Chapter-1

Geographical Discoveries
Sea voyages and geographical explorations constitute important place
among the epoch-making incidents of the world history. The incidents which
have played the decisive role in heralding the modern age include these
geographical discoveries as well. The scientific advancement and economic
development especially the trade developments that began in the last phase
of the middle age formed the background. The European countries played
the leading role because of which they were able to dominate in the modern
age. It is another issue that the countries such as Spain and Portugal which
initiated the geographical exploration gradually lagged behind and other
countries such as England, Holland, France and then Germany registered new
success in the field of geographical discoveries.
We know that trade and commerce have been chief source of mutual
contact from the days of early civilizations of the world. This trade took place
through a specific route. These routes
Marco Polo, a Portuguese
were often used between Europe and traveller, in his travelogue has
Asia even in the ancient and middle mentioned the prosperity of the
ages. However, there were several Vijay Nagar empire and the
regions in the world which had human grandeur of the court of Kubla
Khan, the Chinese ruler.
habitats but remained out of contact
with the rest of the world. These
included America, Africa, Australia and some other parts of Asia. Although in
the 13th centuries the travelogues covering the journeys via India till China
did make the Europeans aware of the prosperity of South-East Asia but with
little impact. In due course, the large scale geographical explorations and the
subsequent achievements paved the way for the modern age.
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 If we study the Mediaeval European history, we will find that it was a
feudal age. In this age, neither the trade and commerce were dynamic nor
was religion liberal or humane in nature. The knowledge about the earth was
little and superstitious. Sea trade was also limited because of limited
geographical knowledge. The people of the mediaeval period believed that
the earth was flat and so if one went far away in the sea, there was fear of
falling into infinity off the edges of the earth. Sea voyage was extremely
painful and difficult. Ships were small and unsafe; they also depended much
on the wind. People did not have compass or other direction-pointers.
Hence, they were afraid of losing the sense of direction and thus wandering
into the sea. The state did not give any grant for the sea voyage. In such
adverse situations it was very difficult for the sailors and the merchants to
cross the ocean like Atlantic.

Geographical explorations and discoveries: a background

Meanwhile certain events and incidents were happening in Europe
because of which Europe got ready to free itself from the mentality of the
mediaeval age. When the European feudal lords got defeated by the
emerging new powers of mid-Asia, the Arabs, in the religious war in the 11 -
12 centuries regarding the control over Jerusalem (situated in the modern
Israel now), the European pride basking in the false aura of feudal pride and
glory received a shattering jolt. But it had some positive results as well.
During the very religious war, the Europeans came to realise that they needed
to know all dimensions of the world. These events laid the foundation of the
renaissance in Europe.
In the Mediaeval age, the Arabs and then the Turks founded the vast
international empires. Till the five decades before the 15th century
Qustuntunia was the route through which the trade between Europe and
Asia took place. But after the Turkey's control over Qustuntunia in 1543, this
route no longer remained a safe passage for the European merchants. For, the
Turks had started collecting heavy taxes in lieu of the trade through this
passage, compelling the Europeans to look for the alternative options.

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 Because of the new inventions made in
this age the sea voyage and the development
of the navy became easier. The Europeans
learnt the knowledge of compass from the
Arabs. Notch or slot system developed in
place of the traditional system of making
boats. As a result, big and strong ships came to
be built. Telescope had also been invented
and this helped immensely in the sea Compass
expeditions. The maps had greatly improved. Even astrolabe was very useful
in this regard. The Portuguese made new type of fast moving ship Caravel.
With support from the new equipments and gadgets as well as their
courage, the European sailors put their ships in the Atlantic and the
Mediterranean sea. In this process, in 1488, the Portuguese merchant
Bartolomeu Dias reached Cape of Good Hope, the extreme southern point
of the South Africa, via the western Coast of Africa.

Compass
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 In 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered
America. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, a courageous
Portuguese sailor, reached Malabar coast of India
(Calicut of Kerala). He was welcomed by the local
ruler Zamorin. It is to be noted that Vasco da
Gama's success owed also to some new
resources. He met Abdul Majid, an Indian
merchant, in the South Africa and with his help
he could get the direct route to come to India. His
success encouraged the Europeans. The goods
Vasco da Gama brought by Vasco da Gama from India were sold
at a price 26 times greater in the European markets. The discovery of America
or the 'new world' by Columbus in 1492 was a novel achievement of the
Europeans. However, Columbus mistook it as a part of the Indian
subcontinent and called its inhabitants the 'Red Indians'. Later Amerigo
Vespucci, a Spanish sailor, explored the new
world comprehensively and called it a
continent. This region came to be knows as
America after his name. In 1519 Magellan made
the first circumnavigation of the earth in his ship
and this confirmed the notion that all the
oceans are interlinked. Later Colonel Cook also
discovered Australia along with the islands of
New Zealand. Sir John and Sebastian Cabot
discovered the islands of Newfoundland.
Different rulers of the European countries also
played significant role in encouraging Columbus
geographical explorations and discoveries,
New world: The Europeans the chief among them being the
called the American continent Portuguese Prince Henry the Navigator
the new world because before
Columbus nobody knew about and the Spanish Queen Isabella. Thus by
this part of the world. the 16th century, Europe had come to
know the whole world.
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Results of Geographical explorations and Discoveries
The results of geographical explorations were important and far-
reaching. People for the first time
came to know a big part of the R e s u l t s o f G e o g r a p h i c a l
universe and people of different explorations and Discoveries
countries came in one another's Ÿ Impact on trade and
contact. The different civilizations of commerce
Asia and Europe that used to live in Ÿ Development of colonial
isolation, came in one another's empires
contact. The discoveries of the new Ÿ D e v e l o p m e n t o f
countries promoted not only the commercialism
trade with the new colonies but also Ÿ Spread of Christianity and the
provided them opportunity to spread western civilization
their civilization, culture, religion and Ÿ Development of slave trade
Ÿ End of misconceptions and
literature. However, the European
increase in the geographical
colonisation emerged as its negative
knowledge
consequences. These European
countries exploited their colonies for
their developmental and physical needs. More light can be thrown on the
results of the geographical explorations under the following heads.
1. Impact on trade and commerce: The discovery of new countries and
the new trade ties brought revolutionary changes in the European trade and
commerce. European countries began to be more prosperous by exploiting
their colonies economically. As a result, the European trade reached at its
peak. This led to the development of currency system and then to cheque
(hundi), debenture (rinpatra), trade credit. Trade no longer remained local; it
began to take global form.
Before the exploration of the new countries trade was confined chiefly
to the Mediterranean Ocean and Baltic Ocean, but now it spread to Atlantic,
Indian and Pacific oceans. As a result, the cities such as Paris, London,
Amsterdam, Antwerp, etc. became the chief centres of global trade and with
this the monopoly of Italy over the European market came to an end. Instead,
Spain, Portugal, Holland-England and France gained in influence. Later Spain
and Portugal were so engrossed in handling their huge empire that they lost
their very empire. The precious metals or goods imported from the new
countries discovered by the European countries, especially the gold and silver
imported from America, changed the very form of economy. As a result, the

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 European economy depended on silver for 80 years. This led to inflation. In
the changed form of economy, commerce and trade became important and
hence there was change in the class relation as well. Consequently, the
merchant class became more influential than the feudal class.
3. Development of colonial empire
A f t e r t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l Establishment of European
explorations the development of companies in India
imperialism continued in the form of the
founding of colonies and there was a Ÿ Arrival of Portugal-1498
fierce competition among the European Ÿ East India Company - 1600
countries in this regard. As a result, both Ÿ Dutch - 1602
the form and nature of trade underwent a
Ÿ French - 1664
change. Organised trade companies took
over in place of the individual merchants. Ÿ Danish - 1616
These companies tried to get special Ÿ Swedish- 1731
rights and other facilities. Such
companies came into being in countries
such as England, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, France, etc. Some of these
companies were sponsored by the tradesmen or merchants and others by the
states. Later, colonies were founded in America, Africa, Australia and other
groups of islands. In the beginning, Portugal and Spain were the leading
colonisers but by the end of the 16th century and beginning of the 17th
century, France also came into the race.
3. Development of commercialism
Modern capitalism came into being as a result of the discoveries of
new countries and global extension of trade and commerce. In this system of
economy bullion gained in importance. The value of gold drew the attention
of the European countries and so there was the loot and storage of gold and
silver at the international level. Spain was leading in finding the gold mines.
4. Spread of Christianity and the western civilization
As mentioned earlier, geographical discoveries helped spread of
civilization, culture, religion and literature of the European countries. New
geographical discoveries gave a new lease of life to the spread of Christianity
which had almost ceased after the failure of religious war. The religious
campaigner of Christianity went to Africa, Asia and America to spread their
religion. However, there was a negative consequence as well. Attempts were

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 made in these regions to force or allure by offering money for conversion and
so there was protest against this forced conversion and cultural invasion. On
the other hand, the wide spread of the religion lessened the power of the
church. The knowledge gained through the geographical discoveries led to
questioning against religion on several issues. Reasoning came to be used in
religious matters as well. This formed the background of the religious
reformation.
5. Development of the slave trade
The value of human labour in the trade-commerce, developed as a
result of geographical discoveries, encouraged slave trade. The natives of the
newly discovered countries such as America, Africa and Australia began to be
sold in the European market. In the beginning, the slave trade was at the
individual level but by the end of the 16th century it assumed the form of a
formal trade. These slaves were used to cut jungles, do faming, make roads,
fuel the ships and other tough works. They were also subjected to inhuman
and barbaric torture. Thus, it proved to be a negative consequence of the
geographical discoveries; the undeveloped, naïve and weak native people
were exploited by the so-called civilised and developed ones.
6. End of misconceptions and increase in the geographical knowledge
Geographical discoveries helped in doing away with misconception in
connection with geographical knowledge. As a result people began to
question the concepts spread by the church. Later it proved a major factor of
the religious reformation movement. The discovery of the new hemisphere
gave the unprecedented knowledge about
the pettiness of Europe and the importance
of the world and goaded the people for new Other results
inventions and discoveries. Its message is Ÿ Emergence of new cities
in Europe especially Italy
very evident in the Spanish coin 'Samne aur
Ÿ Increase in the
bhi hai'.
importance of the
The increased sea activities provided Mediterranean ocean
opportunities for the development of Ÿ Development of
different equipment/ gadgets such as maps, capitalism,
compasses, conduct of stars (Nakshatra commercialism and
pranali) used in sea voyages. As a result imperialism
there emerged a host of scholars and Ÿ Increase in navigation
professional scientists associated with these activities
disciplines. Later, this class played a
significant role in reformation.
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7. Other results
Due to geographical discoveries inter-continental exchange of
different new crops took place. For example, goods like mocha, tea,
sugarcane, maize(mecca), potato, tobacco, indigo etc. entered into Europe
and from there goods like tea, coffee, tobacco, potato etc. entered into India.
Thus, it can be claimed that the geographical discoveries brought out a
new look of the world. There was a change in the thought process and the
scientific thought became acceptable, Religious superstition began to be
dispelled. On the other hand, commerce and imperialism developed with the
discovery of new territories and new routes or passages. This europeanised
the whole world.

Exercise

Each of the questions given below has four options indicated by a, b, c & d. Of
the four options, one is correct or the most suitable. While answering the
questions, please write the option indicators a, b, c, or d against each
question as the case may be.
I. Objective questions
1. Vasco da Gama was a traveler from -
(a) Spain (b) Portugal (c ) England (d) America

2. From whom did the Europeans learn the use of compass?

(a) India (b) Rome (c ) the Arabs (d) China

3. Who discovered Cape of good hope?

(a)Spain (b) Portugal (c ) England (d) America

4. In which year was America discovered?

(A) 1453 (b) 1492 (c ) 1498 (d) 1519

5. In which year was Qustuntunia destroyed?

(a) 1420 (b) 1453 (c ) 1510 (d) 1498

6. Who was the first traveller to make the first circumnavigation of

the earth?
(a) Magellan (b) Captain cook
(c ) Vasco da Gama (d) Marco Polo
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II. Tick (√) before the correct statement and cross (x) before the wrong one.
1. The native inhabitants of India are called Red Indians.
2. The discovery of the Cape of Good hope paved the way to reach India.
3. India is situated on the eastern coast of Atlantic Ocean.
4. Marco Polo discovered India.
5. Jerusalem is in modern Israel.
6. Lisbon was a very big centre of slave trade
7. Amerigu discovered the new world extensively.

III. Answer the following questions in one sentence.

1. Which merchant/ tradesman helped Vasco da Gama in reaching India?
2. Who discovered Newfoundland?
3. What is the name given to the fast moving ship made by the Europeans?
4. Which is the southernmost point of the south Africa?
5. Why did the religious war between the Christians and the Muslims take
th
place in 11-12 century?
6. Who captured Kustuntunia in 1453?
7. Near which Ocean are Portugal and Spain situated?
IV. Short answer questions (Answer these questions in not less than 30 words and
not more than 50 words.
1. Why is the mediaeval age of Europe called the Dark Age or the Age of
Darkness?
2. What role did scientific gadgets play in geographical discoveries?
3. How did geographical discoveries affect trade-commerce?
4. How did geographical discoveries dispel misconceptions?
5. How did geographical discoveries bring change in the world map?

V. Long answer Questions (Answer these questions in not more than 200 words.)
1. What is meant by geographical discoveries? How did it reduce the
distance within the world?
2. Explain the reasons of geographical discoveries?
3. Write the newly discovered lands on the world map and tell how will you
have traded with India if you had been in Europe before the
geographical discoveries?
4. What do you understand by the Dark age? How did geographical
discoveries help in getting out of the Dark Age?
5. Describe the results of the geographical discoveries? What impact did it
leave on the world?

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