PHY 211

1 Coordinate Systems
Objectives

ˆ Identify the different coordinate systems.

ˆ Convert from one coordinate system to another.

ˆ Use the coordinate systems appropriately.

1.1 Cartesian coordinates

Definition A Cartesian coordinate system is a coordinate system that specifies each point uniquely in a plane by a set
of numerical values, which are the signed distances to the point from two fixed perpendicular oriented lines, measured
in the same unit of length.
The Cartesian coordinate system can be represented in two and three dimensions.

1.1.1 Two Dimension Cartesian Coordinate system

This coordinate system only has two axes, the x and the y axis. Each point in the plane can be represent by the
assigned x and y values.

The distance from the center (0,0) to the any of the points can be determined using Pythagoras theorem.

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1.1.2 Three Dimension Cartesian System

This coordinate system has three axes, x, y and z. Any point in space can be assigned three values i.e the x, y and z.

The distance from the origin (0,0,0) to the point (x,y,z) can be determined using the Pythagoras theorem.

1.2 Plane Polar coordinate system

The polar coordinate system is a two-dimensional coordinate system in which each point on a plane is determined by
a distance from a reference point and an angle from a reference direction.

ˆ The origin (0,0) is the reference point and is called a pole.

ˆ The distance from the pole to a point in the plane is called a radius and is represented by a symbol ρ or r.

ˆ The angle formed by the radius and the axis is called the polar angle or azimuth-symbols ϕ, θ

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 x = rcosΦ, y = rsinΦ (1)

Exercise
Show that x2 + y 2 = r2 using equation 1.
Polar coordinate system can be extended to 3D to become cylindrical or spherical coordinate system.

1.3 Cylindrical Coordinate system

A cylindrical coordinate system is a three-dimensional coordinate system that specifies point positions by the distance
from a chosen reference axis, the direction from the axis relative to a chosen reference direction, and the distance from
a chosen reference plane perpendicular to the axis.

ˆ The origin of the system is the point where all three coordinates can be given as zero. This is the intersection
between the reference plane and the axis.

ˆ A is the polar axis and L is the longitudinal axis and O is the center.

ˆ A radial distance r from the origin to a point in the reference axis can be assigned polar coordinates (ρ, ϕ) or
(r,ϕ)

ˆ The third coordinate is the height or altitude and it is represented by the symbol z.

ˆ the 3 coordinates now become (ρ,ϕ,z )

NoteCylindrical coordinates are useful in connection with objects and phenomena that have some rotational symmetry
about the longitudinal axis, such as water flow in a straight pipe with round cross-section, heat distribution in a metal
cylinder, electromagnetic fields produced by an electric current in a long, straight wire, accretion disks in astronomy,
and so on.
Exercise
Express the cylindrical coordinates in form of the Cartesian coordinate system.

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1.4 Spherical coordinate System

A spherical coordinate system is a coordinate system for three-dimensional space where the position of a point is
specified by three numbers: the radial distance of that point from a fixed origin, its polar angle measured from a fixed
zenith direction, and the azimuthal angle of its orthogonal projection on a reference plane that passes through the
origin and is orthogonal to the zenith, measured from a fixed reference direction on that plane.

ˆ It can be seen as the three-dimensional version of the polar coordinate system.

ˆ The radial distance is also called the radius or radial coordinate.

ˆ The polar angle may be called colatitude, zenith angle, normal angle, or inclination angle.

ˆ ( r , θ , ϕ ) gives the radial distance, polar angle, and azimuthal angle.

ˆ If it is necessary to define a unique set of spherical coordinates for each point, one must restrict their ranges. A
common choice is

r ≥ 0,
0°≤ θ ≤ 180° (π rad),
0° ≤ ϕ < 360° (2π rad).

ˆ Spherical coordinates are useful in analyzing systems that have some degree of symmetry about a point, such as
volume integrals inside a sphere, the potential energy field surrounding a concentrated mass or charge, or global
weather simulation in a planet’s atmosphere.

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2 Newtonian Theory
Newtonian theory of mechanics is summarized into three laws of Motion.
First Law
A particle continues in uniform motion (i.e., in a straight line at constant velocity) unless a force acts on it. The first
law is a fundamental observation that physics is simpler when viewed from a certain kind of reference frame, called
an inertial frame. One cannot define an inertial frame except by saying that it is a frame in which Newton’s laws
hold. However, once one finds (or imagines) such a frame, all other frames which move with respect to it at constant
velocity, with no rotation, are also inertial frames.
Second Law
It states that the time rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the force acting on the particle. Newton’s
theory of Mechanics is centered on this law. For 1-D motion, Newton’s second law of motion can be expressed as

dp
F = (2)
dt

where dp and dt is the small change in momentum and time respectively.

p = mv (3)

where m is the mass and v is the velocity

The second law provides a definition of force and it can be expressed as a function of position (x), velocity (v) and
time (t). Equation 2 therefore, becomes:
dp d2 x
F(x, v, t) = =m 2 (4)
dt dt
The differential equation above is the equation of motion and m is a constant. For the rest of the course we will use
dx d2 x
Newton’s notation such as: v =ẋ = dt , a=ẍ = dt2

F(x, ẋ, t) = mẍ = ma (5)

where a is the acceleration.

Third Law
The third Jaw states that if body A experiences a force due to body B, then B experiences an equal but opposite force
due to A.

3 Types of Force
Forces that influence the motion of bodies or objects can be position, velocity and time dependent as can be observed
from equation 5.

3.1 Position Depended Forces

Coulomb, gravitational and spring forces are examples of position dependent forces. For example, a spring force obeys
hooks law
F = −kx (6)

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where k is the spring constant and x is the displacement from the rest position.
A gravitational force can be expressed as follows’

M1 M 2
F =G (7)
r2

while the Coulomb force is summarized by Coulomb Law

q1 q2
F =k (8)
r2

3.2 Velocity Dependent Force

Examples of velocity dependent forces include:

ˆ Friction force

ˆ Drag Force (a form of friction but in fluid)

F = −bv (9)

where b is the drag coefficient.

3.3 Time dependent Force

Oscillatory forces are periodic and are therefore time dependent.

F = F0 cosωt (10)

4 General Solutions to 2nd Newtons Law

4.1 Constant Acceleration

For a body being acted upon by a constant force, the acceleration is also constant or uniform. According to 2nd
Newtons Law,
dv
F = ma = m = mẍ (11)
dt
Since acceleration is constant,
Z v Z t
dv = a dt
v0 0

v − v0 = at

v = v0 + at

Exercise
1. Using equation above, derive the expression

1
x − x0 = v0 t + at2
2

2. Show also that

v 2 = v02 + 2a(x − x0 )

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4.2 Position Dependent Force General Solution

For a 1-D, the equation of motion is

mẍ = F (x, ẋ, t)

Being a 2nd order differential equation, the solution for x as a function of t involves 2 arbitrary constants. Physical
conditions e.g position and velocity at the initial time can be used to determine the constants.
For a force that only depends on the position x, we use the chain rule
dv dv dx dv
= =v (12)
dt dx dt dx
solving equation 5

mẍ = F (x, ẋ, t)

dv
mẋ = F (x)
dx
Z v Z x
m v 0 dv 0 = F (x0 )dx0 + C1
Z x
v2
= m F (x0 )dx0 + C1
2
Z x
2 1 1
v=( ) (
2 F (x0 )dx0 + C1 ) 2
m
Exercise
Show that the general solution for a position dependent is
Z x
dx0 2 1 t 0
Z
Rx 1 = ( ) 2 dt + C2
( F (x00 )dx00 + C1 ) 2 m 0

4.3 Velocity Dependent Force

If the force is velocity dependent we can integrate the equation

dv
m = F (v)
dt
mdv0 = F (v)dt
0 Z t
dv 0
Z
m = dt0 + C1
v F (v 0 )
The rsult of the integration gives v(t) which can then be integrated over t to find x(t).

4.4 Time Dependent Force

The solution of mẍ = F (x, ẋ, t) for a time-dependent force F(t) can be obtained from direct integration,
dv
m = F (t0 )
dt
Z v Z t
m dv 0 = F (t0 )dt0 + C1

A second integration leads to the solution for x(t),

Z t
mv = F (t00 )dt0 + C1
Z t
dx0
m 0 = F (t00 )dt00 + C1
dt
Z Z t
m dx = (F (t00 )dt00 + C1 )dt0 + C2

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These are the general solutions to the second Newton’s law in one dimension.

4.5 2nd Newton’s Law in 3-D Cartesian Coordinates

In 1-D, Newton’s 2nd law is expressed as F (x, ẋ, t) = mẍ, but particles do not always move in 1-D.
In 3-D, 2nd Newton’s law is expressed as

F~ = m~r̈

= ẍx̂ + ÿ ŷ + z̈ ẑ

x
where x̂ = |x| is a unit vector, and

F~ = Fx x̂ + Fy ŷ + Fz ẑ = mẍx̂ + ÿ ŷ + z̈ ẑ (13)

Therefore,



 Fx = mẍ


F~ = m~r̈ = Fy = mÿ (14)




F = mz̈
z

4.6 2nd Newton’s Law in 2-D Polar coordinates

x2 + y 2 and φ = tan−1 ( xy )
p
Remember y = rcosφ and x = rsinφ in polar coordinate system while r =

~
r
The unit vector in the direction of ~r is r̂ and that in the direction direction of the angle φ is φ̂. The unit vector r̂ = r| .
|~

The unit vectors r̂ and φ̂ are perpendicular to each other as shown in figure 1.11. The force can be expressed in the
components or direction of r̂ and φ̂ as follows
F~ = Fr r̂ + Fφ φ̂ (15)

A stone that is being swirled in a circle while attached to a string, the force Fr would be the tension in the string and
Fφ is the the force of air resistance retarding the motion of the stone in the tangential direction.
The position vector ~r can be expressed as
~r = rr̂ (16)

Now let us look at F~ = m~r¨ in polar coordinates. Consider figure 1.12, differentiating ~r with respect to time makes r̂
to change as well. So differentiating ~r with respect to time we obtain

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 dr̂
~r˙ = ṙr̂ + r (17)
dt
Note that a small change in

r̂ ≈ ∆φφ̂

≈ ψ̇∆tφ̂
dr̂
= ψ̇ φ̂
dt

Substituting the above equation into equation 17 we obtain

~r˙ = ṙr̂ + rφ̇φ̂

v = ~r˙ = ṙr̂ + rφ̇φ̂

so that we have vr = ṙ and vφ = rφ̂ = rω which are the tangential and radial velocities respectively.
To get the acceleration we differentiate the velocity with respect to time.

d~r˙ d
~a = ~r¨ = = (ṙr̂ + rφ̇φ̂) (18)
dt dt
dr̂ dφ̇ dφ̂
= ~r¨r̂ + ṙ + ṙφ̇φ̂ + r φ̂ + rφ̇ (19)
dt dt dt

but
dφ̂
= −φ̇r̂ (20)
dt
substituting equation 20 into 19
~a = ~r¨ = (r̈ − rφ̇2 )r̂ + (rφ̈ + 2ṙφ̇)φ̂ (21)

Therefore

= Fr = m(r̈ − rφ̇2 )

F~ = ma = (22)
Fφ = m(ṙφ̇ + 2ṙφ̇)


For the case of the stone being swirled around while tied to a string with a constant ~r˙ the acceleration becomes

~a = −rφ2 r̂ + rφ̈φ̂ (23)