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Mechanics of Materials, Eighth Edition
Chapter 2
Stress and Strain – Axial Loading
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Stress & Strain: Axial Loading
• Suitability of a structure or machine may depend on the deformations in the
structure as well as the stresses induced under loading. Statics analyses alone
are not sufficient.
• Considering structures as deformable allows determination of member
forces and reactions which are statically indeterminate.
• Determination of the stress distribution within a member also requires
consideration of deformations in the member.
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Normal Strain
Figure 2.1 Undeformed and Figure 2.3 Twice the load is required to Figure 2.4 The deformation is doubled when
deformed axially loaded rod. obtain the same deformation δ when the the rod length is doubled while keeping the
cross-sectional area is doubled. load P and cross-sectional area A.
2P P P
P
stress
A 2A A A
2
normal strain
L L 2L L
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Stress-Strain Test
Photo 2.1 Elongated tensile-test Photo 2.2 Universal test machine used to test tensile
specimen. Undeformed gage length is L0. specimens.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
Photo 2.4 Ductile material tested Figure 2.6 Stress-strain diagrams of two typical
specimens: (a) with cross-section necking, ductile materials.
(b) ruptured.
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Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Photo 2.5 Ruptured brittle materials specimen. Figure 2.7 Stress-strain diagram for a typical brittle
material.
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Hooke’s Law: Modulus of Elasticity
• Below the yield stress
σ=Eε
E = Young’s Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
• Strength is affected by alloying,
heat treating, and manufacturing
process but stiffness (Modulus
of Elasticity) is not.
Figure 2.11 Stress-strain diagrams for iron and
different grades of steel.
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Elastic vs. Plastic Behavior
• If the strain disappears when the
stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
• The largest stress for which this
occurs is called the elastic limit.
• When the strain does not return
to zero after the stress is
removed, plastic deformation of
the material has taken place.
Figure 2.13 Stress-strain response of ductile
material load beyond yield and unloaded.
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Fatigue
• Fatigue properties are shown on
σ-N diagrams.
• A member may fail due to fatigue
at stress levels significantly
below the ultimate strength if
subjected to many loading cycles.
• When the stress is reduced below
the endurance limit, fatigue
failures do not occur for any
number of cycles.
Figure 2.16 Typical 𝜎-n curves.
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Deformations Under Axial Loading
• From Hooke’s Law:
P
E
E AE
• From the definition of strain:
L
• Equating and solving for the
deformation,
PL
AE
• With variations in loading, cross-
Figure 2.17 Undeformed and deformed axially-loaded rod.
section or material properties,
PL
i i
i Ai Ei
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Concept Application 2.1 1
Solution:
• Divide the rod into components
at the load application points.
• Apply a free-body analysis on
each component to determine the
internal force.
• Evaluate the total of the
component deflections.
E 29 106 psi
Determine the deformation of
the steel rod shown under the
given loads.
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Concept Application 2.1 2
Solution: • Apply free-body analysis to each
component to determine internal forces,
• Divide the rod into three components:
P1 60 103 lb
P2 15 103 lb
P3 30 103 lb
• Evaluate total deflection,
Pi Li 1 P1L1 P2 L2 P3 L3
i Ai Ei E A1 A2 A3
60 103 12 15 103 12 30 103 16
1
6 0 . 9 0. 9 0 . 3
29 10
75.9 103 in.
L1 L2 12 in. L3 16 in.
A1 A2 0.9 in 2 A3 0.3 in 2 75.9 103 in.
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Problems Involving Temperature Change
• A temperature change results in a change in
length or thermal strain. There is no stress
associated with the thermal strain unless the
elongation is restrained by the supports.
Figure 2.26 (partial) • Treat the additional support as redundant and
apply the principle of superposition.
PL
T T L P
AE
coefficient of thermal expansion
• The thermal deformation and the deformation
from the redundant support must be
compatible.
PL
T P 0 T L 0
AE
Figure 2.27 Superposition method to find force P AE T
at point B of restrained rod AB undergoing
P
E T
thermal expansion. (a) Initial rod length; (b)
thermally expanded rod length; (c) force P
pushes point B back to zero deformation. A
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Poisson’s Ratio
• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:
x
x y z 0
E
• The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
homogeneous and isotropic (no directional
Figure 2.29 A bar in uniaxial tension
and a representative stress element.
dependence),
y z 0
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as
lateral strain y
z
axial strain x x
Figure 2.30 Materials undergo transverse
contraction when elongated under axial load.
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Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke’s
Law
• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,
the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) Each effect is linearly related to the load
that produces it.
2) The deformation resulting from any given
load is small and does not affect the
conditions of application of the other loads.
• With these restrictions:
x y z
x
E E E
x y z
y
Figure 2.33 Deformation of unit cube under E E E
multiaxial loading: (a) unloaded; (b) deformed. x y z
z
E E E
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Shearing Strain
• A cubic element subjected to only shearing stress
will deform into a rhomboid. The corresponding
shearing strain is quantified in terms of the
change in angle between the sides,
xy f xy
• A plot of shearing stress vs. shearing strain is
similar to the previous plots of normal stress vs.
Figure 2.36 Unit cubic element normal strain except that the strength values are
subjected to shearing stress. approximately half. For values of shearing
strain that do not exceed the proportional limit,
xy G xy yz G yz zx G zx
where G is the modulus of rigidity or
shear modulus.
Figure 2.37 Deformation of unit cubic
element due to shearing stress. Access the text alternative for slide images.
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Relation Between E, v, and G
• An axially loaded slender bar will elongate
in the x direction and contract in both of the
transverse y and z directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
Figure 2.42(a) will deform into a
rectangular parallelepiped. The axial load
produces a normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in Figure
2.42(b), it will deform into a rhombus.
Axial load also results in a shearing strain.
• Components of normal and shearing strain
are related,
E E
1 or G
Figure 2.42 Representations of strain in an 2G 2 1
axially loaded bar: (a) cubic strain element faces
aligned with coordinate axes; (b) cubic strain
element faces rotated 45º about z-axis.
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Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are
fabricated by embedding fibers of a strong, still
material into a weaker, softer material called a
matrix.
• Normal stresses and strains are related by Hooke’s
Law but with directionally dependent moduli of
elasticity,
x y z
Ex Ey Ez
x y z
• Transverse contractions are related by
directionally dependent values of Poisson’s
ratio, e.g.,
y
xy xz z
x x
Figure 2.44 Orthotropic fiber-reinforced • The three components of strain εx, εy, and εz
composite material under uniaxial tensile load.
for orthotropic materials can be expressed in
terms of normal stress only and do not depend
upon any shearing stresses.
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Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform
distribution of stress and strain.
• Concentrated loads result in large
stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
• Stress and strain distributions
Figure 2.47 Axial load applied Figure 2.48 Concentrated axial become uniform at a relatively
by rigid plates to rubber model. load applied to rubber model. short distance from the load
application points.
• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be
assumed independent of the mode
of load application except in the
immediate vicinity of load
application points.
Figure 2.49 Stress distributions in a
plate under concentrated axial loads.
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Stress Concentration: Hole
Figure 2.50 Stress distribution near circular hole in flat
bar under axial loading. Figure 2.52(a) Stress concentration factors
for flat bars under axial loading.
Stress concentration factor
Discontinuities of cross section may result
max in high localized or concentrated stresses.
K
ave
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Stress Concentration: Fillet
Figure 2.51 Stress distribution near fillets
in flat bar under axial loading. Figure 2.52(b) Stress concentration factors for flat
bars under axial loading.
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Elastoplastic Materials
• Previous analyses based on assumption of
linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.
stresses below the yield stress.
• Assumption is good for brittle material
which rupture without yielding.
• If the yield stress of ductile materials is
exceeded, then plastic deformations occur.
• Analysis of plastic deformations is
simplified by assuming an idealized
elastoplastic material.
Figure 2.53 Stress-strain diagram for an idealized
elastoplastic material. • Deformations of an elastoplastic material
are divided into elastic and plastic ranges.
• Permanent deformations result from
loading beyond the yield stress.
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Plastic Deformations
• Elastic deformation while
max A maximum stress is less than
P ave A
K yield stress.
• Maximum stress is equal to
the yield stress at the
Y A maximum elastic loading.
PY
K
• At loadings above the
maximum elastic load, a
region of plastic deformations
develop near the hole.
PU Y A • As the loading increases, the
K PY plastic region expands until
the section is at a uniform
stress equal to the yield stress.
Figure 2.56 Distribution of stresses in
elastoplastic material under increasing load.
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Residual Stresses
When a single structural element is loaded uniformly beyond its yield stress and
then unloaded, it is permanently deformed, but all stresses disappear. It should
not be assumed that this will always be the case.
Residual stresses will remain in a structure after loading and unloading if:
• only part of the structure undergoes plastic deformation.
• different parts of the structure undergo different plastic deformations.
Residual stresses also result from the uneven heating or cooling of structures or
structural elements.
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© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
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