CHAPTER 2
Neuroscience
• The Endocrine System
• The Neuron and Communication in the Nervous System
LECTURE OUTLINE
PART 1 PART 2
•Communication in the Brain •The Structure of the Nervous System
•Anatomy of the Neuron •The Peripheral Nervous System
•Signals in the Brain •The Somatic Nervous System
•Synaptic Transmission •The Autonomic Nervous
•Reuptake System
•Neurotransmitters and •The Central Nervous System
Neuromodulators •The Hindbrain
•Acetylcholine •The Midbrain
•Dopamine, Serotonin, and •The Forebrain
Norepinephrine •The Cortex
•GABA and Glutamate •The Specialization of Function in the
•Endorphins Lobes of the Cortex
•Technologies for Studying the Brain
•The Endocrine System
Communication in the Brain
• Two types of cells in brain:
Glia cells
• Support for neurons, e.g. providing nutrients and removing waste
• Role in neural signalling and formation of neural networks
Neurons
• Send and receive information
Glia Cells: The
Nervous System’s
Support Staff
• Whitish, fatty, waxy coating
• Provide physical structure
holding neurons in place
• Provide repair and clean-up
services to neurons
• Create blood-brain barrier
keeping harmful toxins away
from neurons
Glia Form Myelin
• Myelin insulates and
protects axons
• Speeds up electrical
transmission along axons
The Neuron
• Brain communicates with itself and rest of body by using neurons
• Neurons carry information by communicating with each other
• Human brains have about 80 billion neurons
Anatomy of the Neuron (a)
Neuron sending information Neuron receiving information
(Presynaptic neuron) (Postsynaptic neuron)
Anatomy of the Neuron (b)
Axons Send
Information at
Axon Terminals
Dendrites
Receive
Information
Neural Signaling
Neurons Communicating
• Communication in nervous system involves electrical and
chemical processes:
Electrical within neuron Chemical between
(through axon) dentrites of neurons
• Electrical = neural impulse = action potential
• Chemical = neurotransmitters
Electrical Signaling: The Neuron as Battery
• For neuron to communicate with other
neurons, it needs to send electrical signal
• It has to “build up” and spread this
electrical signal down axon 50
Inside
Electrode
Millivolts
0
• To do this, it acts like a battery:
-50
• Battery has positive (+) and negative (-)
Outside
side or pole Axon Electrode
-100
Milliseconds
• Battery power is measured in volt
• When the charges of two sides differ, it is
called polarization
• Because it has these two sides (poles), it
has the potential to generate power
The Resting Potential
• Inside and outside axon are fluids containing Inside
50
electrically charged atoms called ions Electrode
Millivolts
0
• Some ions have positive charge and others
-50
negative charge
Outside
• This causes polarization Axon Electrode
-100
Milliseconds
• During polarization neuron is not sending
electrical signal; it is resting
• When neuron is resting, it is a tiny battery
with a charge of -70 millivolts
• This charge is store of potential energy called
neuron’s resting potential
• Neuron is not sending any messages but
has potential (ability) to do so
The Action Potential
• Events in cell body and dendrites can cause axon to depolarize
slightly
• Depolarize means difference between + and – sides (poles
outside & inside membrane) becomes less
• When depolarization gets to -65mV, it causes (triggers) an
action potential
• Action potential is very brief change in neuron’s electrical
charge (from -70mV to +40mV) that travels (spreads down)
along the axon
• Neuron is now sending message down axon
• All-or-none law: neuron fires or doesn’t fire; no in-between
• When message has been sent, neuron can’t send another
message for short while (refractory period), and then it returns
to resting potential, waiting for next depolarization
Chemical Signaling: Synaptic Transmission
• When action potential reaches axon terminal, system switches
from electrical signaling system to chemical signaling one
The Synapse
• Axon terminal of one neuron lies
close to dendrites of one or more
other neurons
• Axon terminals contain synaptic
vesicles (sacs) that push their
contents (neurotransmitters) outside
into synapse
• Synaptic gap/synapse lies between
axon terminal of sending neuron and
dendrite of receiving neuron
• Neurotransmitters can bind with cell
wall of receiving dendrite
• Dendrites contain receptors to
receive neurotransmitters
Neurotransmission
Synaptic vesicles
fuse with the
axon membrane
Neurotransmitters push
into synapse
Neurotransmitters
connect with receptors
Binding with
receptors at
receiving neuron
Excitation, Inhibition,
and Summation
• Some neurotransmitters cause excitation in
receiving neuron
• This increases chances of receiving neuron
firing and sending message onwards
• Some neurotransmitters cause inhibition in
receiving neuron
• This decreases chances of receiving
neuron firing
• Summation:
• Neurons “decide” whether to generate
action potential by adding up excitatory
and inhibitory input
Cleaning Up the Synapse: Reuptake
• Neurotransmitters which could not bind with receptors on receiving neuron return to sending neuron
through process called reuptake
• Reuptake does two things:
• Resupplies sending neuron with neurotransmitters
• Clears synapse of neurotransmitters, so just right amount of excitation or inhibition occurs in
receiving neuron
• After neurotransmitters had caused excitation or inhibition, they either drop from receptor site or they
are broken down by chemicals called enzymes
Summary of
Communication
Between Neurons
Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
• Neuromodulators are similar to neurotransmitters but they affect neural communication without
directly changing resting potential of receiving neuron
• More than 100 different chemicals act as neurotransmitters.
• Different neurotransmitters are found in neural systems with different functions and may activate
excitatory or inhibitory receptors.
• Outside CNS some neurotransmitters (e.g., epinephrine) circulate in bloodstream as hormones.
• Some are particularly important in psychology.
Neurotransmitters and Disorders
Neurotransmitter/
Functions Related Diseases and Clinical Conditions
Neuromodulator
Excites skeletal muscles; inhibits heart Alzheimer's disease
Acetylcholine
action; memory
Movement; learning; attention; Parkinson's disease; schizophrenia; substance
Dopamine
motivation and reward; social interaction abuse
Sleep; arousal; mood; eating; pain Depression; obsessive compulsive disorder
Serotonin perception and other anxiety disorders; eating disorders;
chronic pain
Norepinephrine Sleep; arousal; mood Depression and other mood disorders
Chief inhibitor; regulates arousal; may Some anxiety disorders; some seizure
GABA play a role in pain perception disorders; perhaps some chronic pain
conditions
Chief excitatory neurotransmitter; many Neural death following head injuries
Glutamate
diverse functions
Endorphins (typically Suppression of pain; eating; Depression
neuromodulators) cardiovascular functioning
Acetylcholine
• First neurotransmitter discovered.
• Can be an inhibitory or excitatory neurotransmitter.
• Neurons instruct muscles to contract.
• Carries messages from brain to glands and visceral (soft) organs.
• Used in brain circuits supporting learning, memory, and
consciousness.
• Neurons releasing acetylcholine deteriorate during Alzheimer’s
disease.
• Poison curare blocks acetylcholine receptors, causing paralysis and
death.
Norepinephrine
• When norepinephrine is released in brain it leads to arousal
and vigilance.
• Primary neurotransmitter in “fight/flight” sympathetic branch
of autonomic nervous system, increasing heart rate, blood
pressure, and breathing.
• Involved with development of synapses during childhood.
• Helps with recovery after traumatic brain injury.
Dopamine
• Primary neurotransmitter in brain circuits supporting anticipation
of rewards, such as food, sex
• Most drugs that produce addiction, such as cocaine and
methamphetamine, stimulate increased activity in dopamine
• Used in brain areas supporting fine motor control
– Parkinson’s disease is caused by deterioration of dopamine-producing cells
in these areas.
• Important in some areas supporting planning and controlled
cognition.
• Too high levels related to symptoms of schizophrenia, which
involves a loss of contact with reality.
Serotonin
• Used in brain areas involved in
– cycles of sleep and eating
– mood
– pain perception
• Important for neural structures supporting some aspects of
memory and learning.
• Insufficient serotonin activity in synapse can lead to depression.
• MDMA causes increase in serotonin, but can also cause decreases
in serotonin activity later.
Endorphins
• Endorphins manage sense of pain and pleasure, as well as
feelings like “runner’s high” (feeling ecstatic)
• Helps to block pain messages from making it to the brain for
short while.
• Released during strenuous physical exercise, after eating spicy
foods, and after orgasm.
• Involved in some feelings of pleasure and enjoyment, such as
eating.
GABA and Glutamate: Regulating Brain Activity
• Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA):
– Main inhibitory neurotransmitter
– Found at more than 30% of synapses in brain
– Plays role in regulating alertness/arousal,
general energy levels, chronic pain
– Loss of GABA can lead to seizures because
lack of inhibitory effect cause arousal levels
to go too high
– Drugs that increase GABA action are often
used to treat anxiety
– Essential role in normal brain function
• Glutamate:
– Main excitatory neurotransmitter in brain
– Found at more than 50% of synapses in brain
– Large amounts of extracellular glutamate can
cause brain cell death due to neurons
becoming over-excited
