Spatial encoding in

magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) refers to the process
of

image of the internal structure of an object or tissue by magnetic

creating an
measuring the

resonance signal emaneting from it .

In magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) the Larmor · equation and Fourier transform are

applied to encode voxel location .

Carmor Equation f JB the relationship between the frequency If of precession

:

of nuclear spins and the strength of the magnetic field (B) .

U represents the

gyromagnetic ratio which is

,
a characteristic constant for each type of nucleus .

Istrong] Higher
frequency slice
Greenery Tweany
a
3 d
. .

A mode
·

<reflections
In the A-mode presentation of ultrasound images ,
the returning of echoes from the

body are
displayed as
signals on
oscilloscope .
An oscilloscope display records the amplitude If the
magnetic field is made to
vary gradually across the patient then according
,

cy-axis) of echoes as function of time or

depth /X-axis) can be presented Is distance to the Larmor
equation the frequency of
precession and the resonance frequency of the
sent pulse
pulse
from the ultrasound transducer protons will also
receive
vary
are
. .

Time /depth) ->

B mode
Magnetic Field Gradients MRI employ magnetic field
gradients which
· - :

scanner ,

In of pulse echo image which interfaces magnetic fields that superimposed onto the main
B-mode presentation ,
echo-producing is are additional magnetic field (B)

displayed The amplitude of strength of gradients along

in 2 dimension (8 and
y) on a video screen .
each echo is
generated by the MRI scanner .
By varying the different

represent the
brightness value at
ry location .

"I Display directions 27 y and ,

z) .
As we collect the
signal in all directions .

·
M mode .
-

Fourier transform :

This method of signal acquisition is activation

the at each time converted to of dice-select while
In M mode presentation of motion ,
echo
signal a gradient a narrow-bandwidth RF or
Radio-frequency
vertical line of pixels By the
amplitude and rate of motion by time pulse is sent The presence of slize-select gradient the protons in a
recording
.
.
. means

which commonly use to see the movement of body or

organs .
It is
actually narrow section are in resonance and make
specified angle by RF
pulse .
Protons

combination with B -
mode .
else where are unaffected .

The fourier transform requires the location of signal along 3

orthogonal
*
blood flow ?
Doppler /Ecos& applied
3 b..
.
IV =

2v . to measure ares .

·
The first axis is "slice" as the "z direction" and oriented along the

This mode the Doppler effect of

use in
measuring
and
visualizing blood flow .
cranial -

guadrant axis patient . As created unequal magnet along I direction .

·
The X and y axes are encoded
by the
frequency and phase of RE signals
Sv=
:

frequency returning from the tissue

eVo(E)cosO Sv :

Doppler shift .

Vo Ultrasound transmission frequency

:

2 :

Velocity of blood How Method :

C :
Speed of sound in soft tissue (1540 m/ser) 1 .

Object being imaged placed into magnetic field B .

10s8 :

the
angle between Ultrasound and flow direction 2 .
Magnetic gradient applied across area so that ,
each area has a particular
migue processional frequency .

Transmitting the ultrasod proble contain from

It
f
f
of : G-fr 3 .

Signal measure is combined signal area .

-receiving
r

transformation separates out into their

Sco
get r7 transmitting element and
receiving 4 .
Fourier all the individual components
8
0 s
frequency
Blood flow
O
element ,
the signal will be send and and amplitude .

then echo back to the

receiving element 5 . The software slots each wave into its allocated space based on its frequency .

of brightness depends amplitude

which make the
angle with direction And on .

blood flow .
 Chapter 8 Chapter Defibrillator
:

NIBP 13 :

& AED

Auscultatory Method A
Sphygmomanoter instrument for

Safar"
an measure blood
wor nig
consists of inflatable rubber cuff which is 2000 energy
pressure 1000V
?
,

applied to the arm and connected to a column of

flow
,

must in

determine of
direction
enable to
systolic and diastolic one

mercury ,

stalle

blood pressure by increasing and

releasing the pressure in the cult .

Concept is
purp the air in aft then listen the sound (known
.
as Korotkor sound) The synchronized of the heart neuscle fibers .
A method to return the fibers

to its normal defibrillation It consists of of

synchronized working is called .

delivering
electric
energy to the affected heart defibrillator
with a device called .

d) b) Defibrillator delivers a electrical shock to the area of the heart If sufficient current
.

C)
d)
is
applied to stimulate the muscle of heart for a brief period of time fibrillation

can be prevented .

b) The blood pressure alt will wrapped around the above the elbow The A defibrillators consists of transformer rectifier and inductor
.
arm . a
capacitor , , ,
.

coff pressure will be rised exceed the systolic blood pressure At this point The circuit of defibrillator consists of transformer to the
.

,
charging a
step-up increase

the blood flow into stopped from will then converted

arm .

voltage 2200 to
approximately 1000 v .
This
voltage be

C The first point at which small amount of blood is How will be record as to DC rectifier which diodes allow the to flow in direction to
.

by ,
current one
,

systolic pressure (make the 1st sound The pressure gradually Once the
110mmHg) .

charge the capacitor .

capacitor is
changed ,
the circuit switches to

reduced (The lorder sounds The the

.

patient circuit .

paddles are
applied across the chest to
complete
d) .
As the pressure reduced untill sound disappear ,
the last sound is diastolic circuit .

Delivery unit Joce

:

pressure .

Ito reduce times

charging
* Korotkor sounds In Exam 150-3603 W=(1/2)CV2 C capacitor for defib should not be High about 10MF
using
-

.
- =

Korotkor sounds are the sounds that ocur

during the blood pressure measurement , Energy stored :
↑
cause
by blood flow ,
by using a non-invasive procedure .
W =

2 QU
=

1 CV
360 =

1 10uF U
10
31/3 1 000r

180 V come from

pressue e up transformer
F20
To
+ :

step
V = FekV -
High Voltage (HV)
generate

systolic
1st
generation ofdefib is Traditional transforme e
Diastolic
sound n
pressure pressure
128
mmHg is the 1st
3 =
so
mmGy is the last sound 15 M
Oscillometric Method 2nd of defib Frequency transformer
generation is
·

DC
signal Maximum Oscillator
3 &
The oscillometric method is use to
analyzes
DC
/step up transform

~ voltage dighfrequency-> Ferrite

*

·
the pulse collected from the cuff W
1kHz
WR-ms efficiency very high
wave 12V
-> is
Ac signal ov
100
flow The to control
during constrict blood voltage using
tlf-- s, deteott"Z O
PWH
.

pressure
heart rate
ob -
-,
= "

is used to detect the I

cycle
sensor
pulse wave
.........
sensor
.

pressure 8

the movement of
-) Tonometry in Exam measure
artery
·

Tonometry is a
diagnostic test the artery blood pressure measurement that allows A2

continuous and non-invasive which less time and comfortable

consuming more ,

which the pressure hard structure

garge place on
peripheral artery provided
,

rectifier
underneath

⑪rirgagerdetune
ene
.

skin pressure grage R

↓
e sensor
N
- Radial
autery .

connect
Radius
artery move
up and down caus movement of -
 I Contraction ven tie
.

not
<ventricular pressure does not exceed the aortic
pressure (
3 .
Volume of a ventricle does change
4 . Isovolumic contraction

1 Ventricular pressure exceed the aortic pressure 2 the cortic value open 3 Blood leave the ventricle pressure in ventricle and Aortic rise about

I
.
. . .
,

180
mmHg .

4
.
Maximum of aortic
pressure -

Systolic pressure

-
1
.
The blood leave the pressure
,
in ventricle fall .

lower than pressure in conta , toward 0 value .

2 ,
aorta pressure back so
mutly

. Which is
3 diastolic pressure .

- 1 isovohmic relaxation
.

Ventricle decrease
2 .
precurre
3 .
The volume does not change

I : .
After ventricle fill with blood
1 The Atrial
.

,
2
.
systole complete

The ventricular
2

pressure equal
.
finish

to atrium
the
filling of blood

pressure .
3 .
in

During
ventricle

of diastasis
3.
Ready for the next
isovolemic contraction .

1 Becaus A-l value the blood Gow fill the ventricle

.

open , .

In the of
2 .

phase rapid filling .

 Chapter 14 unit (ESU) *.
Electrosurgical PID control Temperature Control
:
:

Electrosurgical mit or ESU use a

high-frequency electrical current to at tissue and control there are 3 modes ,
which are Proportional Control , Integral Control and Derivative Control
, .

coagulation. With (100kHz electric Each of reacts differently to the The of response produced by
bleeding by causing high frequency -5 MHz) , alternating 3 modes error .
amount

current at various voltage (200-10 000V1

,
is
paes through tissue
generated heat .
Electric current each control mode .
which is
adjustable by changing the controller's tuning setting .

is delivered and received through cables and electrodes .

-

Proportional

Electrosurgical generators can

produce a variety of electrical waveforms As there waveform .
the proportional component depends only on the difference between set point and the process

change corresponding to tissue effects .

variable
. The
proportional gain (kp) determines the ratio of output response to the error

signal .
The proportional term can be expressed as Port =

Apert) . Where Up is

Mode :

Monpolar the proportional gain and elt) is the error term which is the difference between

The active electrode is placed at the surgical site .

the actual temperature and setting temperature .

<return electrod)
The dispersive pad is placed somewhere else on
Integral Response .

(For complete circuits

patient for return the current from the
patient safely .
The integral component sums the error term over time The .
integral response will
And thi
monopolar mode is not available continually increase over time unless the error is zero ,
so the effect is to

for patient who had implant the medical device .

drive Steady. State error to zero .
Can be
express il) =
k: ectsdt

where Ki is
integral gain .

Mode : Derivative Response

Bipolar -

Both active and return electrode performed The derivative

proportional to the rate of of the
response is
change process
at the
surgery
site , by using forceps variable .

Increasing the derivative time (kal parameter will cause the control

No
patient return electrode is needed .
system ,
to react more
strongly change in error term and increase the overall

Bipolar electrosurgery is often use in wet speed control system response .

Can be express Doot =
KadeC .

dt
field permitting the where Ka derivative
environment to
coagulation .
is
gain .

Combination of PID controll

KiYeltdt+kad
Chapter 15 :

Incubator UH) =
MVH) =

kpeCt)
+

* Principle of Incubator where MV is manipulated variable

The infant incubator dust P

Remove kpe(t)
out
controls the temperature (34-38°) geem Setpoint E .
Error-I k: jectldt
O
:
I - Process Output
A
controls the humidity (40-80 % (
Dkdde(t)
It
deliver additional
Can
oxygen
-

b
from filter heat boil water do
Protects against infections and diseases ->
by washable .

ON-OFF control is old one

become stream
Heater
-if
centrifugal fan
1 -
Protects
against noise -
by using or cross flow blower roN read
temp less than <36 %
·

.
35 ·-

i
--

The inculator kept the baby neutral environment for medical with the >Overshoot As when turn temp there will

3
in a care ,
:
on ,

be some delay to defect temp get overshoot about

,

surrounding air has the

optimal temperature and moisture A fan .
of incubator blows Undershoot 10

surrounding
filtered heating element and water container control
ambient air over a a .

Through a

value additional
orygen can be supplied to air .
The moisture ,
heat and enriched air-Modern Control use PID , proportional integral , ,
differentiate .

CroV
flows into the above cabinet with the Heater if temp &d low PWM will be 100 % duty cycle
baby very

1
.
,
on
2200

if FLE-nor

nBraints
210V
temp close to
setting .
Set 50 %
off

corcupine
if temp very very close
to
cutting temp IDI
if temp at setting temp duty cycle nothing to
supply
enter
,
no ,

Coding Part :

set P
temp
--
36 :
=

read temp 1) ; PI

P error <read temp-set temp ( PD

:

7 Integrate
n
. . . . - -

PID
:

error error ;
previous error
:

D Differentiate
:

error : error ; -
error
-1
 Temperature control PID control in Exam Increase Up perfect (using
·

until the has that kp value)

graph sine wave
-

. .

k =
170

then we
get ku
compute
P-only kp
:
->
10 55
period
:
=

T
475-420

Up & Overshoot & Pu

-

92 :

kp =
:
50
= 555

! ! abot so

PID
kp 64 1
11 65
:
:
:
.
=

and
get Pu= 555 -
ultimate period
PI :

T =
55/1 2 : 45 8 =46
,
. .

PID
:

72 : 55/2 :
27 .
5 =28 Tp =
55/8= 6 .
8 = 7 .

k1 Kis
55

NI Setting time ↓ 50 46

65 28 7

kz
kp(E) 65/2)
as T es
5
given)
= =
=
:

kp
kp(4) 65(2) e23
= =

k, & Overshoot &

* ·

Ziegler-Nichol : afavorite en

55/3 18 333333
find kp
=

This method use to K and Ky of PID controller

.

=22
,

201 66
The proportional gain (kp) increase from until it reaches the ultimate gain 22(Es) 16 22
ee(2) =
.

is
=

zero ,

~202
at which the output of the control loop exhibits stable oscillations. For integral and

derivative
gain (2 and DC ,
is performed by setting I and D
gain to zero .

k1 Kis

Note Integral and derivative (T2 and Ts) instead of K , and Kn

:

For discrete-time controller determine K2 and Ks

,
: ·
Application in
temperature control
Which refer to the time
kz
kp(E) <D
kp(I)
=
: T constant

= In I
:
 *
Rathing Chart
Chapter 16 :
X-ray Apparatus The main
components of a modern X-ray tube .

·
A heated filament releases electrons that are

accelerated across a high voltage onto a

target ,

The from the target in all direction

I rays emerge
but restricted collimators to be useful X-ray beam
by .

-A vacuum is maintained inside the glass envelope of X-ray tube ,

to prevent the electrons

from interact with gas molecules .

·
A metal with a high melting point is required for the filament of X-ray tube .

Tungsten filament are used in most X-ray tubes Thermal

·

characteristic

X-Ray
* Chart When
Generation .
use
X-ray
waveform attained of circuit called diodes Heat and
rectifiled
voltage by use
components
-
A

28250

-This for the AC waveform is referred to full-wave rectification then cool

is use
rectifying .

down

* Apparent Focus
1 4 26
.
.

The Local spot is the volume of target which electrons are absorbed and X-ray are
produced .

to make focal spot look smaller ,

the target always is not
perpendicular .

Apparent focal spot n

sino

L
& actual focal y
spot
↑
x

⑲ The rate of delivery of energy to the anode

during fluoroscopy is

2100kUp) (4mA) =

400 HU (Heat units per second .

if
By using the illustration in the
margin ,
calculate A :
+mm and From
figure 5-13

0 =

170 After 5 minutes

approximately 60 , 000 nV
by anode
accumulated .

a sinO (1mm)(cin17)= The 8

spot films contribute additional ((200hVp) /100 mA) 10 53)8spot]
:

: 2 mm an .

·
Focal Spot Measurement =
40 000 HU
,

The total heat stored in anode is 40, 000 +

60 000
,
- 100 000 HV ,

a()
This of heat the amode heat of
a amount exceeds
storage capacity 22 000 HV
=

, .

So the
,
technique is
unacceptable .

size of Him ,
shadow of the target .

* Heel Effect The rate of of

delivery energy to anode is (85hVp((3mA) :

255 HUls .

Heat load from the 31 000 HU For 3 minutes

graph
:

.
,

Heat load is added (85hkp((150mA) (0 25s)(4 spots) 12 750 4V .

:

, ,
which

yield a total heat load 31 ,

000 +
12 750 ,
: 43 , 250 HV at 1 4 mins
.

From the intersection the anode must at

cooling wire 72, 000 43 750 28 , 250nU
=
-

,
,

The time corresponding to residual heat load of 28, 250 HV is 2 6 mins

. .

low
energy X-rays generated in a
tungsten target that escape from the Hence , the cooling time required between procedure is 1 6-1 4:
. .
1 2 . mins .

target .
The radiation intensity on the cathod side of the
8-ray field is
greater
shorters ot target
than on the anode side 3 the
.

Cathod
e
Heel
effect Anode

power
of Anod lower
head will be
a
-

than cathod
on cathod spectrum wavelength
side As head skull
so
,
need high power
 **

Chapter 17 Radiation
:

·
Electron transition
Atom emits radiation when Electron makes a transition from initial
orbit to final orbit .

Energy of the emitted photon equals the difference energy between

the 2 atomic orbits GV Ei Ef .
= -

Energy level of Tungsten Energy moving from M to K shell

·

of Tungsten release
energy by generating Ac voltage until last step of conventing
The circuit operates
the As
(-69 ,
500) - 12 500) =-67 000er
, , voltage into high DC voltage to drive the X-ray tube .

The emitted photon is called In the low voltage control circuit part the autotransformer (3) take the
or ,

characteristic photon volt and

generate magnetic field which then ,
self-induces voltage across transformer

* Characteristic X-ray length. While the kUp selector (4) can vary the distance
by major and minor selector .

accelerating electron
high KE than How characteristic
X-ray generate
? For (5) & 16)
,
the timing/exposure switch is a timing controlled on /off
S The
accelerating electron or incident X-ray collide the switch that turn on the beam for short duration .

Bil ery ejecteddesfrominthe she initKinetiecnergyof meleratingl part the transformer (7) & (8)
For the cimwit with fix ratio
high voltage ,

,
of 1 : 20
,
if 191 is IhV ,
there will be louV at 181 .
The diodes (15) Here

ejected photoelectron from 18) and the electron

this electron be with
energy ,
known as .
AC voltage converged into DC
voltage to
accelerating
when electron in outer electron to fill K-shell of (14)
shell
try to
replace the ejected , ,
which results emission
X-ray beam

generate characteristic X-ray with energy For 19) (10) (11) and (12) all control how much current
.

, ,
are is
going .

This allow machine to control how hot filament

Auger electron escape from the gets
·
.

shell of stom with kinetic energy

*
charcuteristic ,
that atom release .

The energy levels for each element and

each shell are

unique ,

- ·

Bremsstrahling X-ray
The incident electron
pass nearby the nucleus of atom ,

the direction bend due to the positive charge

change or

radiation of nucleus and decelerates. The loss of energy leads to

X-ray
the Bremsstraling X-ray -

Highenest Continuous with energy distance

Low
energy Some energy X-ray depends on

loss and change close the nucleus Close Far Low

(continuous) .
-

High energy ,
-

energy
 Chapter 18
X-ray Detection
Single-Crystal Scintillation Camera
:
·

The camera contained a 6-mm-thick sodium

X-ray X-ray
iodide crystal only 10 cm in diameter .

↓ ↓ To produce an
image the ,
sites of
I rays
light Electrical
signal absorption scintillation
in camera crystal
Electrical <directly) must related to the origin of the grays
signal
within the patient This
.
can be achieved by placing collimator between crystal and patient .

* .

Radiography
·

Parallel collimator
A
During the
radiographic procedure ,
the
X-ray beam is passed through the
body .
f-ray moving from the patient
A portion of X-ray are absorbed or scattered by internal structure the ,
toward the
crystal in a direction in line

transmitted to detector and be recorded with of the collimator

remaining X-ray pattern is a
image may . one
cylinders
This for shot
is use
single ,
as use
high power , penetrate through the
body . can
pass through cylinder and interact

in the crystal .

I .

Fluoroscopy O-ray must traverse one or more of

When the X-ray with lead septs in collimator before the crystal
beam is used a
reaching .

video screen ,
called fluoroscopy .
It can

visualize the movement of a

body part
in real time for ,

longer time which

low
use
power .

.
Bucky Tray
*

A
bucky tray is an essential component of radiography table use in medical
image .

It hold and support

is use to
image receptor device
during radiographic procedure .

It will grid back and forth to bluw grid

move
image .

Single and Multi

Away
·
 *
Chapter 19 :
Ultrasonic 3 d
. .
A
,
B and M modes .

·
Attenuation of Ultrasound ·

A mode
<reflections
As ultrasound beam penetrates medium energy is removed from the beam by the of
a , In the A-mode presentation of ultrasound images , returning echoes from the

absorption scattering and reflection

, , .

body are
displayed as
signals on
oscilloscope .
An oscilloscope display records the amplitude
The behavior of sound beam when it encounters the obstacle
cy-axis) of function of time
a ,
echoes as or
depth (x-axis) can be presented Is distance
sent pulse
of obstacle with the of
depends upo the wavelength from the ultrasound transducer pulse
size receive

are
.

If obstacle of
sound .
size is
large compare
with wavelength Time /depth) ->

sound ,
then the beam retains its integrity as
change direction .
·
B mode

part of sound beam be reflected and remainder transmitted through In

may obstacle as B-mode presentation of pulse echo image ,
which
echo-producing interfaces is

beam of lower intensity (absorp) .

displayed in 2 dimension (8 and

y) on a video screen .
The amplitude of each echo is

wavelength of
"I
But if the size of obstacle is smaller than sound the obstacle will the
,
represent brightness value at
ry location .

Display
scatter in various directions.
energy Some
may
return to
original source .

·
M mode .

·
Reflection the at each time converted to
In M mode presentation of motion ,
echo
signal
the ultrasound waves reflected from interfaces vertical line of and rate of motion
pixels By recording
.
the
amplitude by time .

between different tissues in

patient of body It
.
which commonly use to see the movement or
organs .
is
actually
The fraction of the energy reflected from
impinging combination with B -
mode .

interface depends the difference

an on in
impedance
of media of the interface
on
opposite sides .

density
~
Acoustic Impedance z of ultrasound
PC - velocity
=

in medium ,

·
Refraction
An ultrasound beam crosses an interface between two media ,
its direction is

of ultrasound then beam

changed .
If the velocity is
higher in second medium ,

become more oblique angle .

The relationship between incident

and refraction is described

angles
by Snell's law :

sinO; =
Ci
sin Or Cr

Fresnel
*
zone .

The
region near the source where the interference of wavelets is most

apparent is term the Fresnel or near zone .

>
beam
Dfresnel =

v
ultrasonic
-
** Fresnel zoned raunhofer (length D)
X
zone

Within Fresnel zone , most of ultrasound energy is contined to a beam

width ,
no
greater than transducer diameter .

·
Fraunhofer zone

After fresnel zone

,
some to
energy escapes along the beam produce
of ultrasand beam is known as Fraunhofer zone
gradual divergence .

sinc = 0 .

6(t)
 * canother magnets
Chapter 20 Encoding the
signal by gradient
·

:
MRI .

Spatial encoding in
magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) refers to the process
of

image of the internal structure of an object or tissue by magnetic

creating an
measuring the

~ magnetic field resonance signal emaneting from it .

In magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) the Larmor· equation and Fourier transform are

applied to encode voxel location .

Carmor Equation f JB the relationship between the frequency If of precession

:

of nuclear spins and the strength of the magnetic field (B) .

U represents the

gyromagnetic ratio which is

,
a characteristic constant for each type of nucleus .

Istrong] Higher
frequency slice
Greenery Tweany
Two Magnets Bu and Be
a
·

->
strong magnet
created the dipole If the
magnetic field is made to
vary gradually across the patient then according
,

to the Larmor
equation the frequency of
precession and the resonance frequency of the

protons will also

vary Becaus of
.

gradient having the different

otrength ,
make different

Grequency .

-> Dipole make induced dipole

the
angle depend on

position Magnetic Field Gradients MRI employ magnetic field

gradients which
- :

strength of B, return to original scanner ,

are additional magnetic fields that superimposed onto the main magnetic field (B)

·
Induction of a magnetic resonance signal in a coil By varying the strength of gradients along different directions 2x
y and ,
z1 .
As we

collect the
A changing magnetic field can induce a current in
signal in all direction .

-Generate current-
a
loop of conducting wire .
known as Faraday's law .

of Fourier transform This method of signal acquisition activation

law
electromagnetic conduction is
:
-

or .

of dice-select while
A proton has a
magnetic moment and acts as a a gradient a narrow-bandwidth RF or
Radio-frequency
If pulse sent The presence of slize-select gradient the protons in a
small
magnet .
they place near the coil will is . means

induce an electrical current in the coil .

narrow section are in resonance and make
specified angle by RF
pulse .
Protons

current induced in the receiver voil else where are unaffected

This is MR
signal .
.

The fourier transform requires the location of signal along 3

orthogonal
* Receiver coil ares .

Receiver coil is use to detect MR ·

The first axis is "slice" as the "z direction" and oriented along the
in this coil will be induce
By current signal .
cranial -

guadrant axis of patient . As created unequal magnet along I direction .

The MR
signal is a small electrical
·
The X and y axes are encoded
by the
frequency and phase of RE signals
current induced in receiver voil returning from the tissue .

by the precession of net

Method
magnetization (M) during resonance
:

Changing in
magnetic field induces a
voltage in a conductor nearby .
1 .

Object being imaged placed into magnetic field B .

e .
Magnetic gradient applied across area so that ,
each area has a particular
migue processional frequency .

3 .

Signal measure is combined signal from area .

4 .
Fourier transformation separates out all the individual components into their

frequency and amplitude .

5 . The software slots each wave into its allocated space based on its frequency .

And brightness depends on

amplitude .