite clear in his concern that whatever will be done it will done to achieve collective long
term good and not to benefit the rulers :
– Guardians will do such things because they have to shape the virtue of those who are
not equipped with the resource to be virtuous themselves.
• The Statesman
→ The Statesman is a Conversation that is actually part of three of dialogue triology
▪ Theatetus
▪ Sophist
▪ The Statesman
→ In Statesman, Socrates does not play a principal role, main role is played by

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‘Eleatic Visitor’
→ Statesman examines the art of Political Leadership.
→ Plato is still committed in principle to the notion an ideal statesman
▪ But his theme now is that such a statesman is unlikely to be found and that,
in his absence the second best form of government will be that of rulers
whose actions are restricted by laws.
• The Laws :
→ This is Plato’s longest work comprising of 12 books .
→ The main role here is of “Athenian Stranger”
→ Plato returns again to the method of imagining an ideal city – but in this case – It is the
second best city – ‘Magnesia’.
▪ This city is governed by laws devised and administered by a
‘Nocturnal Council’.
▪ He says, best attainable kind of state is one governed by laws – embodying a kind of
collected or accumulated wisdom.
▪ It will be a mixed constitution – combination of monarchy and democracy.

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• Theory of Political Decay :
→ From Ideal State to Oligarchy
→ From Oligarchy to Democracy
→ From Democracy to Tyranny

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• The philosophy of Plato has the curious property of being delivered almost entirely through the mouth
of someone else :
– Nearly all his surviving works are ‘Dialogues’
→ Transcription of real or imaginary conversation – in which chief protagonist is his
teacher – Socrates

• Socrates is the exponent of the doctrine which Plato wishes to convey :

→ We know about Socrates from Plato’s Dialogues, Writings of Xenophone and

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Aristophones
→ He discussed philosophy but wrote nothing – used a dialectic method – ‘Elenchos’
→ Clarified concepts by a process of question and answers – called himselsf a ‘Gadfly’.

• Plato is the author of three large scale Political works :

1. The Republic
2. The Statesman
3. The Laws
02
Aristole
• Aristotle was born at Stagira, a Greek Colony
→ He became member of Plato’s Academy in 367 BC.
→ After Plato’s death he left Athens.
→ In 343 BC he accepted a post at the court of Philip of Macedon, as tutor to the future
Alexander the Great.
→ In 335 BCE he returned to Athens and opened his own school – Lyceum.
→ His connection with Alexander made him unpopular in Athens.
→ After Alexander’s death in 323 BC he again left the city – in 322 BC he died at Chalcis.

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• His most important work related to Politics are :
▪ Nichomachean Ethics
▪ Politics
• Aristotle’s general view of the world is called ‘Teleological’.
― Everything in the Universe has a ‘telos’ – an ‘end’ or ‘purpose’ – unique to itself.
― Everything is having a state of full or final development towards which it is their nature
to unfold :
→ Telos of a mango seed is to be a mango tree.
― The process by which an object achieves its telos is called ‘ergon’ – the work or task
― The natural capacity for engaging in this process is called ‘Dynamis’.

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• Something is ‘Good’ if it has achieved its telos successfully.
→ What is the telos or good of Man?
― It is the achievement of the state of Eudaimonia.
― The word denotes a lifelong state of active well
being : it is not a feeling but activity

• How do we know that ‘happiness’ is man’s end or telos :

→ Happiness is desired for its own sake.
• How we can accomplish this end or our goal ?
→ By identifying some mode of activity in which no other creature is equipped to engage.
→ We therefore need to find a ‘Capacity’ that we and only we have.
▪ The capacity cannot be just living because plants can also live.
▪ It can not be living and feeling because animals can also do.
▪ It must have to do with ‘Reason’ and ‘Speech’ , the capacity which no other creature
has – to engage in connected and purposive thoughts.
― Our goal should lie in using rather than just possessing reason.
― It can not lie in mere use of reason , but using it well.
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― Using reason well means using it with excellence
and using it with excellence means using it according virtue.

• Virtues are of two types :

→ Moral Virtue
→ Intellectual Virtue
▪ Intellectual virtue is of two types
― Phronesis
― Sophia
• Happiness is associated in different way with the deployment of both types of virtues :
― Happiness in the fullest sense lies in the contemplation of abstract ideas and theories
→ Such activity require deployment of intellectual virtue called ‘Sophia’.
→ Sophia means – Theoretical Wisdom – This wisdom has no practical outcome , no
connection to the material world
→ Human activity resemble activity of God.
→ The happiness of philosophical contemplation can not be the normal condition of
anyone’s life – No one can permanently live in this state.

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• We want to discover a happiness capable of being achieved by mankind in general and throughout life
→ This type of happiness is related to moral virtue
→ Happiness for common people is to be found not in abstract reasoning, but in the
practice of good or honorable behavior in everyday's life.

• Secondary or everyday happiness consists in the practice of moral virtues

― moral virtue example : Courage, generosity etc
• What specific kind of actions does the practice of moral virtues consists :
→ Doctrine of Mean
― Morally virtuous activity is a habit of choice lying in a mean ‘relative to ourselves’
between two vices – the one excess and the other of deficiency.
― An important part of the definition is the phrase ‘relative to ourselves’.
▪ Relative to the kind of person we are, the practice of moral virtue is a
matter of doing what is suitable to a person in the given time and place.
▪ One cannot prescribe hard and fast rules in advance.

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• The practice of moral virtue brings into play an intellectual virtue – Phronesis .
→ Phronesis means practical wisdom
→ In order to find the mean , one needs to be a ‘man of practical wisdom’ ,
‘practical reasoning’ or ‘prudence’.
→ This is the type of thinking that we engage in when we debate with ourselves what to do
in any given situation.
• Our ‘end’ then is ‘Eudaimonia’, ‘happiness’ :
― We accomplish it by living well throughout life as a whole.
― Living well is a matter of rational activity performed well.
― Happiness lies in the consistent practice of moral virtue, calling upon the intellectual virtue of
phronesis to guide us .

• But what is the connection between our natural goal of eudaimonia and the fact that man is by nature a
political animal : “Man is by nature a Political Animal”

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• As a preliminary to any kind of moral activity we need material conditions of life :
→ No individual can supply himself with all the necessaries of life.
→ All forms of natural association are natural because they meet a particular level of
material need
▪ The Household is natural
▪ The Village is natural
▪ The Polis or State is natural
• But it is the Polis that is most completely sufficient and therefore most completely natural.
― Polis enables all our needs to be met in their entirety – both economic and moral
“The state comes into existence so that men may live, it remains in being so that they may live well”
• Polis provides the economic prerequisite of morality
― Economic and moral needs are intertwined.
• Polis provides the educational conditions upon which the cultivation and realization of moral virtue
depends :
→ State help in acquiring habitual modes of behavior through training and repetition.
→ an important function of law is to make men good by requiring or encouraging them to
form good habits.

• Polis is thus a natural community that meets all our needs : moral as well as material.
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• Because the Polis is an all sufficient community
→ Study of politics is the master science.
→ It is the study of the common good.
• Aristotle’s ‘Comparison and Classification of Constitution’
→ He does not wish to argue for one ideal constitution.
→ He knows that states have devised many ways of organizing themselves and we have to deal
with what exist rather than what ought to exist.
― Aristotle is said to have written treatises on 158 Greek City States, although
only one of them – The Constitution of Athens has survived.

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Rule for Public Interest Rule for Self Interest
Pure form Perverted form
One Monarchy Tyranny
Few Aristocracy Oligarchy
Many Polity Democracy
• Aristotle is also concerned with technical question of stability and change :
→ The stability of a constitution is secured by balancing elements of ‘fewness’ and ‘manyness’
in such a way as to ensure that as few people as possible are excluded or alienated.
▪ More moderate and more broadly based constitutions are more stable.
→ Oligarchies will antagonize the poor, who are numerous, democracy will antagonize the rich
who are few but influential.

• The most stable constitution will be one in which political power rests with a large middle class.
→ The government of neither the wealthy few nor of the property less many
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but somewhere in between.
→ The member of the wealthy class are wealthy enough to be resented by poor, but they are
sufficiently well off not to want to dispossess the rich.
→ This is the political expression of Aristotle’s doctrine of mean.
• The best achievable kind of political association will be those that involve as many people as possible in
the process of government.
― Best kind of polity will be large enough to be self sufficient but small enough for
everyone to be able to participate.
― All should play a part in bringing about the good of whole community.
― The virtue of good man and good citizen will be same.
03
Nicolὀ Machiavelli
• Nicolo Machiavelli was born in Florence Italy
→ He entered the service of the Republic of Florence in 1494 and was deployed on
diplomatic missions to various places.
→ When the Republic was overthrown by Medici family in 1512, he was briefly imprisioned
and tortured.
→ He retired into private life and devoted himself to political analysis and study of history.
→ He produced three major political works :
▪ The Prince in 1513
▪ The Discourse in 1516
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▪ The Art of War in 1520
▪ History of Florence
→ One reason to write ‘The Prince’ was to come back to Politics and Government
the book was dedicated to ‘Lorenzo de Medici’ – written under the tradition called
‘Mirror of the Prince’.
― But it was not until 1525 that he was recalled to government.
― With the overthrow of the Medici in 1527, Machiavelli was again
excluded from office.
• Machiavelli’s Political thought marks a break from medieval political thinking :
― He is not interested in religious and ecclesiastical issues of medieval thought.
― He is against the Christian virtues of meekness andsubmission.
▪ He says these virtues could not help us survive in the world of politics.

• He argues for the establishment of a strong state which can face foreign aggression and domestic
upheavals :
→ The Prince – Machiavelli’s concern is with how one man can control
his subjects and maintain his power and ensure survival of his state.
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→ The Discourse – How a Republic can be made to survive and prosper by channeling the
fundamentally selfish nature of its citizen in publically beneficial ways.

• Machiavelli’s method is historical and comparative :

― His purpose is to understand how events took place in the past.
▪ He believed that lessons of history are permanently valid
▪ Since human nature is constant so what happened in past will again happen in future
― Following the practice of Italian Renaissance, Machiavelli examined the works of Classical
authors for their political lessons.
• Throughout his writings – Machiavelli subscribe to consistent theory of human nature :
→ Most important assumption is that human nature is changeless
▪ It is this that enables him to make generalizations about politics.
→ Human beings exhibit the same essential characteristics , and these characteristics are
not of the kind traditionally admired :
― Men are basically evil
― The root cause of this is their selfishness
― This selfishness express itself primarily in the desire of self-preservation
and security.

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― When Security has been achieved, people now have single minded devotion to
power
▪ It is because power means freedom
▪ It can be used to dominate but also to prevent others from dominating you

• Desire for power is so prominent that Political life is always characterized by conflicts :
• Politics necessarily involves struggle for power .

• The struggle can be seen more clearly in the case of the Prince who has just seized power
― He is not supported by the customs or people’s respect for him and his family.
― He has to maintain and consolidate his position by his own skillfulness.
→ ‘The Prince’ is a book on he may do this.

• Machiavelli suggests that the Prince must rely chiefly on the use of force and deceit
→ He must assume that man is the slave of his own selfish nature :
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▪ So it is pointless and unsafe to suppose that subjects can be ruled by obtaining
their rational consent or by setting them a good moral example.
▪ Whenever there is a choice, men will respond to dictates of passion rather than
requirement of morality or reason.
▪ It is therefore only by manipulating the passion of others that they can be made to
do what one wants them to do.
• According to Machiavelli, there are four passions that govern human behavior :
― Love
― Hatred
― Fear
― Contempt or Despise
• Love and hate are mutually exclusive : It is not possible to love and hate someone simultaneously.
• Similarly fear and despise are also mutually exclusive.
• However following combinations are possible :
→ Love and Fear
→ Fear and Hatred
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• The passions which Prince will try to invoke are – Love and Fear
― If people hate and despise their ruler, they can not be controlled
― Love and Fear to be induced but hatred and contempt to be avoided
• But if Prince has to choose between Love and Fear, he must choose fear because “ it is better to be
feared than loved”
→ So it is not essential to be loved , but it is essential to be feared and it is more essential
not to be despised or hated
▪ Prince must not touch the property and women of his subjects
▪ He must not perform violent acts himself – Delegate such works to others
• So the foundation of Prince’s Power is force and his willingness to use it ruthlessly :
→ The only art prince needs to acquire are military arts.
▪ Medieval political thinkers required the Prince to be a patron of Arts, Godly, Just, Wise
moral, Virtuous and so forth.

→ For Machiavelli the proper study of the Prince is the Art of War.
→ For Machiavelli Politics is a kind of Warfare.
― The relation between ruler and subjects are the same as those between sovereign
states.
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― Prince’s general policy is to ensure that there is no one who has sufficient power to
challenge him both internally and externally.
― If Prince is to injure others, then he should do it in such a way as to deprive them of
power permanently.
• Machiavelli’s concept of ‘Virtu’
→ ‘Virtu’ is not a moral virtue, it is a particular kind of skill or aptitude which the Prince must have.

• Relationship between ‘Virtu’ and ‘Fortuna’

→ Fortuna means fortune:
▪ Experience teaches us that there is no necessary connection between traditional moral
moral virtues and the incidence of good and ill fortune.
▪ There is no necessary connection between what one deserves and what one gets
© Saar Concepts
especially in Politics.
▪ The world is unpredictable and unstable – here unexpected things happen.
→ In contrast to the unstable and unpredictable world of practical affairs :
▪ Human being generally have a fixed and constant mode of behavior.
▪ It is the traditional moral virtues that call upon us to have such fixed character.
→ For Machiavelli – Always acting in the same way regardless of the circumstances one finds
oneself in is a recipe for disaster – Particularly for a new Prince.
• So for Machiavelli :
→ Virtu is that quality that enables an individual to encounter the blows of fortunes and overcome
them by whatever means necessary.
→ Prince must be adaptable – must be willing to use both the lion and fox in him.
→ Prince must do what the circumstances require and if the requirement is to disregard
traditional virtues then it is also good.
→ Prince can face the fortune only by being infinitely flexible
▪ Everything he does is done because circumstance require – he does not do something
because his character is bad or morally wrong.
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▪ Prince can be described as ‘Amoral’ and not ‘immoral’ because for him there is no fixed
definition of good or bad.
→ Machiavelli admires Cesare Borgia – an individual who by all ordinary standard is a cruel and
vicious tyrant – Machiavelli admires him for his effectiveness and not for his character.
• The Discourses
→ In part a commentary on first ten books of Titus Livy’s history of Rome.
→ In part a series of essays on Machiavelli’s familiar themes : how states rise and fall, how they can
preserve their liberty etc.
→ Discourses is written in Praise of Republic
▪ Here he is more directly concerned with the ‘Virtu’ of people
▪ He says great Republics are those where its people are free and politically active.
→ It is a quite different work from Prince but resting on the same pre suppositions about human
nature :
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▪ In Monarchy one man – The Prince – has supreme power.
▪ In a Republic – Every individual is a Prince.
― Every Individual is able to develop and deploy his own Virtu in defense of his
security, freedom and property – thereby producing a Public Virtu.
▪ In a Monarchy only one man is free, in a Republic all are free.

→ Republics are better than Monarchy because:

▪ Republics will be more stable than monarchies.
▪ They will be better able to defend themselves – because of Citizen’s Army
▪ They will be more successful at extending their territories by war.
• The Republic should be based on Citizen Army : It develops patriotism and Civic Virtue.

• There should also be a state religion or civic religion

→ He views religion from instrumental perspective
→ Religion plays an important role in maintaining civic virtue.

• Prince and Discourses are not radically different – nor are they contradictory :
→ Both share a view of human nature as individualistic, competitive, and where necessary
ruthless and unscrupulous.
© Saar Concepts
→ The Prince is about how one individual is to control the forces of human nature to his own
advantage.
→ The Discourses is about how these forces can be harnessed in such a way so as to secure Unity
and Public Safety.
04
Thomas Hobbes
How to achieve Peace, Stability
English Civil War
and Security
Hobbes
Scientific Revolution

By Scientifically Observing
Society and Politics
Hobbes Approach to Politics is
Scientific
Arrive at a Scientific Theory of
Politics and Government
• Resolutive Compositive method :
Borrowed from Galilieo and Francis Bacon

• Geometrical and Demonstrative

Reasoning : From Euclid
© Saar Concepts
Hobbes : Major Works

• 1630 – A Short Tract on First Principles

• 1650 – The Element of Law Natural and Politic
• Hobbes considered his following three books as his magnum opus
→ 1642 – De Cive )Society
→ 1655 – De Corpre )Body
→ 1658 – De Homine) Human Nature
• In the year 1651 Hobbes published following major works :
→ English translation of De Cive called :
Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and
Society
→ His most important work : Leviathan
→ His analysis of English Civil War : Behemoth

First Break the Society into

its Constituent Parts

Constituent Parts of Society :

Then analyze the Parts
Individual

Then Draw Conclusion about

the best social and political
Hobbes is considered Organization
a Proto Liberal

His premise is liberal but not

his conclusions

Materialist or Mechanist
Theory of Human Behavior

Human Body is a Complex Main Work of Human Body

Machine : Respond to Stumuli

Some Stimuli Pleasurable : They

Attraction Desire
are good : enhance vital motions

Some Stimuli Painful : They are

Repulsion Aversion
Bad : impede vital motions

Two Types of Motion Human Reason help us Pleasure and One of the Early account
Being are Capable of
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avoid Pain of Utilitarianism
What we Fear Most ?

Death :
No Further Pleasure Possible
Sudden and Violent Death

Individual Act for Self-Preservation

Gives permission to an Individual
to Act for his Self-preservation
Right of the Nature : Natural Right

“ to use his own power for the preservation of his self”

Chaos, Disorder, Insecure and Unstable

Three Reasons for Conflict

Competition : For Resources and Power

Truly Hellish Condition Glory : One’s power is relative to others

Fear : No Security, one is always fearful of Violent Death

Natural Right becomes
Right to Everything

Life is:
‘Solitary, Poor, Nasty, Bruitish and Short’
© Saar Concepts
How to come out of State of
Law of Nature
Nature ?

Discoverable by
Human Reason
It is rationally necessary to seek Peace
Total Nineteen Laws
The way to secure peace is to enter into an
of Nature
agreement with others not to harm one
another.

Not breaking the agreement once its made

Society is created by way of a

‘Social Contract’

Society is created by an agreement but who

will enforce the agreement

‘Covenants without the swords are but words, and of no strength to secure a man at all’

A Sovereign is appointed through the Contract

People surrender their

Right to Everything to the Power of the Sovereign is Absolute
Three Limitations to
Sovereign and Unlimited
Sovereign’s Power

Sovereign is not a Party to the

• He must effectively protect people Contract : he is outside the Contract
• People retain the right to defend Themselves
• If he loses in war people will not obey him © Saar Concepts
05
John Locke
John Locke

Born in 1632 Educated at Oxford

Under his influence Locke Came in contact with

became an Opponent of Stuart Lord Ashley :
Monarchy in England Earl of Shaftesbury

Locke became is
He got involved in Plans to Stop After James II accession to Medical Advisor and
James II from coming to Throne Throne Locke fled to Holland then his Secretary

He came back in 168nine after

Glorious Revolution of 1688 Glorious Revolution
made England a
Constitutional Monarchy © Saar Concepts
John Locke : Major Works

• Books published in 168nine

→ Essay Concerning Human Understanding
→ Two Treatise of Government
→ Letter Concerning Toleration

• 16nine3 : Thoughts on Education

• 16nine5 : On the reasonableness of Christianity

Professor Peter Laslett proved that this work was

Two Treatises of Government
written at least 10 years before Glorious Revolution

Attack on Robert Filmer’s ‘Divine Right Theory of

First Treatise
King’ as propunded in his book ‘Patriarcha’

“An Essay concerning the True, Original extent and

Second Treatise
end of Civil Government”

Locke Presents his own

Philosophy
© Saar Concepts
Locke’s Main Arguments

All men are born Equal

Workmanship Ideal
Each Individual is a sovereign Ruler of
his own body

No one can become subject to anyone Creator is the Owner of

else – except by his own consent what he creates

How can we explain the existence and

legitimacy of the present day government ?

© Saar Concepts
State of Nature :
Why we need a To answer this – Locke uses the
Condition where there
Government ? device of State of Nature
is no Government

“ a state of peace, goodwill, mutual Locke’s State of In the absence of

cooperation and preservation” Nature government problems
will arise
It is Social but not Political Human being are
It is a state of Liberty not license Subject to Law of Nature To solve this problem
we will need
government
It teaches that all beings are equal and independent no one to
harm others in life, liberty and property
How to Enforce the
Law of Nature
Law of Nature gives individual natural right to life, liberty and
property
© Saar Concepts
How to Enforce the Locke says People are themselves
Law of Nature Enforcer of Natural Laws

People have a Natural Right to enforce the laws

of nature and Punish the Violators

But Punishment should be

This Common Right to Punish legitimate and in proportion
will not work properly to the crime

There will be disagreement on the right

quantity of Punishment This will create conflicts
which will turn state of
People will be partial while awarding nature into a State of War
Punishments
© Saar Concepts
How to Come out of People will make a Contract will have
State of Nature Social Contract 3 Stages

People will surrender their right to enforce Law of Political Community is

nature to the Community Established

• Political Community appoints government and

gives it the responsibility to enforce natural laws
Government is
• First Legislature-Feduciary Trust- is established
Established
which makes laws according to natural laws.
• Legislature makes Executive to implement laws

• Government would need to supported by taxation

• But property is a natural right Authorization for
• Taxation will depend upon the agreement among
property owners © Saar Concepts Taxation
• According to Locke
→ The relationship between government and people is contractual.
▪ People give government certain power and in return of this they promise
their obedience to the government.

→ Government is based on the consent of the governed .

▪ But the problem is ‘How and when is consent given?’
― Express or Actual or Explicit Consent :
When person clearly accepts his obedience to government
― Tacit Consent : We indirectly give our consent through our activities
like voting in election, using government services, participating
in political debates.

© Saar Concepts
• Locke’s Theory of Private Property
→ Locke holds that law of nature confers upon mankind natural right of life,liberty
and property.
▪ But it is the natural right to property that interests him the most.
→ Labor is the origin and justification of private property.
▪ Private property arises when individual mix their labor with what is
available for everyone in common.
→ Locke recognizes that natural law places specific limits on what one may acquire
in the state of nature
1. Spoilage Limitation
▪ An individual can not take more than what he can use.
▪ Wasting natural goods is like violating other people’s right to it
2. ‘Enough and as good’ clause
▪ One must not take more than his share.
▪ One must make sure to leave as much and as good for others

© Saar Concepts
• Locke’s Theory of Revolution
→ Locke’s Political theory is also a theory of Revolution.
→ Men establish government to defend their natural rights and uphold the
natural law. So :-
▪ Government can not supersede the natural law.
▪ Government can not violate natural rights of the people.

→ A government that violate natural right is a breach of trust.

▪ If this happens then people have the right to revolution.
▪ People have the right to take back authority originally conferred on
government.

→ After revolution, sovereignty reverts back to the community that was created
by the original contract.
▪ Then the process of creating government can begin again.

© Saar Concepts
06
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Rousseau Born in Geneva in 1712
• Had little formal education
• At the age of 15 ran away
Became opposed to from home and reached Paris
prevailing mode of thought • Came in contact with
Enlightenment Thinkers

Became a Critic of
Enlightenment

The Main Enlightenment argument was

: Science and Religion can improve
man’s condition

“ Man is naturally good but corrupted by Society”

• “Discourses on Science and Arts” (1750)

→ Written for an essay competition organized by ‘ Academy of Dijon’
→ He argued that advancement in civilization is making human being
corrupt, dishonest and unhappy.

• Second Discourse : ‘Discourse on Inequality’ (1754)

• Social Contract (1762)

→ Problem caused by the civilization can be overcome by a new kind
social organization

Rousseau has a three stage model

Social Contract Theory

State of Nature where man is very good

and happy
Discussed in “Discourse on Inequality”
Man moves into a corrupt society with
corrupt government

Man reforms the society through the

Discussed in “Social Contract”
Social Contract
© Saar Concepts
Rousseau’s State of Nature

There is absence of Reason

Needs are basic and limited : they

are physical needs
Desire for Self Preservation
Self Love Man is naturally free,
(amour de soi)
independent, Satisfied and Happy
Ability to experience other’s
Sympathy
sufferings Man lives a Solitary life

But men will be different from There is no reason means there is

animals in two respects no Law of Nature here

© Saar Concepts
As a tool it helps us achieve our goal
Reason Performs
two Functions It affects our desire by making us
want more and more

Process begins with the arrival Scarcity of Resources will make Necessity to adapt
of Reason in state of nature people think and use reason give birth to Reason

From State of Nature to Corrupt

Society
The Process gets completed in
3 Stages

Appearance of Family First Stage

People will realize the importance Rousseau says desire of vanity can never
of association and group work be satisfied – becomes a cause of
unhappiness

They will start coming closer

It is a desire to be seen superior to others

This will give rise to Vanity or Pride

Vanity or Pride is different from self love
among people

Society gets divided into Introduction of Private

Second Stage
Rich and Poor Property

Conflict begins between Rousseau is considered as an

Rich and Poor inspiration for Socialists

But Rousseau is not against

Private Property but against
Poor Desire the Property of Rich negative effect of Private
property
Rich wants to protect their property
from poor
© Saar Concepts
From State of Nature to Corrupt Process gets completed in 3
Society Stages

Establishment of Government Third Stage

Through First Social Contract

Rich will tell poor that a government is needed to protect life

and property of all

Poor will feel This social contract will be plan by the rich to
cheated actually protect their own property

Society will become

even more corrupt © Saar Concepts
How to come out of this corrupt Not possible to go back to state
Society of nature

We can only reform the existing

society
This is Possible through a New
We can try to restore man’s natural Social Contract
freedom and eliminate inequality,
dependence and subordination
Main Objective of the Social
Contract

To establish Equality and

For Rousseau Freedom means

Self Government
Collective Interest

Higher Self
Rousseau's An Individual is free if he his ruled
Theory of Self by laws made by himself
Lower Self
Self Government – direct
Self Interest participation in legislation – Direct
Democracy

He said ‘will’ can not be Rousseau was against

represented
© Saar Concepts Representative Democracy
Rousseau’s
Social Contract

People give all their In return they receive equal share in

rights to the community sovereignty or decision making process

What if Laws are made on Laws of the community are actually

majority basis ? laws made by people for themselves

This will not be self-rule for the

This meets the requirement of self-
minority
government (freedom)

To Solve this problem Rousseau

introduces the concept of
“General Will”
© Saar Concepts
The General Will
State Individual
It is the good for the whole
community
General Will Will Will

Aim at well Aim at

being of entire Individual well
community being

Two Features of General Will

All citizen should participate in making

General in Origin
General Will

All the people together make the

People
Legislature

But majority decision

Unanimous decision People make laws on the basis of
can also represent
is required General Will
General Will

If majority thinks for Sovereign will appoint the

collective interest Government to implement the
laws
Minority (those who
don’t approve the laws)
“Forced to be free”
can be forced to follow
the law © Saar Concepts
07
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham Born in London in 1748

Founder of Utilitarianism

He was influenced by accomplishments of natural

He was an Enlightenment Thinker
Sciences

He wanted same development in social sciences

More than a Philosopher he was a Wanted to develop simple practical principle that
Reformer can be implemented

© Saar Concepts
He proposed many legal, Political and Criminal
reforms : (his famous Model Prison – Panoptican)
Jeremy Bentham : Major Works

• A Fragment on Government (1776)

• An Introduction to the Principles of Morals
and legislation (1789)

Psychological All human being seek to maximize Pleasure and

Hedonism minimize Pain

• People seek Pleasure as an End in itself

Pleasure is Supreme • People seek greatest quantity of pleasure not quality
Good • Quality of Pleasure is more important than quantity
(Pushpin is as good as poetry)

• Pleasure and pain are only criteria that determine

Pleasure is the basis of
what we ought to do
Morality
• What is Right is what is Pleasurable

Bentham is concerned with increasing the

Pleasure of entire community

Community is the sum total of Individual

We need to add together the individual

Pleasure of all

Felicific Calculus

© Saar Concepts
Felicific Calculus
1. Intensity
2. Duration
3. Propinquity
Pleasure and Pain to be measured along
4. Certainty
7 Dimensions
5. Fecundity
6. Purity
7. Extent

Using this Legislators and Policymakers can

achieve the true aim of Legislation

Phrase coined by
“Greatest Happiness of greatest number”
Francis Hutcheson

Utilitarianism Teleological Moral Theory

First we define the meaning of “Good”

(For Utilitarianism Good = Pleasure)

Right action is that which brings about

greatest amount of good (Pleasure)

Teleological Theory focus on the

Consequence of Actions

Right is defined independent of the

What is Right ?
consequence of action

Something that follows a predefined

moral Principle or Law (eg. Natural Law)

Right action is that which is consistent

with Natural law or Moral Principle

Bentham calls Natural Laws and Natural Rights are meaningful only if they
Right a fiction – ‘Simple Nonsense’ established and enforced by
“Nonsense Upon Stilts” a Legal System

Legal Positivism
• Laws are command issued by
appropriate authority.
• Rights are real if supported by a legal
system

• Bentham supports Representative Democracy

→ In Representative Democracy Leaders
are accountable to the People
→ This accountability is ensured through
periodic elections and limited tenure
• Bentham Proposes following reforms
• Universal Adult Franchise
• Secret ballot
• Annual election
• James Mill helps Bentham develop his ideas on democracy.
→ Mill’s Famous work is
• “Essay on Government” (1820)

Son of James Mill

Major Works

• On Liberty (1859)
• Utilitarianism (1861)
• Considerations on Representative Government (1861)
• Subjugation of Women (1869)

Mill’s Main Objectives

• Provide a defense for Utilitarianism

• Provide a Theory of Liberty .

Both believe that Pleasure is Supreme good

Both believe in Psychological Hedonism which means that men

always desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Both believe that Pleasure is the basis of Morality :

What is right is what causes pleasure.

Both believe that Public Policy and Laws should

aim at “greatest happiness of greatest numbers”

For Mill, not all Pleasures are Equal

Quality of Pleasure is more There are Superior or Higher quality

important that quantity of Pleasure and Inferior or Lower quality
Pleasure Pleasure

Mental Pleasure or Pleasure of Minds are

“It is better to be a human higher quality or superior pleasure
being dissatisfied than a Pig
satisfied, better to be Socrates
Physical Pleasure or Bodily Pleasure are
dissatisfied than a fool
lower quality or inferior pleasure
satisfied.

Mill introduces a qualitative dimension to

Bentham’s Utilitarianism
Mill calls Bentham’s Philosophy
One-Sided It makes the simple doctrine of Bentham
a Complex one
It ignores the emotional side of
Human Life Moral debates, value judgment and
ethical question enters Utilitarianism

The Mental Depression that Mill Faced in his Felicific Calculus of Bentham
early 20s helps him arrive at this Conclusion becomes difficult to use

© Saar Concepts
He comes out from this Depression by reading
poetries of Wordsworth and Coleridge
Mill dedicates his work ‘On Liberty’ to his
Mill’s concept of Liberty
wife Harriet Taylor

What is Freedom for Mill?

It is the ability to pursue our own good in

our own way, provided that we do not
impede other people’s effort to do so.

Society can restrict our freedom only to

Harm Principle
prevent harm to others

Self Regarding Sphere No Interference

It means Harm to others
and not to self
© Saar Concepts
Other regarding sphere Interference allowed
Two most important types of
Freedom for Mill

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression must not

Society will lose by If the Opinion is be suppressed
suppressing it Correct
Even if the thought or opinion is correct or
Debate can incorrect
If the Opinion is
reestablish the
Incorrect
legitimacy of truth

Clash of Opinion and ideas

extremely Important © Saar Concepts
Two most important types of Mill dedicates his work ‘On Liberty’ to his
Freedom for Mill wife Harriet Taylor

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression

Freedom of to live as one chooses

This is called ‘Individuality’

People should be allowed to

make their own choices

© Saar Concepts
Two most important types of Mill dedicates his work ‘On Liberty’ to his
Freedom for Mill wife Harriet Taylor

Freedom of Thoughts and Expression

Freedom of to live as one chooses

These two types of freedom brings higher

quality pleasure

• According to Mill, Representative form of government is the best form of

Government :
→ Elected members are responsible to public
• Mill says that every citizen should be given vote.
→ He advocates for voting rights for women.
• Subjugation of Women (1869)
• What Mill fears most in a Representative Government is Tyranny of Majority
→ He proposes some solutions
• Provision for Plural Voting
• Proportional Representation
(this method of Voting was developed by
Thomas Hare)

Born in 1870 in Moscow, Russia

Best known for his two Theories

• Theory of Vanguard Party

→ Presented in his short work “What is to be done?”(1902)

• Theory of Imperialism
→ Presented in his famous book:
“ Imperialism : The Highest stage of Capitalism”(1916)

This party was illegal During his student life, Lenin joined RSDP –
in Russia Russian Socialist Democratic Party

Lenin’s zeal and organization ability helped

him become a leading figure in the party

But soon Lenin began to differ from the

strategy of RSDP Leadership

RSDP Leadership believed Lenin believed that

Russia must pass through high Capitalist Revolution should begin as soon as
Stage before Revolution Possible

RSDP wanted to build a mass party like Mass Party is not required
that of German SDP

Lenin presents the alternative in his

work “What is to be done?”(1902)

Lenin’s Arguments

If worker class is left to itself

What is actually needed is a ‘Revolutionary

They will only develop
Consciousness’ which worker class can not
‘Trade Union Consciousness’
develop themselves.

Workers need Leadership

This Party should have Revolutionary Consciousness

They should have the theory and Tactics of Revolution

A New Type of Party is
needed

Vanguard Party
© Saar Concepts
Lenin’s Theory of Vanguard Party

What Lenin is Proposing

Creation of a small party of dedicated professional revolutionaries

trained in revolutionary activity and Marxist Theory.

“Vanguard of the Proletariat”

This organization is based on Democratic Centralism

This party will not be separate from the working

class – it will be the most class conscious part of it.

Split in the RSDP

Bolsheviks Mensheviks

This faction led by Lenin

Later becomes Official Ideology of this Party is

“Communist Party of Soviet Union” called ‘Marxism-Leninism’

Lenin wanted to give a Theoretical explanation for the

failure of Marx’s Prediction

Contrary to Marx’s Prediction

Capitalism had not shown any sign of collapse in advanced

capitalist countries

• Classes were not polarizing.

• Middle Class growing Answer Lies in
• Working class becoming prosperous Imperialism

Stage of Capitalism © Saar Concepts

Lenin says that Marx could not see this Imperialism is an another
Stage of Capitalism
Lenin’s Theory of Imperialism

Lenin presents this theory in his famous work

“Imperialism : The Highest Stage of Capitalism” (1916)

Capitalism Exploits the Underdeveloped Part

of the world

Workers have not been It uses the profit to ‘buy off’ the domestic
‘Bought Off’ here working class

Russia is not as economically The exploited mass of the colonial world

advanced as west becomes new Proletariat

Lenin says Russia is Ready for Thus Communist Revolution will not start
Communist Revolution
© Saar Concepts
from the advanced Capitalist west
10
Edmund Burke’s Conservatism
Edmund Burke

Born in 1729 in Dublin, Ireland

His major works

1765 - Got elected to House of

• A vindication of Natural Societies (1756)
Commons
• A philosophical Enquiry into the origin of
our ideas of sublime and beautiful (1757)
• An appeal from new to old Whigs (1791) Remained an MP till his death
• Thoughts on French Affairs (1791)
• Letters on Regicide Peace (1796-97)

His most famous and Important work

Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)

Politics cannot be conducted according to

abstract Principles

Abstract Principles are those that are not based on

or rooted in Past Experience and Practice

Need to conserve past experiences and practices

Social and Political Result of slow and gradual Men evolve to accommodate
Institutions that men live in process of Evolution to changing circumstances

Society is not based on a

It is a slow process of trial
Contract that any one
and error and learning
Generation has made

It is a vast historical partnership between those who are living,

those who are dead and those who will born

It is so complex that it can not be understood by any one individual

or Generation or Group

To try to destroy it and build another from scratch is a big Mistake

Revolution or Sudden Change is destructive

There should only be reforms and in a

Gradual Manner

This reform should not be based on abstract

Principles but on the need of situation.

Present state of things is the sum total of all

developments

It is too complex to Understand

Interfering with it is dangerous

The arrangement that works should be left alone

• Burke was against French Present state of things is the sum total of all
Revolution developments
• He criticized British
Misgovernment in India and It is too complex to Understand
America.
• He was largely responsible for Interfering with it is dangerous
the impeachment of Warren
Hastings in 1788 The arrangement that works should be left alone

Gramsci and Luckas : Western Marxism

Karl Marx and Eduard Berstein’s Revisionism

Marxism
Louis Althusser : Structural Marxism

Nicos Poulantzas’s Structural Marxism

Ralph Miliband’s Instrumental Marxism

Eduard Bernstein

He belonged to German Social Democratic Party (SDP)

In the beginning he was an orthodox Marxist like

other members of SDP

Death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 gave Bernstein

freedom to differ from core assumptions of Marxism

Single great leap or a sudden change from Capitalism

to Socialism is not possible

Capitalism is not going to Collapse under its own

Contradiction : there is no sign for it

Socialism will come about through gradual reforms

and democracy and not through sudden a revolution

Bernstein thus modified number of Marxism’s basic

ideas.

From 1896, he published his ideas in a

His ideas were criticized by Karl
series of Articles in
Kautsky, Rosa Luxemberg and others
the journal “The New Age”

Bernstein clarified his ideas in his later

works
• The Precondition of Socialism and
the task of Social Democracy (1899)
• Evolutionary Socialism : A Criticism
and Affirmation (1899)

• These works gave rise to what is called evolutionary

Marxism splits into two Parts

Orthodox Marxists

Karl Marx’s Theory was right, Revolution is needed

to overthrow Capitalism and establish Socialism
Main Proponent : Rosa Luxemberg

Revisionist Marxists

Socialism can be established even without Violent

Revolution , through gradual reforms and democracy
Main Proponent : Eduard Bernstein

Major Works
He was against Marxist Humanism
• For Marx (1965)
• Reading Capital (1965)
What is Humanism ? • Ideology and Ideological
State Apparatus (1970)
Any system of thought that places human
being at the center of the analysis

Marxist Humanism is
Marx’s work “Economic and Philosophical Manuscript” (written in
associated with
1844 and published in 1930s) is considered a Humanist text
Critical Theory

© Saar Concepts
Althusser says that real Marxism (one based on Historical
materialism) can never be Humanist.
Louis Althusser

Structuralism

Human beings are not free to

It is an anti-humanist method
create the world according to
of analysis
their own will

Society is not a collection of

Individuals but a System or
Structure

It is this system or structure that determines the

lives and thoughts of individuals living in it.

Base Economic System

Althusser rejects economic
determinism of Marx Factors of Production

Relations of Production
Structure of the Society consists
of relatively autonomous levels
Capitalist Class Working Class

Ideological System

Economic System These systems function separately and can be

analyzed independently of economic system
Political System
© Saar Concepts
19
Sir Karl Popper
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)

Known for his three important concepts

Theory of Falsification : ‘The Logic of Scientific Discovery’ (1934)

Historicism : ‘The Poverty of Historicism’ (1957)

Open Society : ‘The Open Society and its enemies’ (1945)

© Saar Concepts
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
For Popper , Induction is not a Proper
Theory of Falsification method to build theory or Knowledge

Method of Induction is based on

Verification and Confirmation

Induction method
Collection of Evidence → Generalization (theory building) → Verification

Generalizations based on large number of observed past evidenced

is a valid or correct theory or law.

© Saar Concepts
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)
For Popper , Induction is not a Proper
Theory of Falsification method to build theory or Knowledge

Its core assumption is that Method of Induction is based on

past will repeat itself in future Verification and Confirmation

No amount of Verification and confirmation of what we currently believe

can show that our beliefs will go on being true in future

It is better to base our Theory on Falsification rather than Verification

All scientific knowledge are Even a single counter example

Provisional : They are true as long as can show that a given
they are not falsified
© Saar Concepts generalization is wrong
Sir Karl Popper (1902 - 1994)

Theory of Falsification
Marxism

Intellectual Systems that are

Pseudo-Science
not falsifiable

They do not allow evidence

against them

Concept of Historicism ‘The Poverty of Historicism’ (1957)

It is a belief that it is possible to discover ‘Laws’ of Historical

Development

On the basis of such law, predict future and make social and
political plan according to that

Karl Popper rejects ‘Historicism’

We can not know what the future might be

Concept of Open Society ‘The Open Society and its enemies’ (1945)

Two requirements for a Good Society

People are able to express their Criticism against government

effectively

It is possible to change a corrupt government which is acting

against people

A Society which fulfills these requirements is

It is because they present a totalitarian
called an Open Society
vision of state in their theories

Karl Popper calls Plato, Hegel and Marx

‘Enemy of Open Society’ © Saar Concepts
20 & 21
Vilfredo Pareto and
Robert Michel
Vilfredo Pareto

An Italian Economist and

Social Theorist

Famous for his Theory of ‘Circulation of

Elites’

This Theory is presented in his book “The

Rise and Fall of the Elites” (1991)

Other works :
The transformation of Democracy (1984)
The Mind and Society (1935)
© Saar Concepts
Vilfredo Pareto

Human Activity

Logical Activity

Means and ends are objectively related

Non-Logical Activity

Where means and ends are not objectively

All Non-Logical Social and Political life comprises of

Activity non-logical activities

But human being try to make their

actions appear Rational

They try to Rationalize their activities by

making Theoretical Constructs
or Theories

Society’s General
Theories or Theoretical
belief system
Constructs

Constant Elements Residues

Derived Elements Derivations

Constant Elements Residues

Class I Residues Class II Residues

Instincts of Combination Persistence of Aggregates

Capacity to create and Natural human tendency to

invent new things conserve and consolidate

Associated with personality Associated with personality

trait of fox
© Saar Concepts trait of lion
Human Activity

Basis of Social and

Logical Activity Non-Logical Activity
Political Life

Try to rationalize it by
making theories

Constant Derivates

Residues

Class I Class II
‘Instinct of Combination’ ‘Persistence of Aggregates’

FOX
© Saar Concepts LION
Population

Elite Non Elite

Non-Governing Elite Governing Elite

FOX LION

Good at manufacturing consent and Good at using force and theses People
striking are straightforward

When situation favors them they will When situation favors them they will
come to power
© Saar Concepts come to power
Robert Michel

He is best known for his theory of

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’
A European Sociologist
The idea is developed in his book
Born in Germany but spent much ‘Political Parties’ (1911)
of his time in Italy

He is associated with Italian Elitist

thinkers : Mosca and Pareto

© Saar Concepts
Robert Michel Without Organization Weaker groups in
Society can not challenge the stronger and
‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’ powerful

In a Democracy , We need to
It is Organization that give rise
build Political Organization or
to Oligarchy of leaders
Political Party

As the Organization grows , Responsibility gets delegated to groups

management becomes complex of specialists (Natural Leaders)

Struggle for power takes place In the beginning, leaders serve the
among the elites interests of Party members

For these leaders the most important

things become maintaining their power © Saar Concepts
Gradually leaders become more
Professionalized and form an Oligarchy
Robert Michel

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’

Democracy requires Organization

Oligarchy Organization requires

‘Iron Law of Oligarchy’

‘Who says Organization, says Oligarchy’

Robert Michel gives an Elitist Critique

of Democracy

• Parliamentary Democracy is a Fraud

• Once Leaders are in Power, they use power for their
own interest.
• In democracy there is struggle for power between
and among Elites.
• Democracy at best offers choice between Elites.

© Saar Concepts
32 & 33
Prince Peter Kropotkin
and Frantz Fanon
Prince Peter Kropotkin Born into a Russian noble
(1842 - 1921) family in Moscow in 1842

He was an Anarchist Thinker

He was influenced by the Kropotkin wanted to give a more

writings of Proudhon and scientific account of anarchist society
Bakunin than his Predecessors

His most important work

“Mutual Aid” (1902)

Other works
• The Conquest of Bread (1891)

A violent Revolution is necessary to give rise to

According to Kropotkin
an Anarchist world

State will be abolished After the General

immediately Uprising

State will be replaced a federation These communes will have

of self-governing communes no means of coercion

Kropotkin calls this system a ‘System of Free Communism’

No Private property and wealth means there will be no crime

His major themes are

• Racism, its effects and how it can be overcome.

• Relationship between Racism and Colonialism.

His important works

Black Faces, White Masks (1952)

The Wretched of the Earth (1961)

Relationship between black and white

Black Faces, White Masks
people in colonial situation

Colonized people are educated to believe

Civilization and everything that is good White Represents

Everything that is bad, Uncivilized Black Represents

Status depends on Color

They adopt White man’s manners

Black despise their own color
and behaviors

Black people lose their Identity © Saar Concepts

But they are still seen as Inferior
Frantz Fanon

The Wretched of the Earth

Independence from Colonialism for

It is a fraud
African Countries

Power went from White

Freedom has no meaning if granted to Black Capitalists
by the colonial power to the
colonized people
Exploitation continues
under Black capitalist
True independence comes only
through Revolution

He is also regarded as Conservative

Communitarian Thinker

His Major Works

He wrote a long introduction to David Hume’s

‘Treatise of Human Nature’

Lectures on Principles of Political Obligation (1882)

Prolegomena to Ethics (1883)

He rejected the idea that society can be understood as a collection of self

interested individuals dedicated to the pursuit of happiness and pleasure.

The relation between Individual and Society is Complex

The Individual is a Social Being, the self is a Social Self

Individual can not be separated from the group

We achieve happiness and fulfillment as a part of community

Individual Interest can not be more important that Collective good.

© Saar Concepts
Rights and Duties are equally important
Thomas Hill Green’s Chief purpose of Government is
View of Freedom to maximize freedom

Constraints is not mere physical external Maximizing freedom by removing

restriction (Negative Freedom) Constraints

For T H Green : Constraint is

understood in broader sense

Green gives a Positive Conception of freedom

(Positive Freedom)

Freedom is Rational Freedom

It is doing what is ought to be done

Freedom is Self-Realization

It is about realizing one’s true potential

It is the freedom to become the best that one can be

Whatever stands in the way of self realization is a

‘Constraint’
© Saar Concepts
Thomas Hill Green’s View on the
Role of Government

Green gives many functions to

Government

Function of government is not just to remove external

barriers to freedom

Government must provide means and opportunities for

self realization

Here Green lays the foundation of Welfare State

Government should provide education and health care service

© Saar Concepts
It should inculcate good habits : eg by banning Alcohol etc
42 & 43
Marry Wollstonecraft and
Simon de Beauvoir
Feminism

Marry Wollstonecraft ‘Vindication of the Rights of Women’

Simon de Beauvoir ‘The Second Sex’

She was born in London in 1759

Her most important work is

‘A Vindication of the Rights of the Women’ (1790)

‘A Vindication of the Rights Foundational text of First

of the Women’ (1790) Wave Feminism

Liberal Feminism

Wollstonecraft applies standard liberal values and arguments to

the specific case of women

Human beings are Their Rationality Justifies their claim to rights of

rational Creatures liberties and self-determination

Women are also Human They are also They must be entitled the same
beings Rational rights and liberties as men

The assumed Their submissive nature, Feminity of

irrationality of women emotional and meekness Women

These characteristics are socially created, women are taught to be like this

She was born in Paris in 1908

Her most important work is

‘The Second Sex’ (1949)

This book gave rise to Second Wave Feminism

Before the Publication of First Wave Equal legal and Political Rights
‘The Second Sex’ Feminism were achieved by the women

The relationship between Men and Women But Women were still treated as
remained that of Superior and Inferior Inferior and subordinate

Women were always seen as subordinate, second

rate citizen and submissive beings

To explain this , Beauvoir uses

Reason behind this lies in the Mentality of the
‘Existentialism’ Philosophy in her
Societye
book ‘The Second Sex’

Existentialism was developed by Jean Paul Sarte in his book

Existentialism
‘Being and Nothingness’

The purpose of
existence is to achieve Self Understanding is achieved through defining oneself
Self-Understanding
People define themselves in terms of

Subject who is being defined ‘Self’

Subject or Self defines himself by

‘Other’
creating a category of ‘Other’

Existentialism

• Self needs ‘Otherness’ in order to define itself as a subject.

• The category of otherness is necessary in the constitution of
the Self as a ‘Self’.

• While it is natural for humans to understand themselves in

opposition to ‘Other’ – the Process becomes problematic
when applied to the relations between Men and Women

Existentialism

They represent the ‘Self’

Men6 Men will define themselves
or ‘Subject’

Men will define themselves

in opposition to Women

Women become ‘Other’ or

‘Object

Women can not define themselves The ‘Object’ depends on ‘Subject’

, they are defined by Men for its Identity

All that is good and Masculine Man represents all that is positive
Dominant Quality and good

All that is bad and Feminine Women represent all that is bad
Subservient Quality and inferior

She argues that feminine qualities are not natural to women

Civilization, not biology, had constructed the feminity

Feminity and Gender is a Social Construct

Feminity was artificially created by customs and imposed from

outside. Women are taught to assume Gender Roles

“One is not born but rather becomes a Woman”

What is the Solution to the Problem ?

Men and Women should recognize as Equals

They should naturally recognize each other as Subjects

He was born in 1926 in France

He began as a Marxist thinker but in 1950s got strongly influenced

by the philosophy of Nietzsche and French Structuralism

Structuralism

Our natural assumption about our freedom to think and act as we

wish is illusionary

Human Activity is governed by deep internal structure, complex

sets of rules – which unconsciously work to severely constrain

His Major Works

• Madness and Civilization (1961)

• The Birth of Clinic (1963)
• The Order of things
• The Archeology of Knowledge
• Discipline and Punishment
• History of Sexuality

Genealogy

Foucault calls his method of study as Genealogy

Concepts such as justice, rights, good etc are not

discerned by reason – but are rather the result of
power struggle

Genealogy studies the way in which what we

count as knowledge is the result of power struggle
between different proponents of an idea

© Saar Concepts
This is called Genealogical analysis of Ideas
It flows from Top to Bottom
Michele Foucault
Power is Repressive
Capillary Power
Traditional Definition of Power

Old Model of Political Power based on Centralized Sovereign is no more applicable

Power was Direct

The King’s Head has been ‘Cut-Off’
and Visible

Sovereign was not involved in In Pre modern and early modern society –
Individual’s life beyond certain limits Power flowed from sovereign to subjects

This Type of Power is called Modernity has reconfigured the flow of

Capillary Power

This Type of Power is called Modernity has reconfigured the flow of

Capillary Power Power – It now originates from everywhere

Power is not something concentrated in one Place

Power erupts from different points of Social Network

Capillary Power means power over life – ‘Biopower’

Power is Productive
and Constitutive
A constant pressure is applied on Individual at Every point

Power is not only

Repressive © Saar Concepts
We are shaped by Power – Our Life is determined by power
without our own knowledge about it
Michele Foucault

Governmentality

• It is also called ‘Conduct of the Conduct’

• These are the techniques required for regulating and controlling
people’s behavior.
• It is made with two words :
Government + Rationality = Governmentality
• Governmentality involves techniques like :
→ Keeping records for citizens birth and death
→ Knowing the preference of people through surveys
→ Using Statistical methods for predicting people’s
behavior.

She was born into a middle class Jewish family

in Hanover (Germany) in 1906

She studied philosophy under two major Existentialist

Thinkers – Karl Jasper and Martin Hedger

In 1933 she moved from Germany to Paris (France)

When War broke out between France and Germany –

She emigrated to USA

The Approach is very different from prevailing

traditions of Political Thoughts

She had a very different understanding of the

nature of Politics

Major Weakness in Modern Political Thinking

It is seeing Human Existence In the way as we view Nature

Objectively Objectively to understand it

In Nature there is vast

We try to identify the
Complexity
underlying aspect of human
nature and then shape society
to fit that nature We still try to find underlying
pattern and order in nature

The Origin of Totalitarianism (1951)

Totalitarianism is bureaucratization of terror in the

enforcement of an ideology

Eichmann in Jerusalem :
A Report on the Banality of Evil

She portrays the Nazi War Criminal Adolf Eichmann as a

thoughtless, unimaginative bureaucrat than a Monster

Hannah Arendt gives the meaning of Politics in her famous work

The Human Condition (1958)

There are two types of Human

Activities

Vita Contemplativa or Theoretical Activities

→ Act of Thinking, Willing, Judging etc

Vita Activa or Practical Activities

→ Politics comes under this category

Vita Activa or Practical Activities again

divided into three Parts

Action

Work

Labor

Vita Activa or Practical Activities again divided into three Parts

Labor

Everything that we do to maintain our physical existence .

Eg Eating food

Work

In this type of activates we make things. The things that we

make should be made on more permanent basis
Eg. Creative Works of Craftman
Or Building some Institutions

Action It occupies the top position in the Hierarchy

It is the human capacity to publically intervene in the world and

initiate something new

It is the capacity to come out of the daily routine and change the way
we do things

Bring Changes Through :

Either through Words

This is how we will realize our true freedom
Or through Actions
© Saar Concepts
Politics : Highest form of Human Activity
Hannah Arendt

Mistake of most Theories Keeping Politics in the category of ‘Work’

Politics is understood in terms of devising and

creating Institutions that fit human nature

But for Hannah Arendt – Politics is a

Way of life

She can be put in the category of proponent

of Civic Republicanism

• Civic Republicanism values Public Life over Private life,

• It sees politics as an arena to work for the interest of community
© Saar Concepts
• It stresses on the idea of Patriotism
53
Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci

One of the pioneer of Western or Humanistic Marxism

It is a tradition that opposes orthodox Marxism fro its economic

determinism and materialistic conception of history
(Dialectical Materialism)

Orthodox Marxism

Give Priority to economic organization of society

Economic Determinism

Society is driven by economic system

Human Agency is important

Creative human actions play a role in historical development

Studied in University of Turin

While in University, became aware of Northern

Prejudice among South Italian Like him

Joined Italian Socialist Party (PSI0 in 1911

Found his own Italian Socialist Party(PSI) in 1921

Under Mussolini reign – Got arrested in 1926

Prison Notebooks Remained in Prison for life, released just before his death
in 1937

Prison Notebooks

Presents arguments against ‘Dialectical Materialism’

Argued that economic determinism can not explain why

Capitalism persists even after its contradiction

Orthodox Marxists have paid less attention to power of myth

and ideas

Physical Domination is not enough

Capitalists remain in Power because of

Hegemony

Spiritual and Cultural Supremacy of Ruling Class

Hegemony is created through manipulation of Civil Society

By Controlling and Using agent of Socialization – Media ,

Church, Schools, Colleges etc

Such values and beliefs are instilled in the Population

which favors Capitalists

© Saar Concepts
For Gramsci – the moral and cultural integration of the masses into a system operating
against their interests has made physical force unnecessary
Antonio Gramsci

Two steps to remove the Capitalist from power

1. War of Position

• Abolishing the whole system of Capitalists ideas and attitudes

• Creating a Counter Hegemony
• Gradual and peaceful transformation of mass consciousness

1. War of Manouvre

• Use of Force against the state apparatus

Two Types of Intellectuals

• Traditional Intellectuals
→ Artists, Scholars, Priests – Those who are directly related
to Politics

• Organic Intellectual
→ Civil Servants, Political Activists, who are more closely
tied to state

• Confucius(Chinese name : Kongzi) was a fifth century BC Chinese thinker

− All information about Confucius’ life and teachings is known from
the text known as
• Analects (Chinese : Lunyu)

• Confucius (551-479 BCE) was born in the small state of ‘Lu’ on the Shandong Peninsula
in the northeastern China.
− He was born in a period known in Chinese History as :
• ‘Spring and Autumn Period’ (770-481 BCE)

− Most of the texts mentioning Confucius belong to another period of

Chinese history called :
• ‘Warring State Period’ (403-221 BCE)

• Pre Confucian China had two important dynasties/Civilization

− Shang Dynasty / Civilization
• This dynasty was theocratic, believed in superstition, practiced
human sacrifice. It was totally based on irrational principles

− Zhou Dynasty / Civilization

• Zhou Civilization was much more rational and humanistic
• Zhou People worshipped universal deity called ‘Tian’ (Heaven)
• Later it conquered Shang dynasty and Zhou rulers developed a
‘Kin Based Feudalism’
• They governed on the basis of rituals of Kin laws rather than force
or Violence.
• They called their statecraft as rule by virtue
• Under the rule of Zhou, Statecraft and morality was combined.
© Saar Concepts
Confucius

• By eight century Zhou dynasty began to decline

− It was challenged by rising feudal lords
− Kingdom was frequently invaded by foreigners

• By late fifth century Zhou’s authority had completely declined

− This phase of Chinese history is called ‘Spring and Autumn Period’ and it is
in this period that Confucius was born.
− It became the life mission of Confucius to revive the old days
Zhou dynasty.
• This goal is what gets reflected in Confucius political philosophy.

• After the complete collapse of Zhou dynasty comes the ‘period of warring states’
− In this period importance of the teachings of Confucius is realized.

• Teachings of Confucius :

− Confucius did not believe that his teaching was an innovation,

• He said what he tried to do was just to transmit the wisdom of the past
with special focus on the rituals of Zhou Dynasty

− The importance of ritual propriety (li) and its role in harmonizing human
relationships is the central teaching of Confucianism

− Ritual Propriety requires that individuals of different rank and status act
appropriately according to their role in a given relationship

• Teachings of Confucius :

− Confucius identified five relations at the core of a harmonious community

• Ruler - Subject
• father - Son
• Husband-wife
• Elder-younger brother
• friend-friend

− The senior partner of these relationships are obliged to show care and concern
− Whereas the junior partners are obliged to be obedient and respectful

• Teachings of Confucius :

− Thus a harmonious social order can be created by :

• Filial Piety (Xiao), obedience, and concern towards parents and loyalty
towards rulers.

• Ren/Jen : It refers to the inner moral power that can be attained through continuous
practice of moral virtues.
• It is an inward personal attribute of goodness

• Li : Ritual propriety, it is through the practice of ‘li’ the society can be harmonized
• It is related to one’s outward behavior

• Junzi : An exemplary person, it also refers to aristocratic ruling class.

• The Warring state era , produced two thinkers of great importance for Confucian
tradition :
• Mengzi (372-289 BCE)
• Xunzi (312-230

• He was born in Germany in 1929

• From 1956 to 1959 he was assistant to Theodor Adorno in Frankfurt University
• He is considered as a second Generation member of Frankfurt School

• Communicative Action and Communicative Rationality

• Discourse Ethics
• Deliberative Democracy
• Colonization of Lifeworld
• Legitimation Crisis
• Constitutional Patriotism

• His influential book is “The Theory of Communicative Action” (1981)

→ Habermas provides a defense of Modernity, Reason and the Enlightenment in the form
of his theory of communicative rationality
• Habermas criticizes Instrumental view of Rationality.
→ Instrumental Rationality in modern Capitalist society has been turned against
humankind
− Our Action : Instrumental Action or Strategic Action
− Our rationality : Instrumental Rationality
→ Instrumental Rationality is associated with getting things done in the world
• According to Habermas another kind of rationality can be used for human beings

• Because Human Beings are linguistic and communicating being, Philosophy, ethics, sociology
and political theory must start from this fact :
→ Communicative Action are the actions directed towards attaining mutual
understanding.
→ Here we don’t take instrumental attitude towards others (Not using others just as
a means to an end)
→ Here we seek agreement and mutual understanding
→ Communicative action is linked with communicative rationality

• The Theory of communicative action is also related to a Habermas’s Colonization Thesis

→ Habermas calls the norms and institution of society as ‘life world’
→This life World provides background for communicative action
→ But in modern society, this lifeworld gets regulated by power and money
− This is what Habermas calls : Colonization of Lifeworld
− Example : Public debate, media etc are influenced by State Power and
Corporate money

Habermas : Discourse Ethics

• How in a Pluralist Society, can be talk about something as true, right and truthful ?
• Arguments and conclusion become valid when Discourse meet certain requirement :
→ Full Information
→ Equality among Participants
• This type of Discourse is called Rational Discourse which takes place in Ideal Speech Situation

• He develops his ideas in the book :

“Between Facts and Norms : Contribution to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy
• All laws and legal norms must be rooted in discourse or Public Deliberation

Habermas : Constitutional Patriotism

• Citizens should be patriotic towards the principles of Justice, equaliy, Rights and liberty as
enshrined in the constitution

• He presents his arguments in his book : ‘Legitimation Crisis’ (1976)

• His arguments :
→ Capitalism, even in its contemporary form of welfare state democracy – is still
structured in the interest of the owners of Capital and is thus fundamentally unjust
and exploitative.
→ If a Capitalist state is to survive, it must conceal this injustice and secure legitimacy for
itself.
• The Legitimacy is secured through :
→ Production and Plentiful supply of consumer goods
→ Security and Welfare Programs
→ Promises, Policies and Programs
• Welfare State is concerned with efficient realization of the Plans rather value of Plans and
Goals :
→ This makes the State highly vulnerable to inefficiency and failre.
© Saar Concepts
Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong

• Born in 1893 into a Peasant family in the village of Shaoashan (Hunan Province)
• In 1918 he went to Beijing to work in the University Library.
• He began reading Marxists Texts
• Later he came under the influence of the founders of Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
→ Most importantly Li Dazhao also known as Li Ta Chao
• Mao attended the first meeting of CCP in 1921
• For many years CCP was persecuted and its members massacred by the Koumintang Govt.
(under Chiang Kai Shek)
• During one of the Chiang’s Campaign in the period 1930 – 5, Mao abandoned his base in
Kiangsi and set off fro Northern Shengsi, which was about 6000 miles away.
→ This Journey came to be known as ‘The Long March’
• Initially Mao’s force allied with the Koumintang to fight their common enemy – The Japnese
• After the Japanese were defeated , China witnessed two years of Civil war (1947-49)
→ The Civil war ended with the Chiang’s withdrawal to Taiwan

• The Chief Features and events of Mao’s Rule :

→ The Great Leap Forward (1958 to 1962)
→ The Cultural Revolution (1966 to 1976)

• Mao’s major writings :

→ On Practice (1937)
→ On Contradiction (1937)
→ On New Democracy (1940)
→ On Correct Handling of Contradiction among People (1957)
→ Where do correct ideas come from (1963)

• Mao’s Political Philosophy is a modified version of the dialectical materialism of Marx and
Lenin :
→ Mao’s Philosophy was strongly rooted in the political reality of his time.
→ He said that the type of revolutionary Politics that worked in Russia will not work in
China – According to him, mo two societies are alike.
→ It is this belief that made him unwilling to regard even the most fundamental Marxists
belief as unquestionable

• The most important aspect of his Philosophy is his concept of ‘Contradiction’

− Contradiction is the most fundamental of all the properties of reality.
− Everywhere there is Contradiction. Each phenomena is made up of Contradiction
− To understand reality we have to understand its internal contradiction
− It is because of the internal contradiction that changes occur

• His next concept is :

→ Principal Contradiction
→ Principal aspect of Contradiction

• Principal Contradiction :
− Real world situations are made up of two or more contradictions
− Out of these one will be more important than the others
− The most important contradiction is ‘Principal Contradiction’ and this is what we need
to identify
• Principal Aspect of Contradiction
− Within an individual contradiction, one of the element will be of greater importance
than the other – this is called Principal Aspect of Contradiction
− Ultimately our aim should be to identify this principle aspect of Contradiction

• Mao says that, change at all level of reality is constant :

− Role of Principle and Subordinate aspect of contradiction is not fixed
− The Principal aspect can become subordinate
• Divergence from orthodox Marxism
→ Karl Marx argued that relation ship between economic base and superstructure is
fixed
→ Superstructure always determine the base
− Mao says that superstructure may become primary aspect of contradiction

• Mao also talks about Antagonistic and Non Antagonistic Contradiction

→ Contradiction between the exploited and exploiting exists in all forms of society –
slave owning society, Feudal Society or Capitalist Society
→ But for most of the time contradiction remain non antagonistic in these societies
→ Only at some point of time the tension will become antagonistic and develop into
a revolution

• Lenin had argued that all aspects of culture should be manipulated to serve political end
→ Mao argued in contrast that in these areas differences are best settled by free
discussions and debate
→ He regarded administrative intervention as counter productive
→ This is the policy of “Letting a hundred flower blossom and hundred school of thought
contend”

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