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Levels of Processing Model

The Levels of Processing Model by Craik and Lockhart suggests that the depth of information processing affects memory retrieval, with three levels: physical, phonological, and semantic. In contrast, the Parallel Distributed Processing model by Rumelhart and McClelland emphasizes simultaneous processing of multiple stimuli and represents knowledge as distributed across neural connections rather than stored in specific locations. This model operates on principles of distributed representation, gradual learning through experience, and integrates both top-down and bottom-up processing.

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14 views4 pages

Levels of Processing Model

The Levels of Processing Model by Craik and Lockhart suggests that the depth of information processing affects memory retrieval, with three levels: physical, phonological, and semantic. In contrast, the Parallel Distributed Processing model by Rumelhart and McClelland emphasizes simultaneous processing of multiple stimuli and represents knowledge as distributed across neural connections rather than stored in specific locations. This model operates on principles of distributed representation, gradual learning through experience, and integrates both top-down and bottom-up processing.

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Levels of Processing Model (Craik and Lockhart)

This model refutes the claim of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model that memory
consists of the different subsystem. According to the model of the levels of
processing (LOP), whether the information will be retrieved successfully or not
depends on its level of processing. LOP refers to the level at which information
has been encoded. Craik and Tulving (1975) have proposed three LOP:
a) Physical/Structural Processing: Encoding of information based on its
physical attributes.
b) Phonological Processing: Encoding based on how it sounds. Such as,
‘Hat’ rhymes with ‘Cat’ c.

Semantic Processing: Encoding done based on its meaning and/or concept.


Studies on this model have suggested that deeper the level of processing, the
higher will be its probability to be retrieved successfully.
Transfer of information from working memory to LTM, adopted from
Craik and Lockhart (1972)

A CONNECTIONIST (PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING)


MODEL OF MEMORY: RUMELHART AND MCCLELLAND
In cognitive psychology, parallel processing refers to the ability to deal with
multiple stimuli simultaneously. One example is driving. When driving a car,
we don't focus on driving exclusively; we also listen to music, carry on a
conversation with passengers, and look for the street where our destination is
located. Our ability to process different kinds of stimuli at once enables our
brain to carry out all these tasks at once.
A Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) model, also known
as connectionism or neural networks, is a computational approach inspired by
the structure and function of the brain. It represents information processing as
interactions between numerous simple processing units (neurons) linked by
connections (synapses). Knowledge is not stored in specific locations but rather
emerges from the distributed patterns of activation and connection strengths.
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) models are a class of neurally inspired
information processing models that attempt to model information processing the
way it actually takes place in the brain.
This model was developed because of findings that a system of neural
connections appeared to be distributed in a parallel array in addition to serial
pathways. As such, different types of mental processing are considered to be
distributed throughout a highly complex neuro network.
The PDP model has 3 basic principles:
1. the representation of information is distributed (not local)
2. memory and knowledge for specific things are not stored explicitly, but
stored in the connections between units.
3. learning can occur with gradual changes in connection strength by
experience.
These models assume that information processing takes place through
interactions of large numbers of simple processing elementscalled units, each
sending excitatory and inhibitory signals to other units. (Rumelhart, Hinton, &
McClelland, 1986, p. 10)

Parallel processing also relies on a combination of top-down and bottom-up


processing.
 Top-down processing involves using your experiences, expectations, and
knowledge to make sense of your perceptions. If you were to see an
animal running toward you, top-down processing would help you
interpret whether you're seeing your dog running to greet you or another
animal running to attack you.
 Bottom-up processing doesn't rely on existing knowledge to assess
information. Instead, our senses take in the most basic aspects of a
stimulus, which the brain uses to form a complete picture of the
information.
Rumelhart, Hinton, and McClelland (1986) state that there are 8 major
components of the PDP model framework:
1. a set of processing units
2. a state of activation
3. an output function for each unit
4. a pattern of connectivity among units
5. a propagation rule for propagating patterns of activities through the
network of connectivities
6. an activation rule for combining the inputs impinging on a unit with the
current state of that unit to produce a new level of activation for the unit
7. a learning rule whereby patterns of connectivity are modified by
experience
8. an environment within which the system must operate

Example: Imagine a a learning rule whereby patterns of connectivity are


modified by experience PDP model designed to recognize handwritten
digits. Each unit in the input layer might represent a pixel in an image of a
digit. The network would learn to associate specific patterns of activation with
each digit. For instance, the digit "2" might activate a pattern of units that
correspond to the curves and lines that make up the digit "2"

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