Got it Let’s go step by step.

1. What is Scheduling in Operating Systems?

Scheduling is the process by which the CPU decides which process to run next when multiple
processes are waiting in the ready queue.
The CPU Scheduler picks a process based on some scheduling algorithm.

2. Types of Scheduling Algorithms

Here are the common CPU scheduling algorithms:
1. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
• Processes are executed in the order they arrive.
• Simple queue-based scheduling.
• Non-preemptive (once a process starts, it cannot be stopped until it finishes).

2. Shortest Job Next (SJN) / Shortest Job First (SJF)

• Process with the shortest burst time (execution time) is executed first.
• Can be preemptive (SRTF) or non-preemptive.

3. Round Robin (RR)

• Each process gets a fixed time quantum.
• If not finished in that time, it goes back to the ready queue.
• Preemptive.

4. Priority Scheduling
• Processes are executed based on priority value.
• Can be preemptive (higher-priority process interrupts) or non-preemptive.

5. Multilevel Queue (MLQ) Scheduling

• Ready queue is divided into multiple queues (e.g., system, interactive, batch).
• Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm.

3. What is a Gantt Chart?

A Gantt chart in CPU scheduling is a visual representation of process execution over time.
It shows when each process starts and finishes.
Example:
Suppose we have 3 processes with the following burst times:
Process Burst Time
P1 5 ms
P2 3 ms
P3 8 ms
If scheduled using FCFS:
• P1 → 0 to 5
• P2 → 5 to 8
• P3 → 8 to 16
Gantt Chart:
| P1 | P2 | P3 |
0 5 8 16

If scheduled using SJF:

• Shortest burst first → P2 → P1 → P3
• P2: 0–3
• P1: 3–8
• P3: 8–16
Gantt Chart:
| P2 | P1 | P3 |
0 3 8 16

If scheduled using Round Robin (Quantum = 4 ms):

• P1 (5 ms) → 0–4
• P2 (3 ms) → 4–7 (finishes)
• P3 (8 ms) → 7–11
• P1 (remaining 1 ms) → 11–12 (finishes)
• P3 (remaining 4 ms) → 12–16
Gantt Chart:
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P1 | P3 |
0 4 7 11 12 16

Key Takeaway:
• Scheduling Algorithm = Rule for picking the next process.
• Gantt Chart = Visual timeline of process execution.

Great question! Let’s go step by step.

 Operating System (OS): Functions and Responsibilities
An Operating System (OS) is system software that acts as an interface between the user and
the computer hardware.
It manages hardware, software, memory, files, and provides services to applications.

Main Functions of an OS
Here are the core functions of an operating system:
1. Process Management
• Creates, schedules, and terminates processes.
• Allocates CPU to processes (via scheduling algorithms).
• Provides synchronization and communication between processes.
• Ensures deadlock handling and fairness.

2. Memory Management
• Keeps track of which part of memory is used by which process.
• Allocates and deallocates memory dynamically.
• Uses techniques like paging, segmentation, and virtual memory.
• Ensures efficient and safe memory usage.

3. File System Management

• Manages files on storage devices (HDD, SSD, etc.).
• Provides operations like create, read, write, delete, search.
• Maintains directories and file permissions.
• Ensures data security and consistency.

4. Device Management (I/O Management)

• Manages input/output devices (keyboard, mouse, printers, disks).
• Uses device drivers to communicate with hardware.
• Provides buffering, caching, and spooling for efficiency.

5. Security and Protection

• Protects data and resources from unauthorized access.
• Provides authentication (login, password, biometrics).
• Ensures isolation of processes to avoid interference.
• Implements firewalls, encryption, and access control.

6. User Interface (UI)

• Provides ways for users to interact with the system:
 o Command-Line Interface (CLI) → e.g., Linux terminal
o Graphical User Interface (GUI) → e.g., Windows, macOS
• Offers APIs for application development.

7. Networking
• Manages data transfer between systems.
• Provides support for protocols like TCP/IP.
• Ensures reliable communication across devices.

8. Error Detection & Handling

• Detects and handles errors in hardware or software.
• Ensures recovery without system crash.

9. Resource Allocation
• Allocates CPU, memory, I/O, and storage resources to users and processes.
• Ensures efficient resource utilization and fairness.

Responsibilities of an OS
Summarized responsibilities include:
1. Efficiently manage resources (CPU, memory, I/O).
2. Provide security and ensure safe multi-user environment.
3. Maintain system performance and stability.
4. Provide convenience for users and developers.
5. Offer abstraction → hides hardware complexity behind simple interfaces.

In short:
An OS is like the manager of a computer system.
It makes sure the hardware and software work together smoothly, efficiently, and securely.

Good question Let’s break it down clearly.

Interrupt in Operating System

Definition
An interrupt is a signal sent to the CPU by hardware or software, indicating that an event needs
immediate attention.
It temporarily pauses the current execution, saves the CPU state, and transfers control to a
special routine called an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) or interrupt handler.
 Think of it like someone tapping you on the shoulder while you’re busy — you pause what
you’re doing, handle it, then return to your task.

Types of Interrupts
1. Hardware Interrupts
o Generated by external hardware devices.
o Example:
▪ Keyboard input
▪ Mouse click
▪ Printer request
▪ Timer (used in process scheduling)
2. Software Interrupts
o Generated by programs or OS itself.
o Example:
▪ System calls (e.g., a program requesting I/O from the OS)
▪ Exceptions (divide by zero, invalid memory access)

Steps in Handling an Interrupt

1. Interrupt request is sent to CPU.
2. CPU pauses current execution.
3. The current state (program counter, registers) is saved.
4. Control is transferred to the Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
5. ISR handles the event.
6. CPU restores previous state and resumes execution.

Examples
• Pressing a key on the keyboard → generates an interrupt so the CPU can read the key.
• Timer interrupt → tells CPU when to switch processes (used in Round Robin scheduling).
• Disk I/O completion → notifies CPU that data transfer is finished.

Advantages of Interrupts
• Efficient CPU usage (CPU does not waste time "polling" devices).
• Allows asynchronous events (things happen independently of CPU).
• Improves system responsiveness.
 In short:
An interrupt is a mechanism that lets hardware or software grab the CPU’s attention when
something needs immediate handling.

Got it Here’s a short and simple explanation of IPC:

Inter-Process Communication (IPC)

IPC is how processes communicate and share data with each other in an OS.
Since processes run in separate memory spaces, IPC provides a way to exchange information
and synchronize actions.

Two Main Models

1. Shared Memory – Processes share a common memory region.
o Fast, but needs synchronization (semaphores, mutex).
2. Message Passing – Processes send/receive messages via OS.
o Safer, but slower due to kernel involvement.

Common IPC Mechanisms

• Pipes → one-way communication between related processes.
• Named Pipes (FIFOs) → like pipes, but work between unrelated processes.
• Message Queues → processes exchange messages in a queue.
• Shared Memory → fastest, but needs synchronization.
• Semaphores/Mutex → synchronization tools, prevent conflicts.
• Sockets → communication between processes over network or locally.
• Signals → simple notifications (e.g., CTRL+C).

In short:
IPC lets processes talk to each other either by sharing memory or by passing messages, using
tools like pipes, queues, semaphores, and sockets.

Alright Let’s keep it short and clear about Interrupts in OS:

Interrupts in Operating System

Definition
An interrupt is a signal that tells the CPU to pause what it’s doing and handle an urgent task.
After handling it, the CPU goes back to what it was doing before.
 Types of Interrupts
1. Hardware Interrupts
o Generated by devices (keyboard, mouse, disk, timer).
o Example: Pressing a key → keyboard interrupt.
2. Software Interrupts
o Generated by programs or OS.
o Example: System calls, divide-by-zero error.

How it Works
1. Event occurs → interrupt signal sent.
2. CPU pauses current task and saves its state.
3. Executes Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).
4. Finishes ISR → restores state → resumes previous task.

Why Interrupts are Useful

• Makes CPU responsive to external events.
• Avoids polling (wasting CPU checking devices).
• Supports multitasking and scheduling.

In short:
An interrupt is like someone tapping the CPU’s shoulder → “Stop! Handle this first.”
Perfect Let’s go step by step and cover Process in Operating System (OS) in detail.

Process in Operating System

Definition
A process is a program in execution.
• A program → passive (just code stored on disk).
• A process → active (when program is loaded into memory and executed by CPU).
So, Process = Program Code + Current Activity (CPU state, memory, resources, etc.)

Components of a Process
Each process consists of:
1. Text Section → Program code (instructions).
2. Data Section → Global variables.
3. Heap → Memory allocated dynamically at runtime.
4. Stack → Function calls, local variables, return addresses.
5. Program Counter (PC) → Points to the next instruction to execute.
 6. Registers → Store intermediate data and instructions.

Process States
A process changes states during its lifetime:
1. New → Process is being created.
2. Ready → Process is waiting for CPU allocation.
3. Running → Process is currently being executed.
4. Waiting/Blocked → Process is waiting for I/O or event to complete.
5. Terminated → Process has finished execution.
Some systems also include Suspended Ready / Suspended Waiting states.

Process Control Block (PCB)

The OS maintains a PCB for each process. It contains all important info about the process:
• Process ID (PID)
• Process state
• Program Counter
• CPU registers
• Memory management info
• Scheduling info (priority, queue info)
• I/O status
PCB is like the “identity card” of a process.

Process Scheduling
Since multiple processes compete for CPU, the scheduler decides who runs next.
• Long-term scheduling → Decides which jobs enter the system.
• Medium-term scheduling → Suspends/resumes processes.
• Short-term scheduling (CPU Scheduling) → Picks the next process from ready queue.

Types of Processes
1. Foreground (Interactive) → Needs user interaction.
2. Background (Batch jobs/Daemons) → Runs without user interaction.

Process Operations
1. Creation → OS creates process using system calls (e.g., fork() in UNIX).
2. Execution → Process is assigned CPU and runs.
3. Waiting → Process waits for I/O or resource.
4. Termination → Process finishes and resources are released.
 Inter-Process Communication (IPC)
Processes often need to communicate:
• Shared Memory → Processes share data via common memory.
• Message Passing → Exchange info via messages.

Threads vs Process
• Process → Independent execution unit with separate memory.
• Thread → Lightweight process within a process, sharing memory but with its own
execution path.

In short:
A process is a program in execution. It has its own memory, states, PCB, and resources. The OS
manages processes using scheduling, synchronization, and IPC to ensure smooth multitasking.