CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
Introduction
Grouting is used to fill pores, fissures or voids in soil or rock to
reduced water ingress, to provide increase in strength or stability of
the ground, or to reduce ground movements or settlement. We can
categorise these effects of ground treatment into three primary
reasons for performing such ground treatments. Grout is a mixture of
cementitious or non-cementitious material, with or without aggregate,
to which sufficient water or other fluid is added to produce a flowing
consistency.
8.1. Ground Treatment
Grouting in civil work activities is performed as:
(a) an increment of permanent construction,
(b) a post construction remedial treatment, and
(c) an increment of expedient construction or repair.
Examples of permanent construction are curtain grouting in the
foundations for a dam and ground stabilization of foundation materials
for large buildings. Examples of post construction remedial treatment
include grouting voids under concrete structures and reducing leakage
through a dam foundation or abutment. Grouting is used for both
temporary and permanent treatments. It should be considered in
combination with other appropriate types of treatment for best
results. Other types of treatment may include excavation, compaction,
concrete cutoff walls, slurry trenches, impervious blankets, drainage
blankets and filter zones, relief wells, drilled drains, sheet pile
cutoff, dental concrete, grouting and drainage tunnels and galleries,
underpinning, and structural foundations. Purposes of expedient
grouting include repair of roadways and cofferdams, and stability and
groundwater control during construction.
Terminologies used in Grouting
a.Alkali-Aggregate Reaction: Chemical reaction in grout between
alkalies (Sodium and potassium) from Portland cement or other sources
and certain Constituents of some aggregates; under certain conditions,
deleterious expansion of the grout may result.
b.Aquiclude: a body of relatively impermeable rock or soil that is
capable of absorbing water slowly but functions as an upper or lower
boundary of an aquifer and does not transmit groundwater rapidly
enough to supply a well or spring.
c.Aquifer: A stratum or zone below the surface of the earth capable of
producing water as from a well.
d.Aquitard: a confining bed that retards but does not prevent the flow
of water to or from an adjacent aquifer; a leaky confining bed.
e.Bentonite: Clay composed principally of minerals of the
montmorillonite group, characterized by high adsorption and very large
volume change with wetting.
f.Cementitious Factor: Quantity of cement and cementitious materials
Contained in a unit volume of concrete, grout, or mortar, expressed as
weight or volume.
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
g.False Set: The rapid development of rigidity in a freshly mixed
grout without the evolution of much heat. Such rigidity can be
dispelled and plasticity can be regained by further mixing without the
addition of water. Premature stiffening, hesitation set, early
stiffening, and rubber set are other terms that refer to the same
phenomenon.
h.Heat of Hydration: Heat generated by chemical reactions of
cementitious materials with water, such as that evolved during the
setting and hardening of Portland cement.
i.Hydro fracturing: The fracturing of an embankment or underground
strata by pumping water under a pressure in excess of the tensile
strength and minor principal stress.
Grouting in rock for underground excavation can also be performed from
the surface or from underground. However for reasons of control, site
access and environmental considerations this type of grouting is
typically performed from within the excavation. Methods employed
include consolidation grouting, curtain grouting. Other grouting used
in underground excavation includes filling of voids between structure
and the surrounding ground such as tunnel linings. This is generally
termed contact grouting. Grouting in soil for an underground
excavation can be performed from surface or from underground. Methods
employed include:
a. Permeation Grouting – is the filling of interstices of granular or
porous soil, using appropriate materials and techniques to control
water or to improve the structure of the ground.
b. Compaction grouting – is the injection, under relatively high
pressures, of a thick mortar. Because the grout is so thick it is
unable to enter the pore space of the soil allowing displacement to
compact the ground surrounding it.
c. Jet grouting – In jet grouting grout is passed at a very high
pressure out of the side of a rotating tube. This grout cuts into the
ground around the central hole and mixes this material to form a
cylinder of grouted ground It is a grouting process developed in
Germany and Japan for uniform sands and silts using very high
pressures to provide pile columns up to 1.5m in diameter. A lower
pressure form of this technique is soil mixing.
d. Curtain grouting – is the creation of an impermeable cut off
usually radially around a shaft, tunnel or cavern to reduce the inflow
of groundwater or the outflow of stored fluids such as LPG. Generally
the grouting is carried out by widely spaced primary holes then
infilled with secondary and tertiary holes until the barrier to water
flow is fully achieved.
e. Area Grouting. Grouting of a shallow zone in a particular area that
utilizes holes arranged in a pattern or grid. This type of grouting is
sometimes referred to as blanket or consolidation grouting.
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
f.Colloidal Grout: A grout that has an artificially induced
cohesiveness, or the ability to retain the dispersed solid particles
in suspension; i.e., a grout mixture that does not settle or bleed.
Purposes and Limitations of Grouting
Purposes
Pressure grouting involves the injection under pressure of a liquid or
suspension into the voids of a soil or rock mass or into voids between
these materials and an existing structure. The injected grout must
eventually form either a gel or a solid within the treated voids, or
the grouting process must result in the deposition of suspended solids
in these voids. The primary purposes of pressure grouting a soil or
rock mass are to improve the strength and durability of the mass
and/or to reduce the permeability of the mass. This manual provides
guidance in the use of pressure grouting as a means to improve
existing or anticipated subsurface conditions. Information on
procedures, materials, and equipment for use in planning and executing
a grouting project is included, and types of problems that might be
solved by pressure grouting are discussed.
A. Permeability Reduction: Grouting applications relating to
permeability reduction include:
(1) in association with other measures, reduction of hydrostatic
forces acting on the base of water retention structures and on tunnel
linings;
(2) reduction of reservoir water loss;
(3) in association with other measures, inhibition of internal
erosion of foundation and embankment materials; and
(4) facilitation of excavation by stabilization, consolidation,
and/or water control. For those applications involving structural
safety (i.e. hydrostatic force reduction and erosion inhibition)
grouting is not to be considered as the sole defense. Multiple
defenses, such as grouting in association with drains and/or filters,
are to be used.
B. Improvement of Mechanical Properties: Grouting applications
relating to mechanical property improvement include:
(1) enhancement of bearing capacity, and
(2) consolidation of overburden or highly fractured rocks to
facilitate surface or underground excavations.
C. Void Filling: Grouting may be necessary to fill both surface and
subsurface voids.
D. Stabilization and Lifting: Grouting is used for the stabilization
of foundations and for lifting and stabilization of footings, slabs,
and pavements.
Limitations
There are two general types of limitations that apply to grouting:
(1) limitations inherent in the physical nature of the grouting
materials and in the physical and chemical properties of the materials
that the grout will contact, and
(2) limitations on grouting operations and methods.
a. Physical Limitations: Some physical limitations on cement grouting
effectiveness are:
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
(1)The maximum and minimum size and geometry of voids to be
grouted.
(2)The particle size of the cement, bentonite, or other solid
constituents in the grout mix.
(3)The presence of minerals in the groundwater or foundation
materials that have a detrimental effect on grout strength, setting
time, volume, or permanency.
(4)The possible noncompatibility of grouting materials used in the
mix.
(5)The presence of clay or other erodible materials in the
foundation that cannot be completely removed by washing.
(6) Settlement of cement particles from suspension in the grout.
(7) The presence of unknown subsurface features or conditions
detrimental to the grouting program.
b. Limitations: Examples of limitations to grouting effectiveness
related to field operations and methods include:
1. Uplift and damage to foundations resulting from excessive
pressures.
2. Use of improper drilling and grouting equipment.
3. Improper plugging of foundation voids by thickening the mix
prematurely or by unsuitable injection methods.
4. Improper hole spacing or orientation of grout holes.
5. Failure to utilize experienced geological and inspection
personnel to supervise and inspect drilling and grouting operations.
Selection of Methods of Treatment
Grouting is one method of treating subsurface materials to reduce
permeability or improve strength and stability. However, other methods
of treatment may be required in addition to or in lieu of grouting. As
stated, where structural safety is involved, the multiple defense
approach will be required. The selection of grouting as the method of
treatment should be based on an evaluation of all pertinent aspects of
the problem, including engineering needs, subsurface conditions, and
economic considerations.
Geologic Considerations for Investigation and Design
Rock Types: the differing properties of various rock types by nature
of their origin, lithology, and structure will influence the grouting
conditions at a particular site. A thorough knowledge of the rock
types present at the site, and their geologic history, is therefore
essential for the design and treatment of the foundation. The
exploration and grouting programs must be adapted to the site geologic
conditions. Different rocks with the same general fracture
permeability and void characteristics can be loosely grouped together.
Examples of some of the more common rock types are listed, together
with those general characteristics that could influence required
foundation treatment.
a. Crystalline: Crystalline rock is an inexact but convenient term
that identifies igneous and metamorphic as opposed to sedimentary
rocks.
(1)Intrusive igneous rocks include granites, syenites, diorites,
and gabbros. Some features commonly found in these rocks are sheet
jointing, shear zones, dikes, and sills.
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
(2)Jointing in three directions is characteristic of intrusive. One
set is usually near-horizontal (sheet or uplift jointing), and the
other two are near-vertical and generally normal to each other.
The spacing of sheet joints are frequently close near the surface but
increases with depth.
(3)Grout take normally occurs in the joints and the fractures, and
the volume is dependent on the size and continuity of the openings
along the fractures. Certain metamorphic rocks such as gneisses would
react in a manner similar to that of the granites. Grout takes in
schists and slates are dependent on the presence and characteristics
of associated jointing or fine fracturing. Most quartzites are highly
fractured and would readily accept grout. Marble is a crystalline rock
but should also be considered in the category of karstic formations
since solution cavities should be anticipated.
b.Volcanics: Volcanics generally include the extrusive igneous rocks.
Felsites, a group of very dense, fine-grained rocks, are extrusive and
near surface equivalents of granites, syenites, and other related
crystalline rocks. In addition to granite-like jointing they may also
exhibit columnar structure. Basalts are a group of very dense, dark,
igneous rock. The jointing may be platy or columnar. Basalts in many
flows commonly exhibit columns with three to six sides. Pumice and
scoria are often associated with basalts. Pyroclastics, such as
agglomerates and tuffs, are materials formed by explosive volcanic
activity and consist of fragments torn loose by such explosions, or
deposits of wind-borne ash. Large-scale engineering operations in
pyroclastic rocks are generally difficult. Volcanics require extensive
examination before engineering characteristics treatment. The presence
of can be determined and will usually require special columnar
jointing in lava flows tends to lower the strength of the mass as a
whole, and extensive grouting can be expected. Permeabilities may be
great in lava flows due to the extensive jointing which normally is
present and due to the presence of piped vesicles and gas cavities.
These features may transmit copious flows of water. In some cases,
however, the joints are tight and/or filled and the rock mass may have
a very low permeability. Each case must be evaluated individually to
determine the need for and effectiveness of grouting.
c. Soluble Rocks: Limestone, dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite, and halite
are included in this group. The principal defect in this rock group is
volubility in varying degrees that can ultimately cause high mass
permeability, slump, collapse, and sinks, resulting in karst
topography.
(1)Lime stones and dolomites are the most widespread of the soluble
sediments. These rocks may be vuggy and may display a wide range of
permeability as a unit. Limestone and dolomite are generally jointed
and usually exhibit two or three distinct sets of jointing.
Solutioning is frequently well developed along bedding planes and
joints, and contacts with other rock types. Joints and cavities may be
either filled or open and the size may vary greatly. Dependent upon
the extent of jointing and cavities, extensive grouting can be
anticipated.
(2)Anhydrite is pure calcium sulfate whereas gypsum is form. Both
are soft and fairly soluble in water. Both types and have a varying
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
number and size of solution cavities. The cavities are filled with
clay or other reworked material. Grout takes depend on the presence
and characteristics of the joints and cavities.
(3)Halite (rock salt) is soft and soluble in water. The extremely
soluble halite is not found in outcrop but may be found at depth. The
principal engineering significance of halite is the effect its
presence or proximity may have on the proposed project, such as
solutioning and subsidence, in addition to effects on groundwater.
(4)Grouting in solutioned limestone and dolomite often meets with a
mixed degree of success. Grouting will frequently dramatically reduce
initial seepage. However, the seepage often has a tendency to increase
with time after grouting is completed. The increased seepage is
attributed to the erosion of void-filling materials that were not
adequately removed before grouting. The erosion or piping of this
unconsolidated material creates seepage windows in the grout curtain
that become progressively larger and more prolific with time.
d.Clastic Sedimentary Rocks: Conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones,
and shales are the principal types of elastic sedimentary rocks. The
physical properties of sandstone, siltstone, and conglomerate depend
on the degree and type of cementation. These coarser elastics may be
tight and impermeable, or may be sufficiently porous and permeable to
need treatment. Jointing would be the main concern in impermeable
elastics as to need for treatment. The finer elastics, such as clay
stones and shales, are made up of clay minerals, various oxides,
silica, fine particles of ordinary minerals, and some amount of
colloidal and organic materials. These elastics may contain a great
amount of water. Two shale types are cementation shale and compaction
shale. Compaction shales usually contain no joints capable of being
grouted. Cemented shales are more resistant to change and have
engineering properties superior to those of the compaction type.
Cemented to slightly metamorphosed shales are sufficiently brittle to
react to structural changes and develop joints similar to those in
sandstone.
e.Unconsolidated Materials: Unconsolidated materials include residual
overburden derived from the weathering of the parent rock. Residual
soils are in situ as opposed to transported sediments. The properties
of the materials reflect to a certain extent the properties of the
original material. Finer derivations of the parent rock, such as clays
and silts, are generally impervious and would not require grouting.
However, in certain instances where soluble rocks underlie the
overburden, voids or very soft and loose material caused from the
collapse of the overburden into the solution channels may require
treatment. Transported sediments may include outwash deposits and
alluvial deposits generally found in stream valleys, terrace deposits,
and most glacial deposits. If the project design does not require
removal of these deposits, grouting or other treatment may be required
to reduce or control permeability and improve stability. Soil samples
should be investigated by laboratory tests for permeability,
gradation, and density.
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
Structural Geology
a. Structure: The term “rock structure” refers to the spatial
relationships of rocks and affects engineering projects in many ways.
Folds and faults influence the selection of dam sites, and even such
seemingly small matters as the spacing of joints may have an important
bearing on the distribution of uplift pressures.
b. Folds: A common type of deformation is folding. The folded rocks
often show considerable fracturing along the axis of the fold. The
severity of engineering problems is dependent upon the complexity of
the fold with relation to the type and geometry of the proposed
structures and would include excavation, stability, and leakage
problems.
c. Faults: Faults are fractures along which masses of rock have been
moved in a direction parallel to the fault surface. The movement may
vary from a few centimeters or less too many kilometers.
(1)Faults very rarely show a clean and uncomplicated break. The
rocks will normally exhibit folding, fracturing, crushing, and
grinding. Sometimes the walls exhibit polished and smoothly striated
surfaces called slickensides. The rocks on the opposite sides of the
fault surface may occasionally be broken into angular fragments
referred to as fault breccia. In addition to these mechanical effects,
faults may result in channels for circulating water or may be
impermeable and form groundwater barriers.
(2)Recognition of faults is of great importance because faults
represent zones of weakness in the crust of the earth, and the
presence of these zones would affect the engineering properties of a
site, including seismological considerations, excavation, tunnel
support, dam stability, and leakage problems.
d. Joints: Joints are almost universally present and are of considerable
engineering importance for that reason. Joints offer channels for
groundwater circulation, and joints below the groundwater table may
greatly increase water problems. Joints may also exert an important
influence on weathering and excavation characteristics.
e. Grouting Considerations: Since many rock types have a low primary
permeability but a relatively high fracture and joint permeability, the
importance of grouting the structural defects is apparent. The type of
structural feature (e.g. fault, fold, joint) will dictate to a large
extent the type and extent of excavation treatment and the grouting
methods. The spacing and nature of the fractures (e.g. open, weathered,
solutioned) influence the type of grout treatment selected, such as
consolidation grouting and curtain grouting. The selection of a single-
line or multiple-line curtain and the grout hole spacing are also
affected. The orientation (dip and strike) of these features in relation
to a structure influences the planned angle and direction of the grout
holes and the drain holes. The depth of the fractures affects the depth of
a grout curtain. The grout holes should intersect all the features, and
each inclined or vertical feature should ideally be intersected by several
holes at different depths. Faults may be gouge filled and impermeable,
thereby forming a barrier, or may be open and carry groundwater. Joints
may be filled or open, may have weathered or nonweathered faces, and may
intersect and be connected over a wide area.
CHAPTER-8 GROUND TREATMENT AND SUPPORT
The condition of the joints would affect the drilling, the cleaning, the
pressure testing, and the grouting of the hole. Since structural features
influence the grouting program so profoundly, the site exploration should
be sufficiently thorough to base the design on actual site conditions.
8.2. Ground Support
Rock bolt
In tunneling and underground mining, steel rod inserted in a hole
drilled into the roof or walls of a rock formation to provide support
to the roof or sides of the cavity. Rock bolt reinforcement can be
used in any excavation geometry, is simple and quick to apply, and is
relatively inexpensive. The installation can be fully mechanized. The
length of the bolts and their spacing can be varied, depending on the
reinforcement requirements.
There are three major ways of anchoring the rock bolts: mechanical,
grouted, and friction.
Rock bolts are used to tie unstable or potentially unstable rock
structures into the slope. There are static and tensioned rock bolts:
Tensioned rock bolts should be used only where a force is needed
to counteract the forces making the structure unstable.
In most cases static bolts should be used.
The logic behind a static bolt is that if the structure is safe enough
to drill into and install rock bolts, it already has an inherent
factor of safety. If the stability of the structure is adversely
affected in the future the static bolt will automatically go into
tension with the exact amount of force and in the exact location that
it should.
