LAB MANUAL

Subject: Engineering Physics Lab

Subject Code: BTPH 102-23
Department: Applied Sciences
Prepared By: Physics Faculty
Approved By: Dr. Kanchan L Singh

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Expt No. List Of Experiments Page No.

1. TO DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH DIVERGENCE AND 6-9

APERATURE OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER BY
DIFFRACTION GRATING.
2. TO DETERMINE THE GRATING ELEMENT OF GIVEN 10-14
DIFFRACTION GRATING.

3. TO FIND THE FREQUENCY OF A.C. SUPPLY USING AN 15-19

ELECTRICAL VIBRATOR.

4. TO FIND THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT & 20-24

POLARIZABILITY OF A DIELECTRIC SLAB.

5. TO STUDY THE VARIATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD WITH 25-29

DISTANCE ALONG THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL
CARRYING CURRENT BY PLOTTING OF GRAPH.
6. TO VERIFY INVERSE SQUARE LAW OF RADIATIONS 30-32
USING A PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELL.

7. TO FIND THE WAVELENGTH OF LASER LIGHT BY 33-35

MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER.

8. TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIFFERENT PN 36-40

JUNCTION DIODE-GE AND SI.

9. TO ANALYZE THE SUITABILITY OF A GIVEN ZENER 41-45

DIODE AS A POWER REGULATOR.

10. TO DETERMINE THE RESISTIVITY OF 46-49

SEMICONDUCTORS BY FOUR PROBE METHOD.

11. TO FIND THE NUMERICAL APERTURE OF A GIVEN 50-52

OPTICAL FIBRE.

12. TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A 53-55

MATERIAL/LIQUID USING SPECTROMETER

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BTPH102-23 Engineering L-0, T-0, P-3 1.5 Credits
Physics lab

Pre-requisite (if any): (i) High-school education

Objectives: The aim and objective of the Engineering Physics lab is to provide students the firsthand
experience of verifying various theoretical concepts learnt in theory courses so that they can use
these in Engineering as per their requirement.

Laboratory Outcomes: At the end of the course, students will be

CO1 Able to verify some of the theoretical concepts learnt in the theory courses.
CO2 Trained in carrying out precise measurements and handling sensitive equipment.
CO3 Introduced to the methods used for estimating and dealing with experimental uncertainties
and systematic errors.
CO4 Learn to draw conclusions from data and develop skills in experimental design.
CO5 Write a technical report which communicates scientific information in a clear and concise
manner.

Detailed Syllabus:
Note: Students are expected to perform about 8-10 experiments from the following list,
selecting minimum of 6-7 from the Physical Lab and 2-3 from the Virtual lab.
List of experiments:
1. To study the characteristic of different p-n junction diode - Ge and Si.
2. To analyze the suitability of a given Zener diode as voltage regulator.
3. To find out the intensity response of a solar cell/Photo diode/LED/Tunnel diode.
4. To study the magnetic field of a circular coil carrying current.
5. To find out polarizability of a dielectric substance.
6. To study the laser beam characteristics like; wavelength and grating element using diffraction
grating & divergence.
7. To study laser interference using Michelson’s Interferometer.
8. To determine numerical aperture, attenuation & propagation losses in optical fibers.
9. To find out the frequency of AC mains using electric vibrator/sonometer.
10. To find the refractive index of a material/liquid using spectrometer.
11. To study B-H curve using CRO.
12. To find the velocity of ultrasound in liquid.
13. To determine the grain size of a material using optical microscope.
14. To determine energy band gap of Semiconductor.
15. To determine the resistivity of semiconductors by Four probe Method.
16. To understand the phenomenon Photoelectric effect and determine Planck’s constant.

Suggested readings/Books:
1. Practical Physics, C.L. Arora, S. Chand & Co.
2. Practical Physics, R.S. Sirohi, Wiley Eastern.

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Programme Outcomes (POs)

After the completion of Engineering Programme, the graduates will be able to:

PO1. Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals, and an engineering
specialization for the solution of complex engineering problems.

PO2. Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering problems reaching
substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3. Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design system components or processes that
meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for public health and safety, and cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.

PO4. Use research-based knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.

PO5.Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern engineering and IT tools,
including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities, with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6. Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal, and
cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.

PO7. Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts,
and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.

PO8. Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of the
engineering practice.

PO9. Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in diverse teams, and in
multidisciplinary settings.

PO10. Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering community and with
the society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.

PO11. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply
these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.

PO12. Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in independent and life-long
learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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Page |5
 Experiment No. 1_________________________

AIM:

TO DETERMINE THE WAVELENGTH OF SEMICONDUCTOR LASER BY

DIFFRACTION GRATING

APPARATUS:

LASER SOURSE, SCALE, DIFFRACTION GRATING, INSTRUMENT STAND

THEORY:

Diffraction is defined as the bending of light around the corners of the obstacle. Necessary condition
in order to observe diffraction pattern is that wavelength of light should be comparable to slit width.

The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources, consist of a large
number of equally spaced parallel slits. A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel
grooves on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves are
transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light from the spaces between
the grooves is specular, and the reflection from the grooves cut into the material is diffused. Thus the
spaces between the grooves act as parallel sources of reflected light, like the slits in a transmission
grating. We are using grating of 15000 lines per inch. A section of a diffraction grating is illustrated
in fig. below. A plane wave is incident from the left, normal o the plane of the grating. The pattern
observed on the screen (far to the right of fig. given below) is the result of the combined effects of
interference and diffraction. Each slit produces diffraction, and the diffracted beams interfere with
one another to produce the final pattern. produces diffraction, and the diffracted beams interfere with
one another to produce the final pattern.

Experimental set-up for measuring wavelengths with a diffraction grating

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 The waves from all the slits are in
phase as they leave the slits.
However for some arbitrary
direction θ measured from the
horizontal, the waves must travel
different path lengths before
reaching the stream. From the fig.
we note that the path difference δ
between the rays from any two
adjacent slits is equal to (a+b)sinθ,
where ‘a’ is the thickness of opaque
portion and ‘b’ is the thickness of
transparent portion. If this path
difference equals sum integral
multiple of a wavelength then the waves from all the slits are in phase at the screen and a bright fringe
is observed. Therefore the conditions for the maxima in the interference pattern at the angle θ is

(a+b) sinn = n where n=0,+1,+2….so on.

We can use this expression to calculate the wavelength if we know ‘a’ and ‘b’ and the angle θ.

Where, (a+b) is grating element

be

OPAQUE

TRANSPARENT

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Where a = Thickness of opaque

b = Thickness of transparent

Number of lines per inches =

1 inches = 2.54 cms

Grating element (a+b) = ------- cms

FORMULA USED:

= (a+b) sinn /n

PROCEDURE:

Measuring the wavelength of the laser:

1. Set up the laser and grating as shown in above figure.

2. Allow the light to fall on the screen to obtain diffraction pattern.

3. Measure the distance D between the screen and the diffraction grating.

3. Turn on the laser and center the meter stick at the 0th order image.

4. Measure the distance xn between the nth order diffraction pattern appearing on the left and right
sides of the center line.

5. Find the wavelength using the formula.

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OBSERVATIONS &CALCULATIONS:

S.No Order Distance sinn=xn/(d2+ xn2)1/2

xn(cm) = (a+b) sinn /n

(A0)

1. n=1 x1=

2. x’1

3. n=2 x2

4. x’2

Mean Wavelength=---------- A0

Actual Wavelength =6500 A0

%error=

RESULT: -------------

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not look into the laser.

2. Level the optical bench correctly before taking the readings.

VIVA VOCE
1) What do you mean by Diffraction of light?

2) What is the difference between interference and diffraction?

3) What is diffraction grating?

4) What are requisites of good grating?

5) What is grating element?

6) What is the main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?

7) What is dispersive power of grating?

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 Experiment No. 2_________________________

AIM:

TO DETERMINE THE GRATING ELEMENT OF GIVEN DIFFRACTION GRATING

APPARATUS:

LASER SOURSE, SCALE, DIFFRACTION GRATING, INSTRUMENT STAND

THEORY:

Diffraction is defined as the bending of light around the corners of the obstacle. Necessary condition
in order to observe diffraction pattern is that wavelength of light should be comparable to slit width.

According to the Huygen’s principle, each portion of the slit acts as a

source of light waves. Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light from another
portion and he resultant light intensity of the viewing screen depends on the direction θ. Based on
this analysis, we recognize that a diffraction pattern is actually an interference pattern, in which the
different sources of light are different portions of the single slit.

The diffraction grating, a useful device for analysing light sources, consist of a large
number of equally spaced parallel slits. A transmission grating can be made by cutting parallel
grooves on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the grooves are
transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits. A reflection grating can be made by cutting
parallel grooves on the surface of a reflective material. The reflection of light from the spaces between
the grooves is specular, and the reflection from the grooves cut into the material is diffused. Thus the
spaces between the grooves act as parallel sources of reflected light, like the slits in a transmission
grating. We are using grating of 15000 lines per inch.

A section of a diffraction grating is illustrated in fig. below. A plane wave is incident

from the left, normal o the plane of the grating. The pattern observed on the screen(far to the right of
fig. given below) is the result of the combined effects of interference and diffraction. Each slit
produces diffraction, and the diffracted beams interfere with one another to produce the final pattern.

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Experimental set-up for measuring wavelengths with a diffraction grating

The waves from all the slits are in

phase as they leave the slits.
However for some arbitary
direction θ measured from the
horizontal, the waves must travel
different path lengths before
reaching the stream. From the fig.
we note that the path difference δ
between the rays from any two
adjacent slits is equal to (a+b)sinθ,
where ‘a’ is the thickness of opaque
portion and ‘b’ is the thickness of
transparent portion. If this path
difference equals sum integral
multiple of a wavelength then the waves from all the slits are in phase at the screen and a bright fringe
is observed. Therefore the conditions for the maxima in the interference pattern at the angle θ is

(a+b) sinn = n where n=0,+1,+2….so on.

We can use this expression to calculate the wavelength if we know ‘a’ and ‘b’ and the angle θ.

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 Where, (a+b) is grating element

be

OPAQUE

TRANSPARENT

Where a = Thickness of opaque

b = Thickness of transparent

Number of lines per inches =

1 inches = 2.54 cms

Grating element (a+b) = ------- cms

FORMULA USED:

(a+b)= n /sinn

PROCEDURE:

Measuring the wavelength of the laser:

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1. Set up the laser and grating as shown in above figure.

2. Allow the light to fall on the screen to obtain diffraction pattern.

3. Measure the distance D between the screen and the diffraction grating.

3. Turn on the laser and center the meter stick at the 0th order image.

4. Measure the distance xn between the nth order diffraction pattern appearing on the left and right
sides of the center line.

5. Find the wavelength using the formula.

OBSERVATIONS&CALCULATIONS:

Given =6500 A0

S.No Order Distance sinn=xn/(d2+ xn2)1/2 (a+b)= n /sinn

xn(cm)
(A0)

1. n=1 x1=

2. x’1

3. n=2 x2

4. x’2

Mean grating element=---------- A0

Actual value=16933 A0

%error=

RESULT: ---------------------------

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not look into the laser.

2. Level the optical bench correctly before taking the readings.

VIVA VOCE
1) What do you mean by Diffraction of light?

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2) What is the difference between interference and diffraction?

3) What is diffraction grating?

4) What are requisites of good grating?

5) What is grating element?

6) What is the main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?

7) What is dispersive power of grating?

8) On what factors does dispersive power of a grating depend?

P a g e | 14
 Experiment No. 3_________________________

AIM:

TO FIND THE FREQUENCY OF A.C. SUPPLY USING AN ELECTRICAL VIBRATOR.

APPARATUS:

Electrical vibrator, a frictionless pulley, a string of uniform thickness, a light weight pan, a weight
box, a balance and a metre rod.

THEORY:

Electrical vibrator consists of a solenoid and a thin rod set along the axis of solenoid. The steel
rod is clamped at one end by binding skrews and other end kept free. Free end of steel rod made
slightly flat and a hole is drilled in this portion. Steel rod is passed symmetrically between the pole
pieces of horse shoe magnet. The solenoid is connected with a.c. mains through a resistance. When
a.c current flows through the solenoid coil the steel rod is magnetized longitudinally and its polarity
changes after each half cycle of a.c. now the steel rod vibrating transversely with the frequency of
a.c. mains. Due to interaction between magnetized steel rod and horse shoe magnet . By adjusting the
length of steel rods its natural frequency can be matched with the frequency of a.c. mains. In this
condition (resonance) the rod vibrates with larger amplitude.

If a string of mass per unit length ρ is connected to the vibrating rod of an electrical
vibrator and stretched with a tension T, the string vibrates in a number of segments as in Melde’s
experiment. If the length of string is so adjusted the nodes are clearly marked, the frequency the
stretched string is the same as that of the vibrating rod which is vibrating with the frequency of the
A.C. mains.

If l is the length of one loop of the string, T the stretching force and ρ the mass per unit length of the
string, then the frequency of the vibrator is given by:

1 T
=
2l 

This is also the frequency of the A.C. supply.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the current and adjust the length of the steel rod till the free end attains the
maximum amplitude.

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 2. Switch off the current and tie one end of a string about 2 metre long to the free end of the
steel rod. Pass the other end over a frictionless pulley fixed on the table and attach a light
weight pan to the other end. Add some weights in the pan to make the string taut.
3. Switch on the current, the string will be found to vibrate in a number of loops. Adjust the
load, if necessary. Change the length of the vibrating string by shifting the vibrator forward
or backward so that the loops are sharply defined and the nodes are clearly marked.
4. Mark the position of the extreme nodes leaving out the first and the last loops as their positions
cannot be ascertained correctly. Measure the distance between the two marks and divide it by
the number of loops contained to find the value of l. Repeat three times for the same stretching
force by changing the length of the string so as to change the number of loops. Note the
weights added in the pan. Repeat for three different nodes.
5. Find the weight of the pan with a balance and also find the weight of an exact length, say 100
cm of string.

OBSERVATIONS:

mass of the pan (Mp)= 20.1 gm

Linear mass density (ρ) = 0.0015 gm/cm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No mass in Length of thread No of loops Length of Tension (T)

the pan (L) cm (n) one loop
1 T
(m) gms L
l  cm  =
n 2l 
T=(m+Mp)g
(dynes) (Hz)

Mean frequency  = -------- cycles/sec

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DIAGRAM:

S
l

L pulley

A.C supply pan

Electrical vibrator mass

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The string should be of uniform thickness so that it has a fairly constant mass per unit
length. A fishing cord fulfils this condition and is most suitable for this experiment.
2. The length of the steel rod should be adjusted before attaching the string so that it vibrates
with large amplitude in resonance with the frequency of the A.C. supply. The nodes and anti-
nodes should be sharply defined.
3. There should be no friction in the pulley.

VIVA VOCE

Que 1. What do you mean by A.C. source?

Ans. A.C. stands for alternating current .It is the current in which magnitude as well as direction
of current periodically changes.

Que 2. What do you mean by frequency of A.C. mains?

Ans. It means the number of complete cycles completed by A.C. in one second.

Que 3. Why do we connect a lamp in the vibrator circuit?

Ans. The lamp serves the purpose of resistance in the circuit to reduce the current so as to reduce
heating of the solenoid and to protect its insulation.

Que 4. Can you use a choke coil too instead of lamp?

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Ans. Yes we can choose a coil because that too can reduce the current . A choke coil can be preferred
because a choke involves nil wastage of energy .

Que 5. Can you take a brass rod instead of steel rod in electrical vibrator?

Ans. No ,because it is non magnetic and hence will not vibrate under the effect of magnetic field
produced by solenoid and the permanent horse shoe magnet.

Que 6. Will the steel rod vibrate with a battery instead of A.C. supply?

Ans. No, the steel rod will not vibrate as the current is unidirectional so induced poles will not
change their positions hence the rod will not vibrate .

Que 7. What type of the thread is required for this experiment?

Ans. A flexible , inextensible cord of uniform thickness through out its length

Que 8. What are stationary waves?

Ans. When two waves of same frequency as well as amplitude travel with same velocity in opposite
direction, the resultant wave produced on superposition is known as stationary wave.

Que 9. What are nodes or antinodes positions?

Ans. The points on the waves , where the displacement of particles of the medium is zero are called
nodes and where it is maximum are called antinodes.

Que 10. What are electromagnets?

Ans. These are the materials which get magnetised on applying electric current and remain
magnetised until the current is there.

Que 11. Define transverse wave and longitudinal wave?

Ans.Transverse waves -The disturbance produced in the wave has a direction perpendicular to the
direction of the propagation of the wave is called transverse wave.

Longitudnal wave – The disturbance produced as the wave passes is along the direction of the wave
propagation the wave is called longitudinal wave.

Que 12. What will happen when the apparatus is set longitudinal mode in fact of set in
transverse mode?

Ans. If apparatus is set in longitudinal mode then a factor of two will come ie frequency of wave in
transverse mode is equal to ½ times the frequency of longitudinal mode.

Que 13. Which fact is used in this experiment to find out frequency of A.C. source?

P a g e | 18
Ans. Frequency of standing waves = frequency of A.C. source

Que 14. What is an “Electrical Vibrator”?

Ans. A Steel Wire With A Hook On One Side Is Made To Pass Through Solenoid And A Horse Shoe
Magnet. When 220 Volts A.C. Current Is Passed Through The Solenoid The Steel Wire Reverse With
Every Charge Of A.C Current Direction And Vibrates With The Frequency Of A.C. Mains. The
Frequency Is Calculated As Is Done In Melde's Apparatus. It Can Also Be Used To Measure The
Capacity Of A Condenser By Applying The Formula C=1/Vf , Where C Is The Capacity Of The
Condenser ,The Microameter Current . V The Main Voltage And F The Frequency.

P a g e | 19
 Experiment No. 4_________________________

AIM :

TO FIND THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT AND POLERIZABILITY OF A DIELECTRIC

SLAB.

APPARATUS:

R.F generator, micro ammeter, potentiometer for sensitivity selection, R.F Coupling (variable
capacitor), parallel plate capacitor, dielectric slab.

THEORY:

Dielectrics are the materials which transmit the electric effect without being conducting
themselves. When these materials are placed in external E.F they get polarized. If E is the net E.F. ,
p is the dipole moment of the individual dipole then

p E

or p=αE -----------(1)

where α is called atomic polarisability.

Polarisation vector P is defined as dipole moment per unit volume

i.e. P=p/V -----------(2)

where V is volume of the dielectric slab.

Also P E

or P=χE -----------(3)

where χ is called the electric susceptibility of the material.

By putting (1) and (3) in equation (2) we get

α =χV

Further we know for a dielectric

K=1+χ where K is dielectic constant of the material

P a g e | 20
 So, χ=K-1

Or α =(K-1)V

If C1 = Capacity of variable capacitor when dielectric slab is inserted between the plates
of parallel plate capacitor

C2 = Capacity of variable capacitor when dielectric slab is not inserted between the plates of
parallel plate capacitor

Co= Capacity of parallel plate capacitor when its medium is vacuum

Also Co=(Aεo)/d

where A is the area of slab inserted between plates & d is the thickness of slab.

For parallel LC circuit, at resonance we have

ν=1/2π(L(KCo+ C1))

After removing the slab we have

ν=1/2π(L(Co+ C2)

Equating both we get

C 2  C1
K  1
CO

Using above relations we can find the dielectric constant & polarizability of the given dielectric
slab.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

R F oscillator

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connection as shown in circuit diagram.

P a g e | 21
 2. Remove the dielectric slab and keep variable capacitor at minimum value.
3. Set the sensitivity to 30µA approx.
4. Keep the test capacitor without dielectric and vary capacity of variable capacitor so that
resonance point is reached (minimum deflection in ammeter). Let this value be C2.
5. Put the dielectric slab in between the gap of capacitor.
6. Start varying the variable capacitor towards minimum value so as to reach the resonance
point again.
7. Note down the capacity of variable capacitor. Let this value be C1.
8.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

C 2  C1   .A
K  1 CO 
CO d

Where A= r 2 and r = 4.25 cm

d=2.0 mm    8.85 × 10 12 C2/(Nm2)

By experiment we get that

C1  _____ pF
C 2  ____ pF

K=--------

Also α=-------- cm3

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Take the readings carefully.

2. Stop when the needle reaches at minimum value.
3. Check the connections carefully.

VIVA-VOCE

1. Define capacity of capacitor?

Ans. Capacitor of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge to the potential difference between the plates
of the capacitor.

2. Define electric susceptibility?

P a g e | 22
Ans. The electric susceptibility χe of a dielectric material is a measure of how easily it polarizes in
response to an electric field.

P=Ԑ0χE

3. What is dielectric?

Ans A material which does not conduct electricity , but on applying external electric field , induced
charges are produced on the surface.

4. Define dielectric constant of a substance?

Ans The ratio of permittivity of medium to permittivity of vacuum. It is a dimensionless quantity

and always positive.

5. Define variable capacitor?

Ans. A variable capacitor is a capacitor whose capacitance may be intentionally and repeatedly
changed mechanically or electronically

6. Why dielectric constant of water is much higher than that of mica?

Ans. It is because of the fact that water is polar while mica is non polar.

7. How a dielectric slab inserted between plates of capacitor increases its capacity?

Ans. Due to polarisation of dielectric slab , the potential difference between plates of capacitor
decreases. This increases the charge storing capacity of a capacitor.

8. What is the use of a capacitor?

Ans. It is used to store electric energy and provides a huge amount of charge instantaneously.

9. Define polarisation of a dielectric?

Ans. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges do not flow through the material,
as in a conductor, but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing

dielectric polarization

10. Define dielectric strength?

P a g e | 23
Ans. The term dielectric strength has the following meanings:

 Of an insulating material, the maximum electric field strength that it can withstand
intrinsically without breaking down, i.e., without experiencing failure of its insulating
properties.
 For a given configuration of dielectric material and electrodes, the minimum electric field that
produces breakdown.
 the maximum electric stress the dielectric material can withstand without breakdown.

11. What is dielectric constant of a conductor?

Ans. It is infinite .

P a g e | 24
 Experiment No. 5_________________________

AIM

TO STUDY THE VARIATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD WITH DISTANCE ALONG THE

AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL CARRYING CURRENT BY PLOTTING OF GRAPH.

APPARATUS

Stewart and Gee’s type tangent galvanometer, a battery, a rheostat, an ammeter, a one-way key, a
reversing key, connecting wires, and sand paper etc.

THEORY

The intensity of magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil of radius a having n turns, at a
distance x from the centre of the coil, in S.I. units is given be

 2nla 2
B 
4 3
2
(a  x ) 2
2

Where I is the current in amperes flowing through the coil.

If the field B is perpendicular to the horizontal component of earth’s field B H

and  is the deflection
produced in a deflection magnetometer then

B= B H
tan 

Or B  tan 

Hence a graph between tan  and x will be similar to the graph between B and x.

P a g e | 25
PROCEDURE

1. Place the instrument on the table so that the arms of the

magnetometer lie roughly east and west and the
magnetic needle lies at the centre of the vertical coil.
Place the eye a little above the coil and rotate the
instrument in the horizontal plane till the coil, the needle
and its image in the mirror provided at the base of the
compass box all lie in the same vertical plane. The coil
is thus set roughly in the magnetic meridian. Rotate the
compass box so that the pointer lies on the 0—0 line.
2. Connect the galvanometer to a battery, a rheostat, a
one way key and an ammeter through a reversing key.
3. Adjust the value of the current so that the
magnetometer gives a deflection of the order of 60°—
70°. Reverse the current and again note the deflection.
If the mean deflection in the two cases agrees closely,
the coil lies exactly in the magnetic meridian. If the
mean deflection in the two cases does not agree
closely, slightly turn the instrument till the deflection
with the direct and the reversed currents agree closely.
4. Now slide the magnetometer along the axis and find the position where the maximum
deflection is obtained. In this position the centre of the needle coincides with the centre of the
vertical coil.
5. Note the position of the arm against the reference mark A and also the value of the current as
indicated by the ammeter. Read both ends of the pointer in the magnetometer, reverse the
current and again read both ends. Shift the magnetometer by 2 cm and note the reading of the
magnetometer keeping the current constant at the same value both for direct and reversed
current. In this position the centre of the magnetic needle is at a distance of 2 cm from the
centre of the vertical coil. Take a number of observations by shifting the magnetometer by 2
cm at a time.
6. Similarly repeat the observation by shifting the magnetometer in the opposite direction and
keeping the current constant at the same value.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Current I = ------ amp

S.N Distance
O
Left Side Right Side

P a g e | 26
 from the Θ11 Θ2 Mean tan Θ Θ1 Θ2 Mean Θ tan Θ
centre Θ

cm

1. 0

2. 2

3. 4

4. 6

5. 8

GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS

1. There should be no magnet, magnetic substances and current carrying conductors near the
apparatus.
2. The plane of the coil should be set in the magnetic meridian.
3. The current should remain constant and should be reversed for each observation.
4. To avoid error due to parallax, the eye should be placed in such a way that the pointer covers its
image in the mirror below.

P a g e | 27
 VIVA-VOCE

Ques1: Name three magnetic elements.

Ans : 1. Angle of declination

2.Angle of dip

3.Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.

Ques 2:State tangent law of magnetism.

Ans: If a small bar magnet is suspended in two mutually perpendicular uniform magnetic fields B
and H such that it comes to rest making an angle Ø within the field H then :

B =H tan Ø

Ques 3:Define reduction factor of tangent galvanometer.

Ans: It is equal to amount of current passed through tangent galvanometer such that it produces a
deflection of 45 degree.

Ques 4: What is the possible cause of Earth’s magnetism?

Ans: 1.Motion of molten and charged matter inside the core of earth.

2.Motion of earth around its own axis.

3. Motion of charged ions in the ionosphere.

Ques 5: What are eddy currents?

Ans: These are the currents produced in a metallic conductor when the magnetic flux linked with
conductor changes.

Ques 6: Why inductance coils are made of copper?

Ans: Because ohmic resistance of copper is very less .

Ques 7: Define mutual induction.

Ans: Whenever magnetic flux linked with the coil changes then an induced emf is produced in the
neighbouring coil which tends to oppose the change in magnetic flux. This process is called mutual
induction.

P a g e | 28
Ques 8: Two parallel straight conductors are carrying current in same direction. What will be the
nature of magnetic force between them?

Ans: Attractive.

Ques 9: Isolated magnetic poles don’t exist. Why?

Ans: Because every atom of matter is a complete magnet.

Ques 10:What is the basic difference between Electric and magnetic lines of forces?

Ans: Electrical lines of forces are discontinuous while magnetic lines of forces are continuous that is
always closed loop.

Ques 11: Define Bohr’s magnetone.

Ans: Bohr’s magnetone is defined as magnetic dipole moment associated with an atom due to orbital
motion of electron in the first orbit of hydrogen atom.

Ques 12: How does an inductor behave in DC circuit after steady state has been reached?

Ans: Ideal inductor behaves like connecting wire while practically inductor behave like a resistance.

P a g e | 29
 Experiment No. 6_________________________

AIM:

TO VERIFY INVERSE SQUARE LAW OF RADIATIONS USING A PHOTO-ELECTRIC

CELL.

APPARATUS:
Photo cell (Selenium) mounted in the metal box with connections brought out at terminals, Lamp
holder with 60W bulb, Two moving coil analog meters (1000µA & 500mV) mounted on the front
panel and connections brought out at terminals, Two single point and two multi points patch cords.

THEORY:

A device used to convert light energy into electrical energy is called Photo Electric Cell. Photocell is
based on the phenomenon of Photoelectric effect. Photo cell are of three types. 1. Photo-Emissive
Cell. 2. Photo-Voltaic Cell. 3. Photo-Conductive Cell. Photo-Emissive Cell:
Photo-Conductive Cell: Photo-Conductive Cell is also based on the principle of inner photoelectric
effect. It consists of a thin film of semi-conductor like Selenium or Thallium sulphide placed below
a thin film of semitransparent metal. The combination is place over the block of iron. The iron base
and the transparent metal film is connected through battery and resistance. When light falls on the
cell, its resistance decrease and hence the current starts flowing in the external circuit. Let ‘I’ be the
luminous intensity of an electric lamp and ‘E’ be the illuminance at a point distance‘d’ from it.
According to the inverse square law;
E= I/d2
If light from the lamp be incident on the photovoltaic cell placed at a distance‘d’ from it, then the
photo-current given out is proportional to E and if θ be the corresponding deflection shown by the
microammeter then,
E 
or  I/d2
or d2 = constant

P a g e | 30
Fig. Experimental Board

PROCEDURE:
1. The experiment can be performed in the laboratory but it is always good to perform it in a dark
room where stray light falling on the photocell can be avoided. In the dark room mount the various
parts of the apparatus on the wooden plank provided with a ½ meter scale. Make the other connections
as shown in the figure.
2. Switch on the lamp and adjust it at a suitable distance from the photocell so that the micro ammeter
and mill-voltmeter indicate a reasonable deflection.
3. Change the distance of lamp from the voltaic cell and take a series of observations for the
corresponding values of distance (d) and deflection (θ).

Observations:

S.No. Position of Deflection Distance E=I/d2

the lamp (θ) from Photo
Cell (d)

1.
2.
3.

GRAPH: Plot a graph between 1/d2 and θ, taking 1/d2 along X-axis and θ along Y-axis. It should be
a straight line which will not pass through the origin.

P a g e | 31
CONCLUSION:

From this experiment it is concluded that the value of current is directly proportional to the intensity
of light. As the distance between bulb and photo cell increases galvanometer shows less deflection
and if distance between them is decreased the galvanometer shows more deflection.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Stray light should be avoided.
2. The effect of the reflected light from the bench surface should be minimized.
3. Very sensitive micro ammeter should be used.

VIVA VOCE
Q.1 What is photoelectric effect?
Q.2 What is the photo cell?
Q.3 Define the illuminating power and intensity of illumination.
Q.4 Which type of the cells is a solar cell?
Q.5. Give two applications of solar cell in daily life.

P a g e | 32
 Experiment No. 7________________________

AIM:TO FIND THE WAVELENGTH OF LASER LIGHT BY MICHELSON

INTERFEROMETER.

APPARATUS: Michelson interferometer, semiconductor laser.

THEORY:

A schematic of the Michelson interferometer is shown in the figure. The interferometer

consists of two plane mirrors M1 and M2, highly silvered on their front surfaces to avoid multiple
internal reflections and two plane parallel glass plates have been cut from a single optically plane
parallel plate to ensure the equality of thickness and the nature of the material. Both the plates have
been mounted vertically, exactly parallel to each other, on a heavy frame and are inclined at 45 o to
the interferometer arm. Plate G has been coated with silver or Aluminium such that it acts as a 50/50
beam splitter. The mirror M2 is fixed while the other mirror M1 is movable and has been mounted on
a carriage C as shown in figure 2. The carriage has a precision back and forth movement. During the
motion M1 remains exactly parallel to its preceding positions. The mechanism which provides motion
to the mirror M1 consists of a large drum as shown in fig.2. One turn of this drum displaces the mirror
by one millimetre.

There is another fine adjustment drum (smaller) visible at the right hand side. One turn of this drum
displaces the mirror by 0.01 millimetre. One part of this slow motion drum gives a reading of 0.0001
mm (10-4 mm). The guide way also consists of a graduated scale in centimetres.

P a g e | 33
DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER LIGHT:

The wavelength of light is given as

2( x2  x1)

N
where x1 = initial position of the mirror M1 of Michelson

Interferometer

x 2 = final position of mirror M1 of Michelson interferometer

i.e. ( x2  x1 ) = distance moved by mirror M1

N= no of fringes appeared at the centre of the field corresponding

to distance (x2-x1).

P a g e | 34
PROCEDURE:

1. Adjust the position of mirror M1, so that a bright spot of circular fringes appears the centre
of field of view. Note corresponding micrometer reading.
2. The mirror M1 is moved away so that the good no of fringes (say 25 appear at the centre of
the field. the micrometer reading is again noted.
3. The procedure is repeated to note 5 readings.

OBSERVATIONS:

Least count of rough micrometer screw = 0.001 cm

Least count of fine micrometer screw = 0.00001 cm

S. no No of Main scale Position of mirror M1 Difference for

fringes reading (cm) 100 fringes
appeared R.M.S F.M.S reading Total (cm) (Δx)
reading (cm) (cm) ×0.00001 (cm)(x)
×0.001

1. 0

2. 100

3. 200

4. 300

5. 400

CALCULATIONS:

Mean difference = -------- cm

2 x
 =-------cm
N

RESULT:

Wavelength of laser light=-----Ao

VIVA-VOCE

1. What is the role of glass plate G2.

2. What was the negative result of Michelson Morley Experiment?
3. What is the concept of ether in theory of relativity?

P a g e | 35
 Experiment No. 8______________________

AIM:

TO STUDY THE CHARACTERISTIC OF DIFFERENT PN JUNCTION DIODE-GE AND

SI.

APPRATUS:
Diodes, Voltmeter 0-10 volt D.C., Ammeter 0-100 mA., DC power supply 0-10 Volt, Connection
Wires

THEORY:
This is a two terminal device consisting of a P-N junction formed either in Ge or Si
crystal. A P-N junction is illustrated in fig. shows P-type and N-type semiconductor pieces before
they are joined. P-type material has a high concentration of holes and N-type material has a high
concentration of free electrons and hence there is a tendency of holes to diffuse over to N side and
electrons to P side. The process is known as diffusion.
Volt-Ampere Characteristics Of P-N Junction: Fig. shows the circuit arrangement for drawing
the volt-ampere characteristics of a P-N junction diode. When no external voltage is applied the
circuit current is zero. The characteristics are studied under the following two heads:
(i) Forward bias (ii) Reverse bias
(i)Forward bias:- For the forward bias of a P-N junction, P-type is connected to the positive
terminal while the N-type is connected to the negative terminal of a battery. The potential at P-N
junction can be varied with the help of potential divider. At some forward voltage (0.3 V for Ge
and 0.7V for Si) the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing. This
voltage is known as threshold voltage(Vth) or cut in voltage or knee voltage . It is practically same
as barrier voltage VB. For V<Vth, the current flow is negligible. As the forward applied voltage
increases beyond threshold voltage, the forward current rises exponentially.
(ii)Reverse bias: - For the reverse bias of p-n junction, P-type is connected to the negative terminal
while N-type is connected to the positive terminal of a battery.

Under normal reverse voltage, a very little reverse current flows through a P-N junction. But when
the reverse voltage is increased, a point is reached when the junction break down with sudden rise in
reverse current. The critical value of the voltage is known as break down (VBR). The break down
voltage is defined as the reverse voltage at which P-N junction breakdown with sudden rise in reverse
current.

P a g e | 36
DIAGRAM:

Fig. (1) - Reverse Bias Condition

Fig. (2) - Forward Bias Condition:

P a g e | 37
PROCEDURE:

(a) Forward Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. (PN Junction diode with milli-ammeter in series with the
diode).
2. Initially vary Regulated Power Supply (RPS) voltage Vs in steps of 0.1 V. Once the current starts
increasing vary Vs in steps of 0.02V and note down the corresponding readings Vf and If.
3. Tabulate different forward currents obtained for different forward voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels
5. Compare the theoretical and practical values (cut-in voltage and resistances).

b) Reverse Bias Condition:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. (Point contact diode in series with micro ammeter).
2. Vary Vs in the Regulated Power Supply (RPS) gradually in steps of 1V from 0V to 12V and note
down the corresponding readings Vr and Ir.
3. Tabulate different reverse currents obtained for different reverse voltages.
4. Plot the V-I characteristics and calculate the resistance levels
5. Compare the theoretical and practical values.

P a g e | 38
OBSERVATIONS
Least Count of Voltmeter=------------
Least Count of milliammeter=---------
Least Count of micro ammeter=-------

Forward Bias

S.No. Forward voltage Vf (volt) Forward current If (mA)

Reverse Bias

S.No. Reverse voltage Vr (volt) Reverse current Ir (mA)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Patch cords should be properly connected.

2. Power supply should be on after completed the connections.

RESULT: Volt-Ampere Characteristics of P-N Diode are studied.

VIVA-VOCE

1. What are trivalent and penatavalent impurities?

2. How PN junction diode does acts as a switch?

3. What is diode current equation?

Ans:

4. Dynamic resistance expression?

P a g e | 39
Ans:

5. What is cut-in voltage? What are its values for Si and Ge diodes?
6. What is a semiconductor?
7. What is meant by intrinsic semiconductor?
8. What is the order of energy gap in a pure semiconductor?
9. What is an extrinsic semiconductor?
10. What is a doped semiconductor?
11. What is doping?
12. What is junction diode?
13. What is meant by forward bias?
14. What is meant by reverse bias?
15. What is knee voltage?
16. What is reverse breakdown?
17. What are the semiconductor materials in use?

P a g e | 40
 Experiment No. 9_______________________

AIM:

TO ANALYZE THE SUITABILITY OF A GIVEN ZENER DIODE AS A POWER

REGULATOR.

APPRATUS:
Zener diode, resistor, variable DC power supply, milliammeter, voltmeter, Rheostat and wire

THEORY:

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the forward direction it
behaves just like a normal signal diode, but when a reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains
constant for a wide range of currents..
The Zener Diode is used in its "reverse bias". From the I-V Characteristics curve we can study that
the zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage
regardless of the value of the current flowing through the diode and remains nearly constant even
with large changes in current as long as the zener diodes current remains between the breakdown
current IZ(min) and the maximum current rating IZ(max).
This ability to control itself can be used to great effect to regulate or stabilise a voltage source against
supply or load variations. The fact that the voltage across the diode in the breakdown region is almost
constant turns out to be an important application of the zener diode as a voltage regulator

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulators

The function of a regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel with
it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or the variation in the load current and the zener diode
will continue to regulate the voltage until the diodes current falls below the minimum IZ(min) value in
the reverse breakdown region. It permits current to flow in the forward direction as normal, but will
also allow it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown
voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener diode specially made to have a reverse voltage
breakdown at a specific voltage. Its characteristics are otherwise very similar to common diodes. In
breakdown the voltage across the Zener diode is close to constant over a wide range of currents thus
making it useful as a shunt voltage regulator.

The purpose of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant voltage across a load regardless of
variations in the applied input voltage and variations in the load current. A typical Zener diode shunt
regulator is shown in Figure 3. The resistor is selected so that when the input voltage is at VIN(min) and
the load current is at IL(max) that the current through the Zener diode is at least Iz(min). Then for all other
combinations of input voltage and load current the Zener diode conducts the excess current thus
maintaining a constant voltage across the load. The Zener conducts the least current when the load
current is the highest and it conducts the most current when the load current is the lowest.

P a g e | 41
If there is no load resistance, shunt regulators can be used to dissipate total power through the series
resistance and the Zener diode. Shunt regulators have an inherent current limiting advantage under
load fault conditions because the series resistor limits excess current.

A zener diode of break down voltage Vz is reverse connected to an input voltage source Vi across a
load resistance RL and a series resistor RS. The voltage across the zener will remain steady at its break
down voltage VZ for all the values of zener current IZ as long as the current remains in the break down
region. Hence a regulated DC output voltage V0 = VZ is obtained across RL, whenever the input
voltage remains within a minimum and maximum voltage.

DIAGRAM:

P a g e | 42
PROCEDURE:

1. Choose the zener diode to start the experiment. Insert the series resistance value.

2. Fix the load resistance value by using Load Resistance knob.

3. Change the input voltage and note the corresponding output voltage and tabulate it.

4. Plot the graph in which VIN at x-axis VO at y-axis.

S. No. VIN volts VO volts

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1. Fix the input voltage.

2. Change the load Resistance from minimum to maximum range.

P a g e | 43
 3. Note the corresponding output voltageg and tabulate it.

4. Plot the graph between V0 along x-axis and RL along y-axis.

S. No. RL ohm VO volts

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

VIVA-VOCE

1.Avalanche Breakdown: There is a limit for the reverse voltage. Reverse voltage can increase until
the diode breakdown voltage reaches. This point is called Avalanche Breakdown region
2. At this stage maximum current will flow through the zener diode. This breakdown point is referred
as “Zener voltage”.
Q3. Explain I-V Characteristics of zener diode.
Ans3.
Figure below shows the current versus voltage curve for a Zener diode. Observe the nearly constant
voltage in the breakdown region.

P a g e | 44
 Zener diode characteristic curve

The forward bias region of a Zener diode is identical to that of a regular diode. The typical forward
voltage at room temperature with a current of around 1 mA is around 0.6 volts. In the reverse bias
condition the Zener diode is an open circuit and only a small leakage current is flowing as shown on
the exaggerated plot. As the breakdown voltage is approached the current will begin to avalanche.
The initial transition from leakage to breakdown is soft but then the current rapidly increases as shown
on the plot. The voltage across the Zener diode in the breakdown region is very nearly constant with
only a small increase in voltage with increasing current. At some high current level the power
dissipation of the diode becomes excessive and the part is destroyed. There is a minimum Zener
current, Iz(min), that places the operating point in the desired breakdown. There is a maximum Zener
current, Iz(max), at which the power dissipation drives the junction temperature to the maximum
allowed. Beyond that current the diode can be damaged.

P a g e | 45
 Experiment No. 10_____________________

AIM:

TO DETERMINE THE RESISTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS BY FOUR PROBE

METHOD.

APPARATUS:
The experimental set up consists of probe arrangement, sample , oven 0-200°C, constant current
generator, oven power supply and digital panel meter(measuring voltage and current).
THEORY:
Four probe apparatus is one of the standard and most widely used apparatus for the measurement of
resistivity of semiconductors. This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin
wafer, such as a thin semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The sample is millimeter in
size and having a thickness w. It consists of four probe arranged linearly in a straight line at equal
distance S from each other. A constant current is passed through the two probes and the potential
drop V across the middle two probes is measured. An oven is provided with a heater to heat the
sample so that behavior of the sample is studied with increase in temperature.

At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is proportional to its length L and

inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor
and insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of decreasing
electrical resistivity with increasing temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands,
valence band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field it is electrons in
the valence band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of
semiconductors. In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction
band minimum and valence band maximum. Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K,
when no thermal excitations are available, the conduction band remains unoccupied. So conduction
is not possible at 0K, and resistance is infinite. As temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction
band goes up, thereby resulting in decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method:
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.

2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying electrodes
most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity is negligible.

3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.

4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a straight line.

P a g e | 46
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be small
compared to the distance between the probes.

6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical and
small in diameter.

7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A

conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor has been
plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the semiconductor is in contact
with insulator.

FORMULA USED:

For this case of a slice of thickness w and the resistivity is computed as

The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the
distance between the probes,

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.

P a g e | 47
PROCEDURE for Simulation

Combo Box and Sliders

 Select Material - This is used to select semiconductor material for doing the simulator.
 Range of Current - One can choose the range of current for the current source.
 Current’ Slider - It ranges from 1mA to 200mA. (Note:The divisions in the slider is fixed
as 100). If 20mA current is selected in the combo box, the slider value will range from
0mA to 20mA, with an interval of 0.2mA and if the value is 200mA in the combo box, slider
value changes from 0mA to 200mA with an interval of 2mA.

 Range of oven - This combo box is used to fix the temeprature to a particular range.
 Oven- Oven is used to vary the temeprature upto 2000 C.
Set Button – It is used to fix the temperature in the oven.
Run Button – After setting the temperature, using run button we can start
heating the oven.
Wait Button – It is used to stop heating the oven at a particular temperature.
Measure Button- It is used to display the present temperature of the oven.
 Select Range Combo Box – Options are X1 and X10.
 Temperature slider - it ranges from 270 C to 2000 C. active only by clicking the Set button
and become inactive after clicking Run button. If X1 is in combo box, the slider value ranges
from 27 0 C to 990 C and If the value is X10 in combo box, slider value changes from 2.7 0 C
to 200 C.
 Voltmeter Combo Box - Options are 1 mV, 10 mV, 100 mV, 1 V, 10 V. One can select it
for getting output in a particular range.

PROCEDURE
1. Select the semiconductor material from the combo box.
2. Select the source current from the slider. Restrict the slider based on the range of current.

P a g e | 48
3. Select the Range of oven from the combo box.
4. Set the temperature from the slider.
5. Click on the Run Button to start heating the oven in a particular interval, from the default 250C to
the temperature that we set already Click on the Wait button to stop heating.
6. Click on the Set button to display the temperature that we set in the oven.
7. Click on the Measure button to display the present temperature in the oven.
8. Select the range of voltmeter from the combo box.
9. Measure the Voltage using Voltmeter.
10.Calculate the Resistivity of semiconductor in eV for the given temperature using formula.

OBSERVATIONS:

Resistivity can be calculated by using the equation given below.

Here we take,
Distance between the probes, S as 0.2cm and
Thickness of the sample, w as 0.05cm.
From standard table f(w/S) = 5.89

= ...................... Ohm cm

= ..................... Ohm cm
RESULT:
The resistivity of the given semiconductor by Four probe Method = ...................................Ohm cm

P a g e | 49
 Experiment No. 11________________________

AIM:

To Find the Numerical Aperture of a given optical fibre.

APPARATUS:
Laser source, optical cable, scale, jig, screen

THEORY:

Optical fibers are fine transparent glass or plastic fibers which can propagate light. It consists of a
core that is surrounded by a cladding. The core and cladding are normally made of silica glass,
although polymer materials are also in use. The function of the core is to transmit an optical signal
while the purpose of the cladding is to guide the light within the core, in effect to confine the light
within the core. A fiber is sometimes called an optical waveguide because light is guided through the
fiber. They work under the principle of total internal reflection from diametrically opposite walls. In
this way light can be taken anywhere because fibers have enough flexibility. This property makes
them suitable for data communication, design of fine endoscopes, micro sized microscopes etc.

Numerical Aperture of an optical fibre is defined as its light gathering power. It is a measure of
how much light can be collected by an optical system such as an optical fiber or a microscope lens.
The NA is related to the acceptance angle θo, which indicates the size of a cone of light that can be
accepted by the fiber.

Mathematically it is sine of acceptance angle i.e.

NA=sinθo where θo is the acceptance angle of the fibre

also

where n1 is refractive index of core and n2 is refractive index of cladding.

The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle θo only propagate
through the fibre. The higher the value of θo or NA more is the light collected for propagation in the
fibre.

P a g e | 50
PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the devices as in figure.
2. Measure the diameter of laser spot D before using O.P.
3. Measure the distance between the end of the optical fiber and the screen.
4. Measure the radius of the spot (r).
5. Calculate the Numerical Aperture (NA) applying following equation:

NA = (D/2)/(D/2)2+L2)1/2

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No. Diameter of laser spot (D) Distance between the end NA =

(cm) of the optical fiber and (D/2)/(D/2)2+L2)1/2
the screen
(cm)
1.

2.

P a g e | 51
RESULTS:

Numerical aperture of the optical fiber = ………

Acceptance angle of the optical fiber = ………

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Perform the experiment in dark room.

2. Take the readings carefully.

VIVA-VOCE

1. What is semi conductor diode laser?

2. What is LASER?
3. What are the characteristic of laser radiation?
4. Define numerical aperture.
5. What is the principle used in fiber optic communication system?
6. Define acceptance angle of fiber.

P a g e | 52
 Experiment No. 12_________________________

AIM:

TO FIND THE REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A MATERIAL/LIQUID USING

SPECTROMETER.

APPRATUS:

A spectrometer, prism, prism clamp, sodium vapour lamp,a spirit level

THEORY:

The spectrometer is an instrument for analyzing the spectra of radiations. The glass-prism
spectrometer is suitable for measuring ray deviations and refractive indices.
The theory of the prism spectrometer indicates that a spectrum of maximum definition is obtained
when the angular deviation of a light ray passing through the prism is a minimum. Under such
conditions it can be shown that the ray passes through the prism symmetrically. For a given
wavelength of light traversing a given prism, there is a characteristic angle of incidence for which
the angle of deviation is a minimum. This angle depends only on the index of refraction of the
prism and the angle between the two sides of the prism traversed by the light. The relationship
between these variables is given by the equation
A+δm
sin( )
2
n= A
sin( )
2

where n is the index of refraction of the prism and δm is the angle of minimum deviation. Since n
varies with wavelength, the angle of minimum deviation also varies, but it is constant for any
particular wavelength.

P a g e | 53
 DIAGRAM:

Least Count of Spectrometer

One main scale division (N) =1/2o

Number of divisions on vernier (V) =30
L.C = N/V = 1/60o

Angle of the Prism= 60o

PROCEDURE:

1. Turn the telescope towards the white wall or screen and looking through eye-piece, adjust its position
till the cross wires are clearly seen.
2. Turn the telescope towards window, focus the telescope to a long distant
object.
3. Place the telescope parallel to collimator.
4. Place the collimator directed towards sodium vapor lamb. Switch on the lamp.
5. Focus collimator slit using collimator focusing adjustment.
6. Adjust the collimator slit width.
7. Place prism table, note that the surface of the table is just below the level of telescope and collimator.
8. Place spirit level on prism table. Adjust the base leveling screw till the bubble come at the centre of
spirit level.
9. Clamp the prism holder.
10. Clamp the prism in which the sharp edge is facing towards the collimator, and base of the prism is
at the clamp.

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11. Rotate the vernier table so as to fall the light from the collimator to one face of the prism and
emerged through another face. (refer the given figure ).
12. Turn the telescope to make the slit coincide with telescope cross wire.
13. Slowly rotate the vernier table by using vernier fine adjusting slider.
14. Note the position where the slit is stationary for some moment.
15. Using telescope fine adjusting slider, make coincide the slit with cross wire.
16. Note the reading of vernier 1 and vernier 2.
17. Then remove the prism using the button "Remove Prism".
18. Carefully turn the telescope so as to get the direct ray from collimator, make it coincide with cross
wire in the telescope and again note vernier 1 and 2 readings.
19. Hence calculate the angle of minimum deviation (D) by measuring the difference between emerged
ray readings and direct ray readings.

Reading of Vernier 1 Vernier 2

reflected
ray
Direct Min. Difference Direct Min. Difference
position Deviation position Deviation
position position

RESULT:

Angle of minimum deviation of the prism =……………………………….Degrees

Refractive index of the material of the prism =……………………………….

..... .....

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