SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

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b.​ Early humans developed
technology through trial and error,
GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL even before formal science.
DEVELOPMENTS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY c.​ Example: "Five-minute theorem"
AND SOCIETY in ancient construction — if a
building stood for 5 minutes after
removing supports, it would last
SECTION 1 long (risky but sometimes
worked).

I.​ INTRODUCTION
II.​ HOW OF STS
SCIENCE ●​ Two historical triggers:
○​ Interwar Period (after WWI, before
●​ Latin: SCIENTIA = “knowledge” WWII) → big social, political, and
●​ Definition: Systematic method of finding technological changes.
answers to questions about the universe. ○​ Cold War (1945–1991) → USA vs.
●​ Covers: USSR rivalry in military, industrial,
○​ Empirical → based on observation communication, and
and experience. transportation technologies.
○​ Evidence-based → supported by ●​ Concerns arose:
data that is critically analyzed. ○​ Scientists saw their discoveries
●​ Hard sciences: physics, biology, (e.g., atomic theory) being used in
chemistry, physiology. war.
●​ Soft sciences: psychology, sociology, ○​ Realized they needed to
philosophy, communication. participate in decisions about how
●​ Heilbron’s view: science is applied.
○​ Science is both discovery and ●​ Result: STS was born as an academic and
invention. social discipline.
■​ Discovery → finding natural
regularities (laws,
principles).​
■​ Invention → creating III.​ THE BIRTH OF STS
techniques, tools, and ●​ Nature:
organization to describe ○​ Interdisciplinary → combines
them. history, philosophy, sociology of
science.
TECHNOLOGY ○​ Socially embedded → Science and
technology don’t exist in isolation;
●​ Greek: TECHNE = "art, skill, or handcraft." they are shaped by society and, in
●​ Definition: Application of scientific turn, influence society.
knowledge to solve real-world problems. ●​ Bridges two cultures:
●​ Purpose: Make life more convenient, ○​ Humanities (interpretive) →
efficient, and comfortable. Focuses on meaning, values, and
●​ Mark Zuckerberg’s definition: Technology culture.
augments human abilities & makes it ○​ Natural sciences (rational) →
more powerful (e.g., glasses improve Focuses on logic, evidence, and
vision). experiments.
●​ Important note: ●​ Goals:
a.​ Technology is older than science. ○​ Encourage critical thinking about
science and technology issues.

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○​ Connect science & tech with
politics, governance, ethics,
V.​ SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE SCIENCE
economy, law, culture.
○​ Help students and citizens ●​ Science & technology have improved life
actively engage in social change. (communication, transport, health,
●​ Focus: security, etc.).
○​ Production & use of science/tech ●​ Irony: These same advances create
→ How humans invent, apply, and new/complex problems (e.g., data
benefit from them. breaches, pandemics, gun violence).
○​ Evaluation → Not just “what it can ●​ Carl Sagan warns: society depends on
do,” but also “what are the risks, science/tech but most people don’t
promises, and dangers.” understand them → recipe for disaster.
In short: STS was “born” to make us see science ●​ “Good” science (accurate, reliable) is no
and technology not only as technical things but longer enough.
as human activities deeply connected to society. ○​ Science must also be socially
responsible — truthful, ethical,
and protective of public interest,
especially against misuse by
IV.​ IS SCIENCE DANGEROUS?
governments or corporations.
●​ Lewis Wolpert says that today, many
people fear or distrust science, partly
HOW TO PRACTICE SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE
because of pop culture ideas about
SCIENCE (STEPHANIE BIRD)
scientists “playing God.”
●​ Conflation — people take science and
Ensure Follow proper methods so
technology as one & the same.
accuracy & science is trustworthy and
●​ Wolpert answers his own question by
reliability unbiased
saying:
○​ "In contrast to technology, reliable Oppose Speak out against political or
scientific knowledge is value-free misuse/abuse commercial exploitation of
and has no moral or ethical value” research.
—
○​ Science ≠ Technology Acknowledge Be transparent about
■​ Science → explains how limits & limitations; discuss possible
the universe works; impacts social, political, and economic
produces ideas & consequences.
explanations.
■​ Technology → applies Engage in Join public discussions on
scientific knowledge for societal how research should or
practical purposes. decisions shouldn’t be used.
○​ Modern technology is often based
on science, but historically Promote Communicate in simple,
technology came first. public relatable terms to
●​ Reliability = follows scientific method, education communities; encourage
produces unbiased and verifiable results, public interest in science.
has no moral or ethical value.
●​ Unreliable science can be influenced by Support Use expertise to guide
poor methods, bias, or outside pressure. informed science-based policies in
●​ Science itself is neutral; danger lies in democracy public health, safety,
application (technology) or manipulation environment, etc
by external forces. Only reliable science
can truly be considered value-free.

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VI.​ PUBLIC UNDERSTANDING OF SCIENCE ●​ Lesson: Countries with strong PUS +
responsive governments handled
●​ = key goal of Science, Technology, and
COVID-19 better.
Society (STS).
○​ Many people feel excluded from
science due to lack of technical
knowledge/language.
VII.​ EMERGING ETHICAL DILEMMAS
■​ Historically, scientific
knowledge has been ●​ Ethical dilemma: A choice between two or
confined to experts, more options where no decision is fully
missing benefits of wider free from violating ethical codes, social
public engagement. norms, or personal morals.
●​ Importance of PUS (Marincola, 2006): ●​ In science & tech → must weigh benefits
○​ Citizens need to engage with to health/safety/security against risks.
science issues that affect their
EXAMPLE
lives.
○​ Good science education → success
●​ Example – COVID-19 Pandemic
in science-driven economies and
a.​ Balancing public health vs.
democratic participation.
economic survival posed major
○​ Public understanding benefits
ethical questions:
science: increases acceptance,
i.​ Open the economy or
aligns research with shared values,
enforce strict lockdown?
ensures pursuit of common good.
ii.​ Which sectors to open
○​ Requires:
first?
■​ Competitive science
iii.​ How to protect the most
education.
vulnerable?
■​ Transparency of data.
iv.​ Possible compromise
■​ Inclusive education by
solutions and
scientists.
safeguards?
■​ Government support for
public participation in
science policy.
DR. JESSICA BARON’S “TOP 10 EMERGING
COVID-19 as a Case Study – South Korea ETHICAL DILEMMAS” (2021)

●​ Principles: Openness, transparency, Digital Twin Virtual replica of a person

keeping the public informed. (genome, history) → used for
●​ Keys to success (FM Kang, 2020): benefit or exploitation?
a.​ Mass testing → early detection,
control spread, treat early Robot Abuse
(260,000/day as of March 15,
2020). Doomscroling Allowing mental health to be
b.​ Fast approval of testing system affected by what you see.
after virus genome release →
quick production of test kits. Battle of the Geopolitical tensions and
c.​ Post-testing monitoring via Arctic environmental stakes.
mobile app instead of full
lockdowns. Secret Hidden tracking in devices
d.​ Demanding public → surveillance without consent.
government served people’s apps
expectations, fostering trust.
Facebook Is it truly improving lives?

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Selfie Remote healthcare via
medicine self-monitoring
images/videos.

Dream-altering Sleep-tracking tools

apps influencing dreams; ethical
or invasive?

CIVVL app Tech-enabled evictions;

morality of automating social
harm.

Weaponization Using misinformation “rabbit

of data voids holes” to manipulate public
opinion.

●​ Purpose of Studying These Dilemmas

○​ Ethical challenges in tech are
increasing in complexity.
○​ Discussing them now → reduces
fear, builds understanding, and
prepares people to face them.
○​ STS (Science, Technology, and
Society) blends humanities/social
sciences (interpretive insight) with
natural sciences (rational analysis)
to equip future professionals for
these moral challenges.

Notes:
➔​ Science is the organized study of facts
and principles to understand the
world.
➔​ Technology is the practical use of
scientific knowledge to make tools,
processes, and solutions — and it
existed even before formal science.
➔​ Science, Technology, and Society (STS)
studies how these two shape and are
shaped by society, guiding their ethical
and responsible use.

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●​ Early humans used protoscience
SECTION 2
(knowledge without formal scientific
methods).
I.​ PLACE OF THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE ●​ Knowledge was shared orally, focused
mainly on survival.
●​ History of Science → studies the ●​ Civilizations like Mesopotamia, Indus,
development and evolution of science Egypt, Greece, China, and Rome laid the
across time, within social, political, foundations of science:
economic, and cultural contexts. ○​ Writing systems → better transfer
●​ Prof. Lawrence Principe: historians of of knowledge.
science aim to get a true and accurate ○​ Agriculture → food surplus → more
depiction of science in the past. time for learning.
●​ They study: ○​ Transport, math, astronomy,
○​ Evolution: how scientific ideas medicine, architecture started to
developed take form.
○​ Genesis: where they came from ●​ This shows that necessity (survival, food,
○​ Context: why they developed stability) was the main driver of early
●​ Applications of studying history of scientific and technological development.
science (Principe):
○​ Gives a clearer picture of science
today
○​ Shows how ancestors engaged in OUTSTANDING ANCIENT AGE INVENTIONS
discovery.
ANCIENT Origin: Started
○​ Dispels the myth that science is
WHEEL from the potter’s
only for “geniuses.”
(Sumerian, wheel (used to
○​ Encourages more people to
~3500 shape clay).
pursue science.
B.C.)
●​ History of science covers many aspects
Significance:
of scientific historical development. This
Eventually
section zooms in on the:
adapted into
transportation
(carts).
II.​ HISTORICAL ANTECEDENT Shows how a
tool for Impact:
●​ Antecedent = precursor to the unfolding crafting Revolutionized
or existence of something. (pottery) travel, transport,
●​ Historical Antecedent = previous state of evolved into a and later,
science and technology before technology machinery.
something more advanced was created. for mobility.
●​ Two types:
○​ Tangible → older versions of
PAPYRUS Origin: Made from
tools/devices (ex: coins → bitcoin).
(Ancient the papyrus plant
○​ Non-tangible → societal Egypt, near the Nile.
conditions that push for new ~3000
inventions (ex: 2008 financial B.C.) Features:
crisis → mistrust in banks → Lightweight,
bitcoin). durable, portable.
Foundation
for paper → Impact: Allowed
III.​ ANCIENT AGE made easier writing
education, compared to

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comm., and stone. Century
civilization Widespread A.D., Design:
more documentation Alexandria Steam-powered
advanced. and record ) sphere that spun
keeping became when heated.
possible.
Impact: First
SHADOOF Origin: recorded steam
(Ancient Hand-operated engine (though
Egypt, water-lifting used mainly for
~2000 device for temple
B.C.) irrigation. demonstrations,
not practical
Features: Used a industry).
lever +
counterweight
Shows how system.
early IV.​ MIDDLE AGES
engineering Impact: Allowed
more efficient ●​ Timeframe: 5th century (fall of Western
solved
farming near the Roman Empire) → 15th century (colonial
survival
Nile. expansion of Europe).
needs (food &
●​ Misconception: Often called the “Dark
agriculture).
Legacy: Precursor Ages”, but in reality, it wasn’t completely
to modern stagnant—science and technology still
irrigation advanced.
systems. ●​ Subperiods:

ANTIKYTHEA Origin: Found in a A. EARLY MIDDLE AGES (476–1000 A.D.)

MECHANISM Greek shipwreck
(Ancient (1902). ●​ After Rome fell, society focused more on
Greece, survival, rebuilding, and wars than on
~250–87 Design: Similar to learning.
B.C.) a clock with ●​ Urban life and knowledge centers
gears and knobs. disappeared → shift to rural living.
Evidence of (mantel clock) ●​ Called the “true Dark Ages,” but still had
advanced some important contributions.
Greek Function: Key Scientific & Technological Contributions
astronomy Predicted
and celestial 1.​ Illuminated manuscripts (Ireland):
engineering— movements, Preserved knowledge with beautiful
way ahead of eclipses, and handwritten texts.
its time. kept calendars. a.​ Example: Saint Bede’s records
of Saxon history.
Impact: Oldest b.​ Astronomy used to calculate
known “analog Easter dates.
computer.” 2.​ Craftsmanship & Navigation:
a.​ Vikings and Saxons → skilled in
AEOLIPILE Origin: Invented metalwork.
(Hero’s by Hero of b.​ Norse sailors → used stars for
Engine, 1st Alexandria. navigation.

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3.​ Movable Type Printing (China, Bi Sheng, into Arabic, which then reached
990–1051 A.D.): Europe.
a.​ Replaced woodblock printing. b.​ By the mid-11th century → Spain
b.​ Made printing more efficient, became the hub of translation.
cheaper, and faster. c.​ Scholars like Gerard of Cremona
c.​ Laid foundation for future mass (1114–1187) translated Arabic &
communication Latin texts → spreading ancient
4.​ Monastic Studies (Western Europe): knowledge across Europe.
a.​ Monks studied medicine (to d.​ This revived Greek philosophy &
care for the sick). science in the European
b.​ Astronomy (to track religious mindset.
dates like Easter). 2.​ Rise of Medieval Universities
5.​ First Mechanical Clock (China, Yi Xing, First universities (studia generalia) were
725 A.D.): founded:
a.​ The water-powered wheel ●​ University of Bologna (1088)
made 1 revolution every 24 ●​ Oxford (1167)
hours, run by dripping water. ●​ Cambridge (1209)
b.​ Early timekeeping device, ●​ Paris (1215)
important precursor to modern These became centers for
clocks. scholasticism (blending theology +
science).
3.​ Growth of the Scientific Method
The Early Middle Ages had few scientific ●​ Thomas Aquinas → Shift from Platonic
breakthroughs compared to Greece/Rome, reasoning to Aristotelian empiricism.
but: ●​ Robert Grosseteste → Advocated
●​ Some progress was preserved dualistic scientific method (observation
(astronomy, medicine, manuscripts). + laws to predict outcomes).
●​ Other regions (like China) were ●​ Roger Bacon → Built on Grosseteste +
innovating strongly (printing, clocks). Aristotle + Islamic alchemists →
Even in a time of decline, humans sought ways proposed induction as foundation of
to understand the universe, measure time, and empiricism.
record knowledge. ○​ Emphasized observation,
hypothesis, experimentation,
verification, and documentation.
○​ Stood alongside Aristotle,
B. HIGH MIDDLE AGES (1000–1250 A.D.) Avicenna, Galileo, Newton as a
founder of the scientific method.
●​ Europe begins to recover from the Dark
4.​ Technological Advances (Mainly in
Ages after centuries of warfare.
China, Spread to Europe)
●​ Population growth + shared Christian
●​ Su Song’s Clock (1092, China): “Cosmic
identity = more stability and unity.
Engine/cosmic empire” an advanced
●​ Crusades & territorial wars: prolonged
mechanical clock
conflicts between Christians & Muslims,
●​ Navigational Compass (China, ~1000
especially in Spain and the Holy Land.
A.D.):
●​ As a “side effect,” trade & cultural
○​ Earlier compasses used in feng
exchange flourished.
shui, now adapted for navigation
KEY DEVELOPMENTS at sea.
○​ Adopted by Arab traders →
1.​ Knowledge Transfer & Translation spread to Europe,
Movement revolutionizing navigation and
a.​ Muslims translated Greek works trade.

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(motion) vs. dynamics (forces).
The High Middle Ages was less about big b.​ Proposed the Mean Speed
inventions in Europe and more about reviving Theorem → early version of Law
knowledge through translation, scholarship, of Falling Bodies (predecessor
and universities. to Galileo).
●​ Crucial step: development of the 4.​ Nicolas d’Oresme (1320–1382, France)
scientific method → laid foundation for a.​ Discussed heliocentric universe
future scientific revolutions. (Earth rotating on its axis).
●​ Outside Europe, China led in b.​ Suggested it was more
technology (clocks, compass), which economical than moving all the
influenced global progress through stars.
trade. c.​ Anticipated Copernicus (1543)
by nearly 200 years.

C. LATE MIDDLE AGES (1250–1500 A.D.) ●​ Scholars blended theology with

science but increasingly explained
●​ Marked the transition from medieval to nature through natural causes rather
modern society. than divine intervention.
●​ Timeframe: mid-13th century → 14th ●​ These advances represent a prelude to
century. Renaissance science.
●​ Characterized by social, political, and ●​ Unfortunately, many Late Middle Age
health crises: contributions were overshadowed by
○​ Great Famine (1315–1317) the Renaissance & Enlightenment.
○​ Black Death (1346–1353) → wiped ●​ The Black Death + wars disrupted
out ~50% of Europe’s population progress, delaying the flourishing of
○​ Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453) knowledge.
○​ Peasants’ Revolt (1381
○​ Joan of Arc burned at stake (1431)
○​ Fall of Constantinople (1453)
These disasters erased much of the prosperity & OUTSTANDING MIDDLE AGE INVENTIONS
progress of the High Middle Ages.
KEY INTELLECTUAL & SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES HEAVY Allowed clay soil
PLOUGH (fertile but hard
Despite turmoil, scientific thought progressed: (c. 5th–6th to till) to be
century cultivated for the
1.​ William of Ockham (1287–1347) A.D.) first time.
Developed Ockham’s Razor → principle
of parsimony: The simplest Triggered an
explanation is usually the correct one. agricultural
Still used in modern science & revolution in
philosophy. Northern Europe.
2.​ Jean Buridan (1300–1358, France)
a.​ Challenged Aristotelian physics. Results:
Impact:
b.​ Proposed Theory of Impetus -Higher &
Agriculture
(precursor to Newton’s inertia). healthier yields
shifted
c.​ Formula: impetus = weight × -More efficient
Europe’s
velocity. farming practices
economy
3.​ Thomas Bradwardine (1290–1349, -Economic
toward
England prosperity in
surplus,
a.​ Differentiated kinematics Northern
growth, and

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population territories more (13th century) →
expansion. practical. failed.
Quote (Andersen
et al., 2016): “The Traders/merchan
heavy plough ts later embraced
turned European it → lightweight &
agriculture and easy to transport.
economy on its
head.”. MECHANICAL First accurate
CLOCK devices to
GUNPOWDER Accidentally (Middle measure hours,
(c. 850 invented by Ages, c. minutes, and
A.D., Chinese 13th seconds.​
China) alchemists century)
seeking the Improved on
“elixir of life.” ancient
Impact: timekeeping tools
Gunpowder Called huoyao → (like the
revolutionized “fire potion.” Impact: Antikythera
military Changed mechanism).​
power, It spread to human
shifting Europe & Asia by relationship Shifted daily life
balance in the late 13th with time, & work patterns,
wars and century. fueling especially in
accelerating productivity & advanced cities.​
global Replaced city growth.
conflict &
conquest.
traditional
warfare tools
(swords, spears).
Time became
standardized
→ work
⏰
schedules,
Uses: fiery religious rituals,

grenades 💥
arrows, cannons,
.
and trade
efficiency
improved.
Foundation of
modern SPINNING Machine to turn
weaponry → WHEEL fiber →
transformed (6th–11th thread/yarn →
warfare century woven cloth.​
permanently. A.D., likely
India) Far faster than
PAPER Origin: Offshoot hand spinning
MONEY of block printing. (10x–100x faster).​
(7th
Impact: century Before: Gold & Spread to Europe
Revolutionize A.D., silver were the Impact: by the 13th
d trade & China) main currencies. Removed century.​
commerce, bottlenecks in
making Mongols tried cloth Triggered a boom
long-distance
transactions
introducing it in
the Middle East
production →
boosted production 👗🧵
in linen & textile
.

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●​ Industrial Revolution (1750):​
medieval
textile
○​ Internal combustion engine,
industry &
steamships, railways ​
trade..
○​ Shift from agriculture →
manufacturing​

○​ Rise of factory model →

influenced education & society​
V.​ MODERN AGES (1500S – PRESENT)
○​ Mass production → consumer
●​ Post-medieval era marked by population goods economy​
growth, urbanization, technological
innovation, scientific discovery, and ●​ American Revolution (1776) → democracy,
globalization. independence​
●​ Often divided into:
●​ French Revolution (1789) → end of
monarchy, rise of secularism &
Early Modern Period (1500s–1750) rights-based democracy

Key Features: Impact:

●​ Gutenberg’s printing press (1450s): ●​ Economic boom → urban migration &

Spread of knowledge → higher literacy → social mobility​
educational reforms.​
●​ Spread of national sovereignty &
●​ Renaissance (14th–16th c.): Revival of representative democracy​
arts, humanism, and classical learning.​
●​ Rise of shared mass culture (newspapers,
●​ Protestant Reformation (16th c.): books, politics, consumerism)​
Religious upheaval → secular political
shifts.​ ●​ Citizenship identity became stronger in
industrial nations
●​ Scientific Revolution (16th–17th c.):
Empiricism, experimentation, rationalism
→ science independent from Early Modern: Knowledge Explosion → Science
church/monarchy.​ & Secularism
Late Modern: Industrialization + Revolutions →
●​ Rise of capitalism & more powerful Urbanized, Democratic, Consumer Society
states.

Impact: The groundwork for modern science,

rational inquiry, and global trade. OUTSTANDING MODERN AGE INVENTIONS

COMPOUND Inventor:Zacharia
MICROSCOPE
Late Modern Period (1750–1815 → s Janssen (Dutch
(1590) spectacle maker)
onwards) B.C.) + his father
How it works:
Key Features: several lenses on

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a tube → patterns.​
Insight: The magnified objects
compound 3x–10x larger Replaced: Older
microscope draw looms,
opened the Importance: Huge which required 2
microscopic step beyond people (weaver +
world, single-lens “drawboy”).​
making microscopes
invisible Impact:​
structures Applications (then -Simplified
visible → → now): complex textile
foundation of ●​ Medicine design​
biology and ●​ Forensic -Enabled mass
medical studies production in
science. ●​ Tissue textile industry​
analysis -Precursor to
Atomic modern
studies Insight: The computers
●​ Genetics Jacquard (punched cards =
loom bridged early coding
TELESCOPE Innovator: Galileo mechanics → instructions).
(early Galilei (based on automation →
1600s) Dutch lenses) computing

Magnification: Up ENGINE- Inventors: Orville

to 20x stronger POWERED
& Wilbur Wright​
AIRPLANE
than Dutch
perspective (1903) First flight:
glasses December 17,
1903, Kitty Hawk,
Achievements: North Carolina​
-Discovered
Insight: The craters & Innovation:​
telescope mountains on the Insight: Their -Engine-powered
expanded moon invention flight​
human vision -Showed the made the -Tilted wings
to the universe was far world (“aeroplanes”) =
cosmos → larger than smaller—glob lift mechanism​
transformed thought al travel and
astronomy -Proved Earth was transportatio Impact:​
and our place not the center n became -Proved
in the (support for possible. human-controlled
universe. heliocentrism) flight was
possible​
JACQUARD Inventor: Joseph -Laid foundations
LOOM Marie Jacquard for modern
(1801) (French weaver)​ aerodynamics &
aviation industry
Mechanism: Used
punched cards to
automate textile

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●​ Benefits of this understanding
TV (1924– Inventor: John
○​ Allows replication & improvement
1928) Logie Baird
of past ideas
(Scottish
○​ Helps us see social, political,
engineer)​
economic contexts shaping
inventions
Milestones:​
○​ Shows scientists & inventors as
•1924 → televised
ordinary, fallible humans →
objects (outlines)​
inspires participation
•1925 →
●​ Encouragement
recognizable
○​ Science is not just for a gifted few
human faces​
→ it’s for everyone
•1926 → moving
○​ Increases interest & involvement in
objects​
S&T
•1928 → color
Insight: ○​ Promotes healthy & meaningful life
images ​
Baird’s TV through science
brought BBC → first used
visual for broadcast in
communicati 1929.​ Studying the historical antecedents of science
on & and technology is not just about the past—it
entertainmen Limitation: helps us see how ideas evolve, how society
t into homes Images were shapes them, and how ordinary people can
→ mass fuzzy & flickering make extraordinary contributions. It also
media + (mechanical TV) breaks the myth that science is only for
shared vs. later geniuses—it’s for anyone curious and eager to
culture. electronic TV. improve life.

●​ Jacquard Loom → automation &

computing​

●​ Airplane → mobility & globalization​

●​ Television → communication & culture

➡ ️Together, they reshaped work, travel, and

information flow in the modern world.

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY
●​ Purpose of studying history of S&T
○​ Understand how scientific ideas
developed
○​ Trace origins of
inventions/technologies
○​ Learn who invented them + their
intended & unintended effects

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●​ Revolutions often took decades or
SECTION 3
centuries before full acceptance.

I.​ Revolutions in the History of Science The Process (Jean Sylvain Bailley’s
View)

Scientific Revolution ●​ Two stages:

○​ Sweep away the old (challenge
●​ period of drastic change in how people traditional beliefs).
think about science, how science is done, ○​ Establish the new (present better
and how knowledge is shared. explanations through
●​ Happens when old beliefs are replaced by experiments).
new ones → a PARADIGM SHIFT (big shift ●​ Needed communities of scientists (not
in worldview). just individuals) to support one another.
Example: moving from “the Earth is the
center of the universe” → to “the Sun is
the center.”
Examples of Major Scientific Revolutions

Before the Scientific Revolutions ●​ 16th century → Copernican Revolution

(astronomy: Earth not center of universe).
●​ For almost 2000 years, Greek ●​ 19th century → Darwinian Revolution
philosophers (like Aristotle) shaped (evolution: species change, not fixed).
beliefs about nature. ●​ 18th–19th century → Freudian Revolution
●​ Their views were tied to ethics, religion, (psychoanalysis: unconscious mind
and human-centered ideas. shapes behavior).
●​ Science was more about reasoning than
experiments.
Scientific revolutions = paradigm shifts. They
changed not just knowledge, but how science
What Changed in the 16th–17th is done, how ideas spread, and how societies
centuries? view nature, religion, and authority.
●​ Shift to abstract reasoning + quantitative
(math-based) thinking + experiments.
●​ Science became less religious → saw II.​ The Copernican Revolution
nature as a machine, not divine.
●​ Knowledge sharing improved:
○​ Before: discoveries published in Background (Before Copernicus)
expensive books, only for the rich.
○​ After: creation of scientific ●​ Old belief: The Ptolemaic (geocentric)
societies + scientific papers → model → Earth at the center, everything
easier, faster sharing of ideas, revolves around it.
peer review, collaboration. ●​ This was supported by the Church and
was the dominant worldview for centuries.
Why It Was Difficult Copernicus’ New Idea (Heliocentrism)
●​ New discoveries challenged long-held ●​ In 1543, Nicolaus Copernicus published
beliefs → met resistance. DE REVOLUTIONIBUS ORBIUM
●​ Governments & churches opposed them COELESTIUM (“The Revolution of Celestial
(since they lost authority in an Spheres”).
increasingly secular society). ●​ Proposed heliocentric model: Sun is at
●​ Scientists faced controversy, rejection, the center of the solar system, not Earth.
and danger. ●​ Key points of his 7 axioms:

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No single center for celestial spheres.
a.​ Earth is not the center of the
III. The Darwinian Revolution
universe, only of its gravity &
Moon’s orbit.
b.​ All planets (spheres) orbit the Sun.
c.​ Stars are much farther than the Background (Before Darwin)
Sun. ●​ Charles Darwin (1809–1882) → English
d.​ Stars’ apparent motion = Earth’s naturalist, geologist, and biologist.
rotation. ●​ Influenced by Charles Lyell (geologist) →
e.​ Sun’s apparent motion = Earth’s theory of uniformitarianism (the present
rotation + revolution. is the key to the past; slow, natural
f.​ Planetary retrograde motion = processes shape Earth).
caused by Earth’s orbit differing ●​ Darwin applied this same principle to
from others. biology.

Resistance & Reactions Darwin’s Observations (HMS Beagle

●​ At first → unsettling because it meant Voyage)
Earth and humans were not the center of ●​ Spent 5 years (1831–1836) on HMS Beagle,
creation. studying plants, animals, and geology

🐦
●​ Protestants and Catholics both resisted. (esp. Galapagos Islands).
●​ In 1616, the Catholic Church banned ●​ Famous case: Darwin’s finches
Copernicus’ book for ~200 years. ○​ ~14 related species.
●​ Copernicus himself wasn’t persecuted (he ○​ Developed different beaks, sizes,
died the same year the book was and feeding behaviors due to
published). adaptation to their environment.
○​ Example of adaptive radiation →
Limitations of the Copernican Model new species form from a common
ancestor.
●​ Still had flaws (not perfectly accurate).
●​ Later astronomers (like Galileo, Kepler, Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
Newton) refined it with better Published in On the Origin of Species (1859).
observations and math. ●​ Two observations:
○​ Individuals within a species vary in
Impact (Why It Matters) traits.
○​ More offspring are produced than
●​ First major paradigm shift in astronomy. can survive.
●​ Inspired Galileo, Kepler, and Newton. ●​ Inference:
●​ Marked the birth of modern astronomy. ○​ Those with advantageous traits
●​ Changed humanity’s place in the universe (better adapted to the
→ from Earth-centered to Sun-centered environment) survive & reproduce.
view. ○​ Their offspring inherit these traits
●​ Paved the way for modern science by → gradual change in species over
challenging old beliefs. generations.
Resistance & Controversy
The Copernican Revolution was not just about
planets and the Sun — it redefined humanity’s ●​ Opposed by religious groups → they
place in the universe, broke religious believed organisms were perfectly
dominance in science, and became the designed by God.
starting point of modern scientific thinking. ●​ Others thought it oversimplified the
complexity of life.

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●​ Still, it was a huge paradigm shift → ●​ Threatening/undesirable thoughts are
humans and life forms could be explained pushed into the unconscious.
without divine intervention, using natural ●​ Creates a kind of dual personality →
laws. “Jekyll and Hyde” situation.
Development concepts:
Impact of the Darwinian Revolution
●​ Psychosexual stages, libido,
Like Copernicus, Darwin showed that nature Oedipus/Electra complex (desire for
works through lawful, natural systems. opposite-sex parent, rivalry with
●​ Changed biology forever → introduced same-sex parent).
evolutionary biology as a scientific
discipline.
Controversies & Criticism
●​ Provided a rational, scientific explanation
for the diversity of life. ●​ Many scientists saw psychoanalysis as
●​ Completed the intellectual shift started by unscientific (too abstract, not enough
the Copernican Revolution: empirical evidence).
○​ Copernicus → lawlike system in ●​ The idea that all humans go through
the universe (cosmos). Oedipus/Electra complexes was
○​ Darwin → lawlike system in life especially criticized.
and biology (evolution). ●​ Some argued Freud’s theory was more
ideological than scientific.
The Darwinian Revolution explained life and
species evolution through natural selection, Impact of the Freudian Revolution
replacing divine or fixed-design explanations. It
was a turning point in biology, just as ●​ Despite criticism, Freud’s work dominated
Copernicus was for astronomy. psychotherapy in the early 20th century.
●​ Gave rise to psychodynamic therapies,
still used today for treating mental
disorders.
IV. The Freudian Revolution ●​ Revolutionized how people think about:
○​ the unconscious,
○​ human motivation,
Background ○​ and the hidden forces behind
behavior.
●​ Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) → Austrian ●​ Opened psychology as a field that looked
neurologist. beyond biology → into the mind and
●​ Founder of psychoanalysis, a method for unconscious.
understanding the unconscious mind and
hidden conflicts within personality.
The Freudian Revolution shifted psychology by
●​ Focused on dreams, fantasies, free
focusing on the unconscious mind and inner
associations, and inner desires.
conflicts as key drivers of human behavior.
Even though controversial and sometimes
Key Ideas of Freud’s Psychoanalysis criticized as unscientific, it transformed
psychotherapy and shaped modern
Humans are pleasure-seeking by nature. psychology.
Personality structure:
●​ Id → primitive, instinctual drives (sex,
aggression, hidden desires).
●​ Superego → moral conscience (society’s
rules, ethics).
●​ Ego → realistic mediator between id &
superego.
Unconscious vs Conscious mind:

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V. Scientific Revolutions and Society: The Our Role in Society
Connection
As members of the scientific community, we are
both beneficiaries and responsible caretakers of
science.​
Why Scientific Revolutions Matter
●​ They provide new ways of understanding Our responsibility:​
nature & the universe.
●​ Lead to more reliable scientific ●​ Continue refining knowledge
knowledge → applied in real life. ●​ Apply science for social justice and
●​ Result: equality
○​ Better public health & medicine ●​ Ensure progress benefits all of humanity
○​ Better understanding of weather &
climate Scientific revolutions don’t just change
○​ Improved waste management & science—they transform society by improving
pollution control lives, shaping progress, and giving us the tools
○​ More comfortable, efficient, and to solve modern problems fairly and wisely.
meaningful lives

Impact on Society
●​ We live better lives today because of the
struggles & discoveries of scientists
before us.
●​ Their contributions built the foundation
of an enlightened, empowered, and
healthier society.
●​ Science inspires new generations →
knowledge keeps growing.

University College London’s View (Cycle

of Progress)
●​ Identify progress-achieving methods of
science.
●​ Generalize these methods → apply them
to all human problems, not just
knowledge.
●​ Use them to make social progress → build
an enlightened, wise world.

The Bigger Picture

●​ Social progress is the ultimate goal.
●​ Scientific revolutions make
science-based & technology-driven
decision-making possible.

✅
●​ This creates a world that is:​

✅ Safer​

✅ More connected​
More efficient

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○​ IRRI (International Rice Research
SECTION 4
Institute)
○​ National Food Authority
V. General Survey on the Unfolding of Science ○​ National Academy of Science and
and Technology in the Philippines Technology (1976).

Post-EDSA Administrations
Precolonial Period
Corazon Aquino (1986–1992)
●​ Writing & counting systems already in ●​ Medium Term Philippine Development
place. Plan (1987–1992) → emphasized S&T for
●​ Early science rooted in natural resources: economic recovery.
flora, fauna → medicines, therapies.
●​ Advanced engineering → Banaue Rice Fidel Ramos (1992–1998)
Terraces (hallmark of early Filipino ●​ Goal: make PH a newly industrialized
ingenuity). country.
●​ More S&T scholars & personnel.
●​ RA 8439 – Magna Carta for Science &
Spanish Period (1565–1898)
Technology Personnel.
●​ Catalyst: formal education & scientific
institutions. Joseph Estrada (1998–2001)
●​ Focus on agriculture and biology (study ●​ RA 8749 – Clean Air Act (1999).
of flora/fauna). ●​ RA 8792 – Electronic Commerce Act
●​ Botanists studied endemic plants and (2000).
animals.
●​ However → agriculture was later Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010)
neglected due to the Galleon Trade. ●​ Dubbed “Golden Age of Science and
Technology”.
●​ Many laws/projects linking technology →
American Period (1898–1946) economic growth.
●​ 1901: Bureau of Government Laboratories
→ studied tropical diseases. Benigno Aquino III (2010–2016)
●​ 1905: Replaced by Bureau of Science ●​ RA 10601 – Agricultural & Fisheries
(main research hub). Mechanization Law.
●​ 1933: National Research Council of the ●​ RA 10692 – PAGASA Modernization Act.
Philippines created. ●​ RA 10844 – Department of Information
●​ 1946: Bureau of Science replaced by and Communications Technology (DICT)
Institute of Science. Act of 2015.
●​ 1958: Science Act → National Science
Development Board (NSDB). Rodrigo Duterte (2016–2022)
●​ Focus: agriculture, forestry, medicine, ●​ RA 11035 – Balik Scientist Program Act
pharmacy, food processing. (support for returning Filipino scientists).
●​ Strengthened incentives: tax/duty
exemptions, equipment imports, free
Post-Independence & Marcos Era insurance.
(1946–1986) ●​ 2020: Conferred Order of National
●​ 1973 Constitution: Science & Technology Scientist to Emil Q. Javier (agriculture).
prioritized in national development.
●​ Marcos: raised S&T as national policy. Since precolonial times, Filipinos valued
●​ Established: science & technology for survival and progress.​
○​ PAGASA (weather, geophysical,
astronomical services)

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Every administration acknowledged S&T as a Mundo
pillar of national unity & economic growth.​ Founded the first pediatric
hospital in the Philippines.
Legislations + institutions + scientists =
steady progress.​ Improvised incubator: laundry
baskets + hot water bottles +
Future progress: S&T must remain central to oxygen hood.
nation-building and economic
competitiveness. Addressed rural areas without
electricity.

VI. Inventions by Filipino Scientists Won 1977 Ramon Magsaysay

Precolonial Innovations Award for outstanding service.
●​ Focused on navigation, shipbuilding,
textiles, food processing, indigenous arts, Mole Developed formula using
and cultural techniques. Remover – cashew nut (Anacardium
●​ Showed that necessity drove invention in Rolando dela occidentale) extract.
Philippine society. Cruz
Painless, affordable, left no
surgical marks.

Won Gold Medal at

International Invention Expo
(Malaysia, 2000).
Electronic Symbol of Filipino ingenuity
Jeepney (from U.S. WWII military jeeps
(E-Jeepney) → public transport).

Problem: Traditional jeepneys = Banana Invented during WWII (shortage

noisy, smoke-belching, Ketchup – of tomatoes).
air-polluting, fuel-heavy. Maria Orosa
Ingredients: mashed bananas,
Solution: E-jeepney runs on sugar, vinegar, spices.
electricity → eco-friendly,
cheaper, sustainable. It became a staple Filipino
condiment.
Introduced in Metro Manila &
Bacolod City. Naturally yellow-brown, dyed
red to look like tomato
Erythromycin Derived from bacterium ketchup.
– Abelardo Streptomyces erythreus.
Aguilar
(Ilonggo Important antibiotic used
scientist) worldwide.

Issue: Aguilar not credited; U.S.

employer Eli Lilly & Co. took
recognition.

Medical First woman pediatrician

Incubator – admitted to Harvard Medical
Dr. Fe del School.

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Anthropological Definition
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY AND ●​ Technology = a human activity
THE HUMAN CONDITION ●​ Humans invent, produce, and use tools,
machines, and systems.
●​ The very act of creating and using
SECTION 1 technology is part of being human.
●​ Example: inventing electricity, building
roads, programming computers.
I.​ At a Glance: Who is Martin Heidegger?
●​ Life span: 1889–1976 Both definitions are correct… but Heidegger
●​ Importance: One of the most influential says they still do not explain the true essence
(and controversial) philosophers of the of technology.
20th century. Why?
●​ Controversy: Joined Hitler’s Nazi Party
(NSDAP) in 1933, which has since ●​ Because just seeing technology as a
overshadowed much of his philosophy. “tool” or “human activity” does not
●​ Opposition: Strongly opposed positivism show how technology shapes the way
(the belief that knowledge is only derived we see the world and live in it.
from science) and the rise of ●​ For Heidegger, the danger is when we
technological world domination. see everything—including people and
●​ Influence: His ideas inspired postmodern nature—only in terms of efficiency,
theorists like Jacques Derrida, Michel productivity, and usefulness (what he
Foucault, and Jean-François Lyotard. calls “enframing”).
●​ Philosophy focus: Ontology → the study
of “being” (Das Sein in German). Key Insight for Ethics & Morality:
●​ Style: Complex, often creating long ●​ Science and technology are powerful,
compound German words such as: but they must serve humanity and
○​ Seinsvergessenheit ​ respect ethics.
(Forgetfulness of Being) ●​ Progress should not overshadow
○​ Bodenständigkeit human dignity, morality, and
(Rootedness-in-Soil) flourishing.

👉
○​ Wesensverfassung ​ ​
(Essential Constitution) SO, HEIDEGGER’S POINT: To really grasp
the essence of technology, we must go beyond
definitions and ask deeper questions about
II.​ The Essence of Technology (Heidegger)
how technology shapes our thinking, values,
and way of life.
Instrumental Definition
●​ Technology = a means to an end III.​ Technology as a Way of Revealing
●​ It is a tool we use to accomplish (Heidegger)
something.
●​ The essence of technology is that it is a
●​ Example: A phone is a tool to
way of revealing truth.
communicate, a plow is a tool to farm.
●​ Technology here is neutral → what
matters is how humans choose to use it. Correct → Truth
●​ Heidegger believed that doing what is
correct leads us to what is true.
●​ Technology, when used correctly, helps
us see or uncover truth.

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Bringing Forth (Poiesis) Modern Technology (Challenging Forth)
●​ Technology works like poiesis (Greek ●​ Modern technology does not wait for
word), which means bringing something nature. Instead, it forces nature to give
out of hiding. what humans want.
●​ Example: When we build a bridge, plant a ●​ Example: Using machines, chemicals, and
seed, or invent a machine, we are bringing industrial processes to get resources
something hidden (possibility) into reality quickly, even if it harms nature.
(actuality). ●​ Instead of “bringing forth,” modern
technology challenges forth by pushing
nature to deliver results on human terms.
Truth (Aletheia)
●​ In Greek, aletheia means truth or Standing Reserve (Bestand)
unconcealment.
●​ Technology helps reveal truth by ●​ Heidegger said that modern technology
uncovering things that were hidden treats nature and even people as a
before. “standing reserve” (something stored and
●​ Example: A microscope reveals bacteria ready for use).
we cannot see with our eyes. ●​ Example: Oil, coal, forests, water—and
even data and human labor—are seen as
resources to be extracted and consumed.
Techne
●​ The root word of technology, which for Consequences of Challenging Forth
the Greeks meant skill, craft, or art.
●​ It’s not just about making machines—it ●​ Exploitation of nature: Mining,
includes knowledge, creativity, and even deforestation, overfishing, petroleum
poetry. depletion.
●​ Health risks: Synthetic chemicals, toxic
Technology is more than tools and machines.
products, artificial food additives, ripening
It is a process of revealing—showing us truths
agents in crops.
about the world by bringing hidden
●​ Information control: In the Information
possibilities into the open.
Age, data is treated as a resource for
profit—raising issues of privacy and
human rights.
IV.​ Technology as Poiesis VS. Modern
Technology as Challenging Forth
(Heidegger) Poiesis (Bringing Forth) → Works with nature
(slow, natural, respectful).

Traditional Technology (Poiesis – Challenging Forth → Forces nature (fast,

Bringing Forth) efficient, exploitative).

●​ In the past, technology was like helping Modern technology is powerful, but dangerous
nature reveal itself. because it pushes us to dominate nature and
●​ Example: A farmer plants seeds → waits reduce everything—including humans—into
→ nature brings forth crops. resources.
●​ This is in line with poiesis (bringing
something hidden into reality, in harmony
with nature).
V.​ Enframing (Ge-stell) – Modern
Technology’s Way of Revealing

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●​ This is what Heidegger calls destining →
Enframing
humans are “destined” to play their role
●​ Heidegger said modern technology in the technological order.
“frames” nature in order to control it.
●​ To enframe is to put nature into a system, The Danger
an order, or a box, so humans can
manipulate it. ●​ If everything is enframed (nature, people,
●​ Example: Instead of letting a river flow resources), we may misinterpret reality.
naturally, humans build dams, measure ●​ We might see the world only as resources
water levels, and control the flow for and miss its deeper truth.
electricity.

TWO WAYS OF THINKING IN ENFRAMING VI.​ The Dangers of Technology

(Heidegger’s View)
CALCULATIVE THINKING MEDITATIVE THINKING

Organizes, measures, Let nature reveal itself Humans Consumed by Technology

and controls.​ without force.

Humans look at Slower, reflective, ●​ The real danger is not technology itself,
nature as numbers, more respectful. but how humans let themselves be
formulas, and absorbed by it.
resources to be Example: Sitting by a ●​ Instead of being masters of technology,
managed.​ river and appreciating humans risk becoming its instruments or
its flow, rather than just part of the standing reserve.
Example: Logging damming it. ●​ Example: Instead of controlling social
forests → calculating media, people get controlled by it
how many trees = (addiction, fake news, privacy issues).
profit.
Heidegger said both are possible, but calculative Nature Doesn’t Need Saving – Humans
thinking dominates today because humans crave Do
control and fear irregularity (the unknown).
●​ Paulo Coelho reminds us: Mother Nature
will survive even if humans disappear.
Why Enframing Happens ●​ So the real danger is humans losing their
essence, not the Earth disappearing.
●​ Humans want security and control.
●​ Technology threatens humans’
●​ To achieve this, they treat everything as a
humanity—not nature’s survival.
standing reserve (resources waiting to be
used).
●​ Example: Forests = timber reserve, rivers Critical Thinking is Needed
= energy reserve, people = labor reserve.
●​ People must reflect carefully on how they
use technology.
Humans as Part of Enframing (Destining) ●​ Example: Social media is useful
(connection, information), but also
●​ In modern technology, humans are not
dangerous (privacy invasion, fake news,
just the users, but also become
online toxicity).
instruments.
●​ The challenge = draw a line between
●​ Example: Workers in factories, or people
beneficial use and harmful dependence.
whose data is used online.

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●​ Art shifts us from calculative thinking
The Real Threat: Seeing Technology as
(ordering, controlling) → to meditative
Neutral
thinking (reflecting, appreciating)
●​ Heidegger said the worst mistake is to ●​ Through art, humans learn to see nature
think technology is just neutral (neither as poetic rather than just a “standing
good nor bad). reserve”.
●​ If people think it’s neutral, they become ●​ Art reminds us of the harmony between
blind to its essence (its power to shape humans and nature that technology often
and control how we live and think). hides.
●​ Technology is never just “a tool”—it
always changes how we see and relate to ART VS. TECHNOLOGY
the world. Technology = enframing, ordering, exploiting,
standing reserve.
Essence of Technology ≠ Technological Art = revealing, meditative, poetic,
Things truth-bearing.
Heidegger says: To confront the dangers of
●​ The true danger is not the gadgets, technology, we must balance it with art,
machines, or products. which reconnects us to truth and being.
●​ The danger lies in the essence of
technology—its tendency to enframe
everything (including humans) as
VIII.​ Questioning as the Piety of Thought –
resources.
Heidegger
●​ Key Idea: Questioning is essential to
VII.​ Art as the Saving Power (Heidegger) reflect on technology and human
existence.
●​ Heidegger’s Quote: “The closer we come
Danger and Saving Power Exist Together to the danger, the more brightly do the
ways into the saving power begin to
shine… For questioning is the piety of
●​ Heidegger quotes the poet Hölderlin:​
thought.
“But where danger is, grows the saving
power also.” Importance of Questioning
●​ Meaning: the same place where Questioning allows humans to pause, think,
technology becomes dangerous (its and reflect.
essence), is also where the solution can Helps reassess:
be found. ●​ Who we were
●​ Who we are
WHY ART? ●​ Who we are becoming
Prevents total preoccupation with technology.
●​ Heidegger sees art as techne.
●​ But unlike modern technology, art reveals Piety of Thought
truth without forcing or controlling ●​ Thinking carefully and respectfully is
nature. “piety of thought.”
●​ Art is a form of poiesis → a bringing-forth ●​ Through questioning, humans witness
that respects truth and beauty. crises caused by unreflective use of
●​ Example: A painting or poem reveals a technology.
truth about life or nature without ●​ It ensures humans remain aware of
exploiting it. their place in the world and the
essence of technology.
HOW ART SAVES

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●​ Modern life exposes humans to new risks
SECTION 2
(pollution, diseases, lifestyle-related
issues)
●​ Science and technology help protect
I.​ Human Flourishing health and improve life quality (health
●​ Rooted in Aristotle’s ethics, human protocols, vaccines, efficiency)
flourishing is the ability to live a good, ●​ They are not optional, but integral tools
meaningful life. in the pursuit of human flourishing
●​ It is not just personal happiness but also ●​ Quoting Hölderlin and Heidegger: “Where
includes contributing to the well-being of danger is, grows the saving power also.”
others. ○​ Meaning: the same forces
●​ VanderWeele (2017) defines it as achieving (science/technology) that create
self-fulfillment while also supporting problems can also provide
others in the community. solutions.
●​ Components of Human Flourishing Human flourishing is a lifelong pursuit of a
○​ Mental, emotional, and physical good life, combining personal growth, social
health responsibility, and the use of science and
○​ Happiness and life satisfaction technology to overcome challenges. It requires
○​ Meaning and purpose in life health, knowledge, responsibility, meaningful
○​ Close social relationships relationships, and purpose, while recognizing
●​ It is a lifelong journey, not something that life’s difficulties are part of the journey.
achieved overnight. It requires
experiencing both positives (joy, love,
achievements) and negatives (loss,
suffering, illness) in life. II.​ Human Flourishing in De-development
●​ Persistent Inequality​
HOW TO ACHIEVE IT Despite decades of efforts to help poor
●​ Requires self-direction and autonomy countries “develop,” the gap between rich
●​ Involves using free will and reason to and poor nations is still widening.
grow through challenges ●​ A 2015 BBC report (Reuben, 2015) notes
●​ Leads a person closer to becoming a fully that inequality briefly slowed during the
realized human being financial crisis but is now increasing
again.
THE FULLY REALIZED HUMAN PERSON ●​ This raises questions about whether
According to philosophy, a flourishing person current development strategies are truly
has: effective.
●​ Physical well-being – Maintains health of
mind, body, and spirit Questioning Progress
●​ Knowledge – Pursues lifelong learning ●​ Even with scientific, technological, and
and awareness economic advancements, humans are
●​ Responsibility – Owns their actions, still questioning if real flourishing is
thoughts, and emotions occurring.
●​ Relational life – Lives meaningfully with ●​ The paradox: We have progress in
others: technology and economy, yet inequality
○​ Family, friends, & community persists.
participation ●​ Raises the fundamental question: Are we
○​ Productive social contributions really progressing as individuals or
○​ Spiritual life & connection to God societies?
○​ Understanding the purpose of life
Nonconformist Perspective – Jason Hickel

ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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●​ Hickel critiques 70 years of failed ○​ Modern technology and Western
development efforts aimed at eradicating development approaches treat
poverty. resources as calculable and
●​ He proposes a radical idea: instead of just orderable, often ignoring social
focusing on helping poor countries equity.
“develop,” maybe we should “de-develop” ○​ This has widened the gap between
rich countries. rich and poor countries instead of
●​ The goal: Address global inequality by narrowing it.
rethinking growth and development, not ●​ Questioning (Piety of Thought):
just pushing more growth for poor ○​ Hickel’s framework requires
nations. continuous critical reflection:
■​ What is enough? What is
equitable? What is
Even with economic and technological
efficient?
progress, human flourishing is limited by
○​ Without questioning, even
persistent inequality. Hickel challenges
well-intentioned reforms risk
conventional development thinking, suggesting
becoming regressive in practice.
that real progress may require addressing
excesses in rich countries instead of focusing
Critique of Traditional Growth
solely on poor countries.
●​ More growth has not solved poverty, as
seen in persistent global inequality.
III.​ Hickel’s “De-developing Rich ●​ Western efforts to forcibly develop poor
Countries” countries often exacerbate disparities.
●​ Science, technology, and economic
Nonconventional View of Development policies must be rethought for global
equity, not just national prosperity.
●​ Traditional development focuses on
vertical growth—rich countries go up, Hickel’s Proposal
poor countries catch up.
●​ Hickel challenges this: instead of poor ●​ Focus on rethinking progress rather than
countries catching up, rich countries pursuing more GDP per capita.
should “catch down” to reduce global ●​ Emphasize social well-being, health,
inequality. happiness, and sustainability over
●​ His approach is not the same as material growth.
“de-growth” or “zero growth,” but ●​ Use examples: countries like Cuba and
emphasizes quality over quantity in Costa Rica achieve high life satisfaction
human progress. and life expectancy with lower GDP than
the U.S.
Link to Heideggerian Philosophy ●​ Highlight: measurement of quality must
consider context and confounding
variables, not just economic output.
●​ Poiesis
(Bringing-forth/Unconcealment):
○​ True development should bring Hickel challenges traditional development by
the “unconcealedness” (aletheia) proposing that rich countries “catch down” to
of progress—real transformation reduce inequality, emphasizing quality over
for all, not just rich nations. quantity. Heideggerian concepts—poiesis,
○​ Hickel argues current growth enframing, and questioning—help frame this
mostly benefits rich countries, approach, highlighting that real progress
failing to achieve poiesis globally. requires critical reflection, equity, and careful
●​ Enframing (Concealment by use of technology and resources.
Technology/Systems):

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ETHICAL GUIDANCE IN SCIENCE
●​ C. S. Lewis: “Science must be guided by
SECTION 3
some ethical basis that is not dictated by
science itself.”
●​ Science and technology should be used in
I.​ Are We Living the Good Life in Terms of ways that promote the ultimate good, not
Science and Technology? just efficiency, profit, or power.
Living the good life today means using science
HUMAN FLOURISHING & SCIENCE/TECHNOLOGY and technology ethically to support human
flourishing, focusing on ultimate goods
●​ Human flourishing involves living a good (happiness, virtue, fulfillment) rather than just
life, which includes using science and instrumental achievements. Aristotle’s ethics
technology responsibly. provides a guiding standard for what counts as
●​ Science and technology are tools, not truly good and meaningful in life.
ends in themselves—they help improve
life but do not automatically guarantee
happiness or fulfillment.
II.​ Eudaimonia – Aristotle’s Ultimate Good
THE GOOD LIFE
●​ Universal human goal: everyone wants to WHY OTHER GOODS AREN’T ULTIMATE
live well, but “good” varies per individual
due to background, experience, social Pleasure Temporary and fleeting; doesn’t
context, and personal preference. cover all aspects of life.
●​ Raises the question: Is there a standard Example: Enjoying food or travel
for the good life that applies to everyone? may not bring lasting fulfillment
ARISTOTLE’S NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS (NE) Wealth Instrumental, not self-sufficient;
●​ Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), a Greek helps achieve other goals but
philosopher and student of Plato, wrote does not guarantee happiness.
NE to explore moral life and human Example: Rich people can still
happiness. feel unhappy.
●​ NE is useful for defining the standard of
the good life. Fame and Dependent on others’ opinions;
●​ Key idea: Every action aims at some good. Honor not self-sufficient.
Example: Popularity on social
TWO TYPES OF GOOD media doesn’t ensure a
meaningful life.
INSTRUMENTAL GOOD INTRINSIC GOOD

Good as a means to Good in itself, the HAPPINESS AS THE ULTIMATE GOOD

achieve something ultimate goal.
else. Aristotle’s view: The ultimate good is
Example: Happiness, happiness, also called EUDAIMONIA.
Example: Studying to virtue, or flourishing
get a diploma, (living well for its own Greek roots: eu (good) + daimon (spirit) →
working to earn sake). “good spirit” or human flourishing.
money.
More than feeling good; it is about living well
Aristotle argues that the ultimate good is what and doing well.
defines the good life, not just the tools or means
(instrumental goods).

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Characteristics of Eudaimonia:
●​ Virtue – Moral excellence in thoughts, ●​ Happiness is uniquely human because
actions, and character. it depends on rational activity.
●​ Living well and achieving eudaimonia
●​ Excellence – Doing well in all areas of requires using reason to guide life,
life, reaching one’s potential. something no other living being can
fully do.
Eudaimonia is self-sufficient, enduring, and
holistic, covering all aspects of human life. In short: While plants and animals share basic
life and perception functions, only humans can
live rationally and intentionally, making
Pleasure, wealth, and fame are instrumental eudaimonia—true happiness — uniquely
goods—means to other ends. Eudaimonia human.
(happiness or human flourishing) is the
ultimate good, because it is complete,
self-sufficient, and encompasses virtue and IV.​ Arête and Human Happiness
excellence, guiding humans to live well in
every aspect of life. CONNECTION BETWEEN EUDAIMONIA AND
VIRTUE
●​ Eudaimonia (happiness or human
flourishing) defines the good life.
III.​ Eudaimonia: Uniquely Human
For Aristotle, eudaimonia is achieved only
HAPPINESS AS A HUMAN FUNCTION by living a life of virtue (arête).
●​ Aristotle argues that eudaimonia ●​ Arête: Greek for “excellence” or “moral
(happiness) is unique to humans. virtue”; it is what enables one to function
●​ Why? Because it requires a rationally well as a human.
directed life—living guided by reason.
●​ Only humans can pursue virtue and
TWO TYPES OF VIRTUE
excellence in a deliberate, reflective way.
Intellectual Virtue Moral Virtue (Virtue
ARISTOTLE’S TRIPARTITE SOUL
(Virtue of Thought) of Character)
Degree of Living Functions
Soul Things Developed through Developed through
education, habitual practice.
Nutritive Plants Growth, nutrition, experience, and
reproduction contemplation. Key virtues:
generosity,
Sensitive Animals Locomotion, perception Key virtues: temperance, courage.
Wisdom → guides
Rational Humans Theoretical ethical behavior Like learning a skill:
(intellect/thought), innate capacity exists,
Practical Understanding → but practice
(reason-guided action) gained from study, completes the virtue.
scientific endeavors,
Nested hierarchy: Humans have all three reflection Example: Courage is
degrees—nutritive, sensitive, and rational. developed by
Only humans possess rational functions, enabling:
Acquired via both repeatedly facing
●​ Thought, reflection, and reasoning
formal and informal danger appropriately.
●​ Ethical and purposeful actions
learning.
●​ Deliberate pursuit of eudaimonia
Example: Temperance
is developed by

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Virtue is about balance, avoiding extremes of
consistently resisting
excess and deficiency (the Golden Mean).
unhealthy
indulgences.
Science, Technology, and the Good Life

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS ●​ Progress in science and technology

should be guided by Aristotelian virtues.
●​ Health: Avoid excess fatty food to ●​ Two extremes to avoid:
maintain well-being. ○​ Refusing science and technology
●​ Relationships: Limit social media to → limits improvement of human
strengthen bonds with family and friends. life.
●​ Environment: Reduce plastic use to ○​ Letting science/technology
protect the planet. dominate reason → ignores
ethical/moral standards.
REASON AND BALANCE ●​ Ethical guidance ensures that scientific
and technological development supports
●​ Virtues must align with reason to achieve human flourishing.
eudaimonia. ●​ Example of the Golden Mean in daily life:
●​ Excess or deficiency in behavior ruins ○​ Catriona Gray’s response on
virtue. medical marijuana: acceptable in
●​ The mean: Balance between extremes, moderation for medical use, not
relative to the person and situation. recreational → illustrates balance
○​ Example: Courage and reason.

Excess → Foolhardiness or
rashness (too little fear)

Deficiency → Cowardice (too much

fear)

Human flourishing requires both intellectual

and moral virtues. Virtue is developed through
habit and practice, guided by reason, and
balanced to avoid excess or deficiency. This
balance enables humans to live well, act well,
and achieve eudaimonia, the ultimate good.

V.​ What then is good life

A good life is a state of being: happy, healthy,
and prosperous in thought, action, and living.
Achieved by living a virtuous life, guided by:

●​ Intellectual virtues (wisdom,

understanding)​

●​ Moral virtues (courage, temperance,

generosity)​

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Science and technology can support human
SECTION 4 rights, but misuse can impinge on rights.
Ethical guidelines and safeguards are essential
to:​
I.​ Human rights
●​ Ensure inclusive access to scientific
●​ Basic rights and freedoms that belong to and technological benefits.
every person from birth to death. ●​ Promote responsible and ethical use of
●​ Applies to everyone: Regardless of innovations.
identity, belief, or background.​
Science and technology are powerful tools
Natural Rights vs. Human Rights: that can enhance human rights and
development, but they must be regulated
●​ Natural rights: Exist even without a ethically to prevent harm, ensure fairness, and
government (e.g., right to life).​ protect everyone’s rights.
●​ Human rights: Recognized and protected
by the state (e.g., right to education,
liberty, freedom from slavery or torture).​
III.​ Human Rights-Based Approach (HRBA)
to Science, Technology, and
Purpose: Upholding these rights shows a healthy Development
society and good governance.​ Definition & Purpose:

Limits: Rights are not absolute; restrictions may ●​ Focuses on placing human rights at the
occur for public safety, law enforcement, or center of scientific and technological
national security. progress.
●​ Ensures that human well-being and
dignity are central to development
II.​ Science and Technology as a
efforts.
Double-Edged Sword
●​ Encourages people to accept, evaluate,
Positive impact:​ and make decisions about the scope and
function of science and technology in
●​ Law enforcement: GPS and satellite their lives.
technologies help monitor peace, locate
criminals, and ensure justice.​ Key Concepts (Mukherjee, 2012):

●​ Education: Learning management ●​ Science is socially organized and

systems and other technologies improve value-laden.
access and quality of education.​ ●​ Policies should ensure:
○​ Safety, health, and livelihoods​

Challenges / Risks to Human Rights: ○​ Inclusion of people’s needs in

development and environmental
●​ Privacy: Technology can collect personal strategies​
data, potentially violating privacy.​
○​ Participation of people in
●​ Equitable access: Requiring gadgets for decision-making affecting their
learning may disadvantage students who lives and resources
cannot afford them, impacting their right
to education.

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Global Support:

●​ Several international documents affirm

the HRBA to science and development,
including:

Implications for Human Flourishing:

●​ HRBA ensures that science and

technology contribute to eudaimonia (the
good life) for individuals and
communities.​

●​ Functions as a “Golden Mean”, balancing

the benefits and potential harms of
science and technology.​

●​ Those with access to science and

technology have a responsibility to
advocate for those without, protecting
the weak, poor, and vulnerable.​

●​ Political, business, and interest groups

must be accountable for misuse of power
in science, technology, and development.

A human rights-based approach guides

science and technology toward ethical,
inclusive, and sustainable use, ensuring that
human dignity, well-being, and flourishing are
prioritized while reducing inequalities and
abuses.

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