Digital Signal Processing (DSP) — Exam Notes
1. Introduction to DSP Systems
Definition: DSP involves the numerical manipulation of signals using digital systems (computers,
microcontrollers, DSP chips).
Features: Works on discrete-time signals, involves convolution/correlation/Fourier transform,
provides accuracy and programmability.
Applications: Audio/video compression, communications, medical imaging, control systems.
2. Sampling Theorem
Statement: A signal x(t) can be represented completely by its samples x(nT) if the sampling
frequency fs ≥ 2fmax.
Nyquist Rate: fN = 2fmax
Nyquist Interval: Ts = 1 / (2fmax)
Aliasing: Occurs if fs < 2fmax, leading to overlap of frequency components.
3. Discrete-Time Signal & Systems
Signal: Sequence defined at discrete instants, x[n].
Examples: Unit impulse δ[n], unit step u[n].
System: Maps input x[n] to output y[n].
Examples: Delay system y[n]=x[n−1], amplifier y[n]=3x[n].
4. Representation in Z-Domain
Z-Transform: X(z) = Σ x[n] z■■
System function: H(z) = Y(z)/X(z) = (b■+b■z■¹+...+bMz■■) / (1+a■z■¹+...+aNz■■)
Poles & Zeros: Determine system stability and frequency response.
5. Basic DSP Algorithms
Convolution: y[n] = Σ x[k]·h[n−k]
Correlation: rxy[n] = Σ x[k]·y[k+n]
DFT: X[k] = Σ x[n] e−j2πkn/N
FFT: Fast computation of DFT.
6. Representation of DSP Algorithms
Block Diagram: Graphical with adders, multipliers, delays.
Data Flow Graph: Nodes = operations, edges = data.
Dependence Graph: Shows execution order.
Signal Flow Graph: Nodes = signals, edges = operations.
7. Loop Bound & Iteration Bound
Loop Bound: Minimum time per loop iteration, based on longest path delay.
Iteration Bound: Minimum average time per iteration, important for pipelining and parallelism.
8. Recursive (IIR) vs Non-Recursive (FIR) Systems
Feature FIR (Non-Recursive) IIR (Recursive)
Equation y[n] = Σ b■x[n−k] y[n] = Σ b■x[n−k] − Σ a■y[n−k]
Feedback No Yes
Stability Always stable May be unstable
Phase Can be linear Usually nonlinear
Length Finite impulse response Infinite impulse response
Examples Moving average filter Butterworth, Chebyshev filters
Practice Questions with Solutions
1. Introduction to DSP Systems
Q1. What are the main advantages of DSP systems over analog signal processing?
Answer: High accuracy, flexibility, reconfigurable, can handle wide frequency range, easy computer
integration.
Q2. List two applications of DSP in daily life.
Answer: MP3 compression, noise cancellation in headphones.
2. Sampling Theorem
Q1. A signal has maximum frequency of 5 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate?
Answer: f_s ≥ 2×f_max = 10 kHz.
Q2. Explain aliasing with an example.
Answer: If a 6 kHz signal is sampled at 8 kHz (<12 kHz), false frequencies appear due to folding.
3. Discrete-Time Signals & Systems
Q1. Write the expression for unit impulse and unit step sequence.
Answer: δ[n] = {1, n=0; 0 otherwise}, u[n] = {1, n≥0; 0 otherwise}.
Q2. If x[n]={1,2,3}, find y[n]=x[n−1].
Answer: Right shift → y[n]={0,1,2,3}.
4. Z-Domain Representation
Q1. Write Z-transform of u[n].
Answer: U(z)=1/(1−z■¹), |z|>1.
Q2. For y[n]−0.5y[n−1]=x[n], find H(z).
Answer: H(z)=1/(1−0.5z■¹).
5. Basic DSP Algorithms
Q1. Compute convolution of x[n]={1,1}, h[n]={1,2}.
Answer: y[n]={1,3,2}.
Q2. Difference between convolution and correlation?
Answer: Convolution flips h[n], correlation does not.
6. Representation of DSP Algorithms
Q1. Differentiate between DFG and SFG.
Answer: DFG: nodes=operations; SFG: nodes=signals.
Q2. Draw block diagram of 2-tap FIR filter.
Answer: Input→multiplier→adder→output with delay line.
7. Loop Bound & Iteration Bound
Q1. Define loop bound and iteration bound.
Answer: Loop bound=longest path delay per iteration; Iteration bound=average time per iteration.
Q2. Why are they important?
Answer: They determine pipelining efficiency and parallelism.
8. Recursive vs Non-Recursive
Q1. Write general form of FIR and IIR equations.
Answer: FIR: y[n]=Σ b_k x[n−k]; IIR: y[n]=Σ b_k x[n−k]−Σ a_k y[n−k].
Q2. State two advantages of FIR over IIR.
Answer: Always stable, exact linear phase possible.
