Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

P.E.S. College of Engineering

Mandya – 571 401, Karnataka
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Course Title: Applied Physics
Course Code: P22PHCS102/202

Unit – II
Properties of Materials Notes

2024-25
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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Syllabus

Unit-II: Properties of Materials 8 Hrs

Dielectric Materials - Polar and non-polar dielectrics, Types of Polarization and their mechanism,
internal fields in solid (derivation), Clausius-Mossotti equation (derivation). Application of dielectrics in
transformers, Capacitors, Numerical problems.

Superconducting Materials - Superconductors, Temperature dependence of resistivity, Meissner

Effect (diamagnetic property), Critical field, Critical Current, Types of Superconductors, BCS theory
(Qualitative), High Temperature superconductors, Applications: Maglev vehicles, SQUIDs (Qualitative).
Numerical problems.

Self-learning component: Dielectrics in Electrical Insulation and Super conducting magnets

Practical Component: Dielectric Constant and LCR Resonance Circuits

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Dielectric Materials

Introduction:

We known that metal has a very large no. of free electrons and therefore they are good conductors of heat
and electricity.
Dielectric materials are the materials which do not contain free electrons and therefore they do not conduct
electricity, but still they transmit electric effects. These materials are known as Dielectric materials.
Or
Dielectric materials are those which have the ability to get electrically polarized and in which electric
field can exist. Also they do not allow an electric current to flow through when they are subjected to
ordinary voltages.
But these dielectric materials are used for their some important properties which metals does not have.
These dielectric materials (glass, wood, rubber, waxed paper etc.,) which are electrically non conducting
materials provide electric insulation between two media (conductors) and also help in storing the charges in
the form of electric field. If these dielectric materials are used as insulations then they are known as
insulating materials and if they are used for storing charges, then they are known as dielectric material.

Electric dipole:

A pair of equal and opposite charges which are separated by a small distance ‘Ɩ’ is known as electric
dipole.

Dipole moment:

If you consider a pair of equal and opposite charges (-q and +q) separated by a small distance ‘Ɩ’, then the
product of the magnitude of one of the charge and the distance of their separation ‘Ɩ’ is known as dipole
moment, it is represented by ‘µ’.   q

Dielectric constant:

The dielectric constant of a material is defined as the ratio of the potential difference between the plates of
a capacitor when vacuum is between the plates to that when the dielectric material is between the plates.
or
The ratio of capacitance of a capacitor in material medium to the capacitance in air medium can be defined
as dielectric constant.

Dielectric Losses: It is defined as the loss of energy in the form of heat by a dielectric medium due to the
internal friction which is developed as a consequence of switching action of molecular dipoles under
certain ac condition.
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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Dielectric polarization (P):

Let us consider a atom that is free in a gas. We know that in an atom there is a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by electrons which are negatively charged particles. But, when the atom is subjected to an
electric field, the positive charges (nucleus) and negative charges (electrons) are displaced in opposite
direction at that time the atom acquires a dipole moment. This is known as Dielectric polarization. The

polarization is given by, P  N e E

Where; E = Intensity of electric field, P = polarization, N = no. of molecules /unit volume and
αe = polarizability of particle
Or
The process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the field direction is called Dielectric
polarization.

Dielectric materials are classified into two categories namely.

(i) Polar dielectrics/dipole dielectrics and (ii) Non- polar dielectrics/neutral dielectrics.

(i) Polar dielectrics: In the molecules/atoms of some dielectric materials, the centre of mass/gravity of
positive charges does not coincide with the centre of mass/gravity of negative charge. Such materials are
known as polar dielectric material.
Polar dielectrics are made of polar molecules which cannot conduct electricity and the shapes of polar
dielectrics are asymmetric. Ex: Ammonia, H2O, HCl are good examples for polar dielectrics.

(ii) Non-polar dielectrics: In the molecules/atoms of some dielectric materials, the centre of mass/gravity
of positive charges coincides with the centre of mass/gravity of negative charge. Such materials are known
as Non-polar dielectric material.
Non- polar dielectrics are made of non- polar molecules, which cannot conduct electricity. The shapes of
non-polar dielectrics are symmetric. Ex: H2, N2, O2 are good example of Non- polar dielectric material.

Relation between Polarization and Dielectric constant:

The relation between dielectric constant ‘ϵr’ and polarization ‘P’ is given by
 
P   0 ( r  1) E

Where, E = applied electric field, ϵ0 = permittivity of free space, and ( r  1) = Dielectric susceptibility (χ).

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Types of polarization:

There are several types of polarization, each of which can be explained by its intrinsic physical mechanism.
We shall discuss here the four basics types of polarizations:

(1) Electronic / induced polarization (αe)

(2) Ionic / Atomic polarization (αi)
(3) Orientational / Dipolar polarization (αo) and
(4) Space charge / Interfacial polarization (αs)

(1) Electronic / induced polarization:

The electronic polarization occurs due to displacement of the
positive and negative charges in a dielectric material when it is
subjected to an external electric field as shown in figure. The
separation created between the charges leads to development of
a dipole moment. This process occurs throughout the material and
thus the material will be polarized. A short time of the order 10 -15 s is required for the process of electronic
polarization and it is independent of temperature. The electron polarization (P e) and polarizability, (α e) for a
rare gas atom is given by,
Pe  0 ( r  1) E  0 ( r  1)
Pe  N e E, and e   e   e 
NE NE N
Pe = electronic polarization, αe = electronic polarizability, N = no. of atoms/unit volume and
E = intensity of electric field, ( r  1) = Dielectric susceptibility (χ) and ϵ0 = permittivity of free space.

(2) Ionic / Atomic polarization:

Ionic polarization occurs only in those dielectric materials which

possess ionic bonds, such as in NACl. When an electric field is
applied to an ionic crystal, the positive ions move away from the
field and negative ions move towards the field. The polarization that
develops due to mutual displacement of ions is known as ionic
polarization. A short time of the order 10-13 to 10-12 s is required for the process of ionic polarization. The
ionic polarization (Pi) and polarizability, (αi) for a rare gas atom is given by,
Pi  0 ( r  1) E  0 ( r  1)
Pi  N i E, and i   i   i 
NE NE N

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

(3) Orientational / Dipolar polarization:

Oriental polarization occurs in those dielectric materials whether it may be solid/liquid, which possesses
molecules with permanent dipole moment. The Orientational of these molecules will be random normally
due to thermal agitation. Because of randomness in orientation, the
material has net zero dipole moment when E = 0. But under the influence
of an applied electric field, each of the dipoles undergoes rotations so as
to re-orient along the direction of the field. Because of rotations, the
overall cancellation of dipole moments takes place due to the randomness.
The Oriental polarization is strongly temperature dependent and decreases with increases in temperature. A
longer time of 10-10 s is required for the process of Orientational polarization. The Oriental polarization
(Po) and polarizability (αo) is given by,
2 N 2 E
P0  N 0 E , and 0    P0 
3KT 3KT
Where, µ = permanent dipole moment, k = Boltzmann constant and T = Temperature

(4) Space charge / Interfacial polarization:

Space charge polarization occurs in multiphase dielectric material

in which there is a change of resistivity between different phases.
When an electric field is applied at high temperature, the electric
charge gets accumulated at the interface due to sudden change in
conductivity. There is accumulation of charges with opposite
polarity at opposite parts in the low resistivity phase as shown in figure. Hence the dipole moment is
induced due to displacement of ions. The induced dipole moment/unit volume is known as space charge
polarization or Interfacial polarization. The space charge polarization is not an important fact in most
dielectrics.

Internal field:

When a dielectric material (solid/liquid) is subjected to an electric field, each of the atoms in dielectric
material will develop a dipole moment and acts as a electric dipole. Therefore the resultant field at any
atom is given by sum of applied electric field and the electric field due to the surrounding dipoles. This
electric field is known as internal field.

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Expression for the internal field in the case of solids/liquids dielectric materials (One dimensional
case):

Consider a dielectric material of solids/liquids

which is kept in a external uniform electric field
of strength ‘E’. Let us consider a array of
equidistance atomic dipoles arranged to the
direction of electric field as shown in the figure. Let inter atomic distance of each atomic dipoles is‘d’ and
dipole moment is given by ‘μ’. Now, let us determine the internal field E i experience by one of the dipole.
The resultant field at ‘X’ due to all other dipoles can be determined as follows.
Now, let us consider the component of electric field at point ‘P’ due to
an atomic dipole in the polar form, and they are given by
The electric intensity ‘Er’ at point ‘P’ in the direction of OP due to the
 cos
dipole is given by E r 
20 r 3
The electric intensity ‘EƟ’ at point ‘P’ in the direction perpendicular to
 sin 
OP is given by, E 
4 0 r 3
Where ‘r’ is the distance between the points O and P i.e., OP = r and ‘Ɵ’
is the angle between r and dipole μ
The electric field at ‘X’ due to the dipole ‘A’ can be found by putting r = d and Ɵ = 0 in the equation Er and
E θ.

 Er  and E  0
20 r 3

 
 Electric field at ‘X’ due to A1 is given by E r  E   A1   0  A1 
20 d 3
20 d 3
Since the dipoles are situated symmetrically, the field seen by all atomic dipoles will also be the same

 
 Electric field at ‘X’ due to A2 is given by E r  E   A2   0  A2 
20 d 3
20 d 3

 Electric field at ‘X’ due to both the dipoles A1 and A2 is given by,
   
E1  A1  A 2  E1    E1  2 x  E1 
20 d 3
20 d 3
20 d 3 0 d 3
Similarly field at ‘X’ due to the dipole B1 and B2 situated at a distance of ‘2d’ is given by,

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

   
E 2  B1  B 2  E2    E2  2 x  E2 
20 (2d ) 3
20 (2d ) 3
20 (2d ) 3
0 (2d ) 3
Similarly field at ‘X’ due to the dipole C1 and C2 situated at a distance of ‘3d’ is given by,
   
E 3  C1  C 2  E3    E3  2 x  E3 
20 (3d ) 3
20 (3d ) 3
20 (3d ) 3
0 (3d ) 3
 The total electric field at point ‘P’ due to all the atomic dipoles in linear array is given by

E1  E 1  E 2  E 3  ............

  
 E1     .....................
0 d 3
0 (2d ) 3
0 (3d ) 3

  1 1 
E1  1  2 3  33  .......................
0 d 3

 1


E1 
0 d 3 n 1 3
n


E1  x 1.2
0 d 3

1 .2 
E1 
0 d 3

The total internal field Ei at ‘X’ is the sum of applied Electric field (E 1) due to all the dipoles is given by,
1.2 
E i  E  E1   Ei  E 
0 d 3
The above equation Ei is the expression for internal field in the case of solid/liquid in one dimensional
case.

     
In 3 dimensional cases, the internal field is expressed as  E i  E    P  E 1    P 
 
0   0  

Where ‘P’ is the polarization and γ is a proportionality constant called internal field constant.

1
In 3 dimensional case, if it is a cubic lattice, then it can be shown that   , in which event, the internal
3
P  1
field is known as Lorentz field given by  E Lorentz  E     
3 0  3

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Clausius - Mossotti Equation:

Consider an elemental solid dielectric material which exhibits only electronic polarizability. Let the
dielectric constant of the material be ‘ɛr’. The dipole moment of a single atom is proportional to the internal
field.  Dipole moment ( )   e E i (1)
Where ‘αe’ is the polarizability of the atom.
The value of polarization ‘P’ as an electric moment/unit volume of a dielectric is given by the relation
P  N (2)
From substituting equation (1) in (2), we have
Polarizati on (P)  N e E i (3)
Rearranging equation by (3), we have
P
Ei  (4)
N e

Where N = number of atoms/unit volume of the matter and E i = internal field.

We know that, P   0 ( r - 1) E (5) ( from realtion b/w dieletric constant and polarizati on)
Where E is applied electric field and rearranging equation (5), we have
P
E (6)
 0  r  1
From the expression of internal field in 3 dimensional cases, we have

 
E i  E    P (7)
 0 

Substituting equation (4) and (6) in (7), we have

P P  
    P
N e  0  r  1   0 

P P  1 
  
N e  0   r  1 

1 1  1 
  
N e  0   r  1 

Now, substituting internal field as a Lorentz field, then we have

1 1  1 1 1
    
N e  0   r  1 3  3
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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

1 1  3   r  1 1 1  r  2 
      
N e  0  3( r  1)  N e 3 0   r  1 

By rearranging the above equation we have

3 0  r  2

N e  r  1

 The above equation is known as clausius-mosotti equation and it holds good for crystal of high degree
of symmetry.

Applications of dielectrics in transformer:

Transformer is a basic arrangement of conductors and dielectric insulators. Transformers consist of 2 parts,
i.e., primary coil and secondary coil. Energy transforms from primary coil to secondary coil only through
magnetic induction, not by any electric path. So to avoid electric conduction we must use dielectric
insulators at all possible places. In transformers, the dielectric material is used as insulator as well as
cooling agent based on the applications of dielectrics in transformer. They are used as
(1) Gaseous dielectric in transformer, (2) Liquid dielectric in transformer and (3) Solid dielectric in
transformer

Gaseous dielectric in transformer:

 The usage of nitrogen in transformer prevents oxidation and reduces the rate of deterioration.
 Sulphur hexafluoride dielectric is an electronegative gas which is used in transformer. It is non-toxic,
non-inflammable and chemically inert.

Liquid dielectric in transformer:

 The mineral insulating oil (transformer oil) is used as a coolant and it also maintains the insulations of
the winding.
 Fluorocarbon liquids are used in large transformers to give heat transfer rates together with high
dielectric strength.

Solid dielectric in transformer:

 High quality synthetic resin bonded paper in the form of cylinder is used as an insulator between core
and coils and also between primary and secondary windings.
 Cotton tape is used for insulating the conductors of the coil cooled transformers.
 Fibrous materials are used in air cooled transformer.
 Press board or press paper is used as a filling and as a packing material between the coils.
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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – II: Properties of Materials PESCE, Mandya

Applications of dielectrics in Capacitor:

There are many dielectric capacitors available based on their applications. The advantages to use a
dielectric material, it has higher electric storage capacity when it is placed between two conducting plates.
However, a high permittivity allows a greater charge to be stored at a given voltage.

The major role of dielectric material in capacitor is to store the energy in form of electric field. Based on
the nature of the dielectric material used, the capacitor fall into 3 groups
(1) Gaseous dielectric in capacitor (2) Liquid dielectric in capacitor and (3) Solid dielectric in capacitor

Gaseous dielectric in capacitor:

 Capacitors with vacuum, air or other gases as dielectric are used in radio frequency and low frequency
measuring circuits.

Liquid dielectric in capacitor:

 Capacitors with mineral oil as dielectric are used in high voltage applications.

 Capacitors with a combination of solid and liquid dielectric are used in the applications where a high
value capacitance is required.

Solid dielectric in capacitor:

 Capacitors with only solid dielectric like sodium, glass and titanium oxide are used in laboratory as
standard capacitors.

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