Chapter 3: Human Development
1. Introduction
• Human Development = systematic, patterned, and lifelong process of growth and
change in physical, cognitive, emotional, and social aspects.
• It is continuous and lifelong, influenced by biological factors, environment, culture,
and personal choices.
2. Concepts of Growth and Development
• Growth:
o Quantitative changes (size, height, weight, organs).
o Measurable (cm, kg).
o Limited to early years.
• Development:
o Qualitative changes (skills, abilities, personality, maturity).
o Continuous across lifespan.
o Broader than growth.
3. Principles of Development
1. Lifelong process – continues from conception to death.
2. Sequential and orderly – follows predictable pattern (e.g., crawling → walking →
running).
3. Differential rate – different areas (physical, cognitive, emotional) develop at different
speeds.
4. Interaction of heredity & environment – both genes and surroundings shape
development.
5. Development is cumulative – earlier development lays foundation for later growth.
6. Plasticity – capacity to change with experience and training.
4. Factors Influencing Development
1. Biological Factors → genes, heredity, brain, hormones.
2. Environmental Factors → family, school, culture, society.
3. Personal Factors → choices, motivation, resilience.
4. Socio-cultural Factors → values, traditions, customs, opportunities.
5. Stages of Development
(a) Prenatal Stage (conception to birth)
• Divided into: germinal (0–2 weeks), embryonic (2–8 weeks), fetal (8 weeks–birth).
• Rapid physical growth; sensitive to teratogens (alcohol, drugs).
(b) Infancy (0–2 years)
• Rapid physical growth; sensory & motor development.
• Attachment forms (mother–child bond).
• Language begins (babbling, first words).
(c) Early Childhood (2–6 years)
• Physical growth slows, motor skills improve.
• Imaginative play, language explosion.
• Beginning of independence, socialization.
(d) Middle Childhood (6–12 years)
• Steady growth, improved coordination.
• Concrete thinking (Piaget’s stage).
• Peer groups important; sense of competence develops.
(e) Adolescence (12–18 years)
• Puberty, secondary sexual characteristics.
• Identity formation (Erikson’s stage: Identity vs. Role confusion).
• Abstract thinking develops (formal operations).
• Emotional instability, peer influence strong.
(f) Early Adulthood (18–40 years)
• Focus: career, relationships, marriage, independence.
• Physical peak in 20s–30s.
• Erikson: Intimacy vs. Isolation.
(g) Middle Adulthood (40–60 years)
• Decline in physical stamina, but peak of social responsibility.
• Career consolidation, family duties.
• Erikson: Generativity vs. Stagnation.
(h) Late Adulthood (60+ years)
• Physical decline, health concerns.
• Retirement, reflection on life.
• Erikson: Integrity vs. Despair.
6. Theories of Human Development
(A) Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
• Development driven by unconscious instincts and childhood experiences.
• Stages: Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital.
• Fixations can affect adult personality.
(B) Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
• Lifespan theory (8 stages).
• Each stage = psychosocial crisis (e.g., Trust vs. Mistrust in infancy).
• Positive resolution → healthy development.
(C) Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
• Children actively construct knowledge.
• Stages:
o Sensorimotor (0–2) → object permanence.
o Preoperational (2–7) → egocentrism, symbols.
o Concrete operational (7–11) → logical but concrete.
o Formal operational (11+) → abstract, hypothetical thinking.
(D) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
• Learning occurs through social interaction & culture.
• Concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding.
(E) Kohlberg’s Moral Development
• 3 levels of morality:
o Pre-conventional → punishment/reward.
o Conventional → rules, social approval.
o Post-conventional → ethics, principles.
7. Issues in Development
1. Nature vs. Nurture – heredity vs. environment.
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity – gradual vs. stage-wise change.
3. Stability vs. Change – are traits fixed or can they change?
4. Cultural context – development varies across societies.
8. Applications of Human Development Study
• Parenting & child-rearing practices.
• Educational settings (teaching methods, age-appropriate curriculum).
• Counselling & guidance for adolescents.
• Career planning in adulthood.
• Elder care & adjustment in old age.
Important Questions for Half-Yearly Exams
Very Short Answer (1 mark)
1. Define growth and development.
2. What is plasticity in development?
3. Who proposed psychosocial theory of development?
4. Name the stage in which “identity vs. role confusion” occurs.
5. What is ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development)?
Short Answer (3 marks)
1. State three principles of human development.
2. Differentiate between growth and development.
3. Explain any two factors influencing human development.
4. What are the main features of adolescence?
5. Write three criticisms of Freud’s psychosexual theory.
Long Answer (5 marks)
1. Explain Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development with examples.
2. Describe Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
3. Discuss the role of heredity and environment in human development.
4. What are the major stages of human development? Explain any two.
5. Compare Freud’s and Erikson’s theories of development.
Essay Type (6 marks)
1. Trace the stages of human development across the lifespan.
2. Discuss the major theories of human development.
3. Explain Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.
4. Examine the issues of nature–nurture and continuity–discontinuity in development.
