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 Begin to Code with Python
Begin

Begin to Code with Python

Become a Python programmer—and have fun doing it! About This Book

to Code
Start writing software that solves real problems, even if you have
• For absolute beginners who’ve never
absolutely no programming experience! This friendly, easy, full-color
written a line of code
book puts you in total control of your own learning, empowering you to
build unique and useful programs. Microsoft has completely reinvented • For anyone who’s been frustrated with
the beginning programmer’s tutorial, reflecting deep research into other beginning programming books
how today’s beginners learn, and why other books fall short. Begin to or courses
Code with Python is packed with innovations, from its “Snaps” prebuilt • For people who’ve started out with
operations to its “Make Something Happen” projects. Whether you’re other languages and now want to

with
a total beginner or you’ve tried before, this guide will put the power, learn Python
excitement, and fun of programming where it belongs: in your hands! • Works with Windows PC, Apple Mac,
Linux PC, or Raspberry Pi
Easy, friendly, and you’re in control! Learn how to… • Includes mapping of MTA exam

Python
objectives that are covered in this book,
• Get, install, and use powerful free tools to create modern Python
programs as well as an appendix with further
explanation of some of the topics
• Learn key concepts from 170 sample programs, and use them to
on the exam
jumpstart your own
• Discover exactly what happens when a program runs
• Approach program development with a professional perspective About the Author
• Learn the core elements of the Python language
Rob Miles has taught computer
• Build more complex software with classes, methods, and objects
programming for over 30 years.
• Organize programs so they’re easy to build and improve A Microsoft MVP for Windows
• Capture and respond to user input Development, Rob enjoys inspiring
• Store and manipulate many types of real-world data programmers at all levels. He writes his
• Define custom data types to solve specific problems own games, programs, and poetry, has
consulted on many commercial software
• Create interactive games that are fun to play
projects, and is the author of Begin to
• Build modern web and cloud-based applications
Code with C#.
• Use pre-built libraries to quickly create powerful software

Get code samples, including complete apps, at:

Miles
https://aka.ms/BegintoCodePython/downloads

MicrosoftPressStore.com U.S.A. $39.99

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ISBN-13: 978-1-5093-0452-3 [Recommended]
ISBN-10: 1-5093-0452-5
5 3 9 9 9 Programming/Python

9 781509 304523
Rob Miles

9781509304523_Miles_Begin_to_Code_Python_Cover.indd All Pages 10/30/17 3:35 PM

Begin
to Code
with
Python

Rob Miles
BEGIN TO CODE WITH PYTHON Editor-in-Chief
Published with the authorization of Microsoft Corporation by: Greg Wiegand
Pearson Education, Inc.
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Copyright © 2018 by Pearson Education, Inc. Laura Norman
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WARNING AND DISCLAIMER
Every effort has been made to make this book as complete and as
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to any person or entity with respect to any loss or damages arising
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To Mary
About the
author
Rob Miles has spent more than 30 years teach-
ing programming at the University of Hull in
the United Kingdom. He’s a Microsoft MVP,
with a passion for programming, and creating
new things. If he had any spare time, he’d spend
it writing even more code. He loves making
programs and then running them to see what
happens. He reckons that programming is the
most creative thing you can learn how to do.
He believes that programmers really can claim to be building the future.

He claims to know a lot of really good jokes, but nobody has ever heard
him tell one. If you want an insight into the Wacky World™ of Rob Miles,
you can read his blog at www.robmiles.com and follow him on Twitter via
@RobMiles.

rob@robmiles.com
Contents at a glance
Part 1: Programming fundamentals
Chapter 1 Starting with Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Chapter 2 Python and Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter 3 Python program structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Chapter 4 Working with variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Chapter 5 Making decisions in programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Chapter 6 Repeating actions with loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Chapter 7 Using functions to simplify programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Chapter 8 Storing collections of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Part 2: Advanced programming

Chapter 9 Use classes to store data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Chapter 10 Use classes to create active objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Chapter 11 Object-based solution design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Chapter 12 Python applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

Part 3: Useful Python (Digital-only)

The chapter PDF files for this Part are available at
https://aka.ms/BeginCodePython/downloads.

Chapter 13 Python and Graphical User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488

Chapter 14 Python programs as network clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Chapter 15 Python programs as network servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Chapter 16 Create games with Pygame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
v
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii

Part 1: Programming fundamentals

1 Starting with Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

What is Python? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Python origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Python versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Build a place to work with Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Get the tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Python for Windows PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Start Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Python and Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

What makes a programmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Programming and party planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Give us feedback
Tell us what you think of this book and help
Microsoft improve our products for you.
Thank you!
http://aka.ms/tellpress

vii
 Programming and problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Programmers and people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Computers as data processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Machines and computers and us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Programs as data processors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Python as a data processor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Data and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Work with Python functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The ord function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The chr function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Investigate data storage using bin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3 Python program structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Write your first Python program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Run Python programs using IDLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Get program output using the print function . . . . . . . . . . 51
Use Python libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The random library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The time library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Python comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Code samples and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Run Python from the desktop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Delay the end of the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Adding some snaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Adding the Pygame library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Snaps functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

viii
4 Working with variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Variables in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Python names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Working with text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Marking the start and end of strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Escape characters in text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Read in text using the input function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Working with numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Convert strings into integer values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Whole numbers and real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Real numbers and floating-point numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Convert strings into floating-point values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Perform calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Convert between float and int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Weather snaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5 Making decisions in programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Boolean data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Create Boolean variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Boolean expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Comparing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Boolean operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
The if construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Nesting if conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Working with logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Use decisions to make an application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Design the user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Implement a user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

ix
 Testing user input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Complete the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Input snaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

6 Repeating actions with loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

The while construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Repeat a sequence of statements using while . . . . . . . . 142
Handling invalid user entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Detect invalid number entry using exceptions . . . . . . . . . . 152
Exceptions and number reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Handling multiple exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Break out of loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Return to the top of a loop with continue . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Count a repeating loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
The for loop construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Make a digital clock using snaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

7 Using functions to simplify programs . . . . . . . . . . 170

What makes a function? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Give information to functions using parameters . . . . . . . . 176
Return values from function calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Build reusable functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Create a text input function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Add help information to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Create a number input function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

x
 Convert our functions into a Python module . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Use the IDLE debugger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

8 Storing collections of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Lists and tracking sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Limitations of individual variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Lists in Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Read in a list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Display a list using a for loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Refactor programs into functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Create placeholder functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Create a user menu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Sort using bubble sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Initialize a list with test data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Sort a list from high to low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Sort a list from low to high . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Find the highest and lowest sales values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Evaluate total and average sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Complete the program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Store data in a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Write into a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Write the sales figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Read from a file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Read the sales figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Deal with file errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Store tables of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Use loops to work with tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

xi
 Use lists as lookup tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Tuples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Part 2: Advanced programming

9 Use classes to store data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Make a tiny contacts app . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Make a prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Store contact details in separate lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Use a class to store contact details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Use the Contact class in the Tiny
Contacts program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Edit contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Save contacts in a file using pickle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Load contacts from a file using pickle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Add save and load to Tiny Contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Set up class instances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Dictionaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Create a dictionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Dictionary management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Return a dictionary from a function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Use a dictionary to store contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

xii
10 Use classes to create active objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Create a Time Tracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Add a data attribute to a class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Create a cohesive object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Create method attributes for a class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Add validation to methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Protect a data attribute against damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Protected methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Create class properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Evolve class design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Manage class versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
The __str__ method in a class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Python string formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Session tracking in Time Tracker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
The Python map function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
The Python join method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Make music with Snaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

11 Object-based solution design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Fashion Shop application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Application data design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Object-oriented design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Creating superclasses and subclasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Data design recap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Implement application behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Objects as components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Create a FashionShop component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Create a user interface component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

xiii
 Design with classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Python sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Sets and tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
Sets versus class hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434

12 Python applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438

Advanced functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
References to functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Use lambda expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Iterator functions and the yield statement . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Functions with an arbitrary number of arguments . . . . . 457
Modules and packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Python modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Add a readme function to BTCInput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Run a module as a program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Detect whether a module is executed as a program . . . . 463
Create a Python package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Import modules from packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Program testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
The Python assert statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
The Python unittest module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Create tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
View program documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
What you have learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483

xiv
Part 3: Useful Python (Digital-only)

The chapter PDF files for this Part are available at

https://aka.ms/BeginCodePython/downloads.

13 Python and Graphical User Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . 488

Visual Studio Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Install Visual Studio Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Install the Python Extension in Visual Studio Code . . . . . . 491
Create a project folder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Create a program file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Debug a program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Other Python editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Create a Graphical User Interface with Tkinter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Create a graphical application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Lay out a grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Create an event handler function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Create a mainloop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Handle errors in a graphical user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
Display a message box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Draw on a Canvas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Tkinter events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Create a drawing program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Enter multi-line text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Group display elements in frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Create an editable StockItem using a GUI . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

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