Introduction to Linux
Linux is an open-source, Unix-like operating system kernel that was created by Linus
Torvalds in 1991,that serves as the foundation for a family of operating systems called Linux
distributions. Renowned for its security, stability, and flexibility, Linux powers a vast range
of devices from smartphones (Android) to servers, cloud infrastructure, supercomputers, and
embedded systems. Its open-source nature allows developers worldwide to view, modify, and
distribute the source code, fostering extensive collaboration and enabling customization to
meet specific needs. Over time, it grew into a complete ecosystem with distributions (distros)
such as Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian, Red Hat, and CentOS.
Key features of Linux:
Open-source – Source code is freely available.
Multiuser – Multiple users can work simultaneously.
Multitasking – Can run multiple tasks at the same time.
Portable – Runs on a wide range of hardware (servers, desktops, mobile devices,
embedded systems).
Secure & Stable – Strong user permissions, process isolation, and community
support.
CLI & GUI – Provides both command-line interface (Bash shell) and graphical
interface (GNOME, KDE, etc.).
Linux is widely used in servers, supercomputers, cloud computing, IoT devices, mobile
(Android), and cybersecurity tools.
Linux Architecture
Linux has a layered architecture, which helps in organizing system operations efficiently.
1. Hardware Layer
The lowest layer (CPU, memory, hard disk, I/O devices).
Provides the physical resources for the OS to manage.
2. Kernel (Core of Linux)
The heart of Linux OS.
Manages hardware resources and provides essential services to upper layers.
Types of kernels: Monolithic (Linux), Microkernel, Hybrid.
Functions:
o Process Management
o Memory Management
o Device Drivers (I/O handling)
o File System Management
o System Calls Interface
3. System Libraries
Special programs that help applications interact with the kernel.
Example: glibc (GNU C Library).
Provide APIs for file operations, memory allocation, networking, etc.
4. System Utilities
Essential programs that perform individual tasks.
Example: cp, ls, mv, ps, grep.
5. User Space (Shell & Applications)
Shell: Command interpreter between user and kernel (e.g., Bash, Zsh, Ksh).
User Applications: Software like text editors (Vim, Nano), browsers, databases, etc.
🔹 Basic Linux Commands with Explanation
Command Purpose Example Explanation
pwd (Print Shows the full
If you are in Desktop, it shows
Working path of the pwd
/home/user/Desktop.
Directory) current directory
ls shows files; -l gives detailed
Lists files and
ls (List) ls -l info (permissions, owner, size,
directories
date).
cd (Change Moves between Goes into Documents folder.
cd Documents
Directory) folders cd .. goes back one step.
mkdir (Make Creates a new
mkdir project Makes a folder called project.
Directory) folder
Command Purpose Example Explanation
rmdir (Remove Deletes an empty Removes project folder (only if
rmdir project
Directory) folder empty).
Creates an empty touch Makes a blank file named
touch
file notes.txt notes.txt.
cat Displays file Shows what’s inside notes.txt.
cat notes.txt
(Concatenate) contents Can also join files.
Copies cp file1.txt Makes a copy of file1.txt
cp (Copy) backup.txt
files/folders named backup.txt.
Moves or
mv file1.txt Moves file1.txt to Documents/.
mv (Move) renames Documents/ Also used to rename.
files/folders
Deletes file1.txt. rm -r
Deletes
rm (Remove) rm file1.txt folder removes a folder with
files/folders
files inside.
🔹 Additional Useful Commands
Command Purpose Example Explanation
man Displays help/manual for Shows details about ls
man ls
(Manual) commands command.
echo
echo Prints text to screen or file Hello Prints "Hello" on screen.
whoami Shows current logged-in user whoami Output: student.
Wipes the screen for clean
clear Clears terminal screen clear
view.
exit Logs out of terminal session exit Closes the terminal.
