Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya

P.E.S. College of Engineering

Mandya – 571 401, Karnataka
(An Autonomous Institution affiliated to VTU, Belagavi)

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Course Title: Applied Physics
Course Code: P22PHCS102/202

Unit – I
Quantum Physics Notes

2024-25

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya

Syllabus

Unit – I: Quantum Physics 8 hrs

Matter Waves - de Broglie Hypothesis, Phase Velocity and Group Velocity, relation between phase

velocity and group velocity, relation between group velocity and particle velocity, de Broglie

wavelength and its derivation by group velocity concept, Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle and its

application (Non existence of electron inside the nucleus), Numerical Problems.

Wave Mechanics - Wave Function, Probability density and normalization, Time independent

Schrodinger wave equation (derivation), Eigen functions and Eigen Values, Application: Eigen values

and Eigen functions of particle in a one dimensional potential well of infinite depth (derivation).

Numerical Problems.

Self study component: Black body Radiation Spectrum

Practical Component: Stefan-Boltzmann Law and Planck’s constant

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya

Quantum Physics

Matter Waves

Dual Nature of Matter:

The wave theory of electromagnetic radiation satisfactorily explains the phenomena of reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization. But it failed to explain the phenomena of
Photoelectric Effect and Compton Effect.
On the other hand they were explained on the basis of quantum theory of radiation. According to
which a beam of light of frequency  consists of small packets each having energy hν called photon or
quanta.
Sometimes these photons behave like a waves and sometimes like a corpuscles i.e., particles. Thus
radiation have dual nature i.e., wave and particle or quantum nature.

Matter waves and their characteristics properties

In 1924 Louis de Broglie suggested that the particles like protons, electrons, & neutrons in motion
exhibit characteristic properties of waves. Thus a moving particle can be associated with a wave or a
wave can guide the motion of the particle. Hence the waves associated with the moving particles are
known as de-Broglie waves or matter waves.
According to de-Broglie hypothesis, a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ is associated with
the wave. This wave is called matter wave. The wavelength of matter wave in terms of its momentum
‘p’ is,
h h
 
mv p
1. Matter waves are the waves associated with moving particles.
2. Lighter the particles, greater is the wavelength associated with it, because here   1/m
3. Greater the velocity of the particle, smaller is the wavelength associated with the particle.
  1/v
4. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves. Since they don’t depends on the charge of the
particle.
5. The velocity of the matter waves is not constant. But it depends on the velocity of the particle.
6. Light wave has got same velocity, for all wavelengths. But in case of matter waves, the velocity is
inversely proportional to the wavelength.
7. It is not possible to determine the exact position and momentum of a moving particle
simultaneously.
8. Matter waves are also called as de-Broglie waves (or) pilot waves.

Phase velocity (vPhase or vp)

A point marked on a wave can be regarded as representing a particular phase for the wave at that point.
The velocity with which such a point would propagate is known as phase velocity (or) wave velocity.
It is represented by

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya


v phase or vp 
k
where, ω is angular frequency and k is the propagation constant or wave number

Group Velocity (vgroup or vg)

The velocity with which the resultant envelops of the group of waves travels is called group velocity.
It is denoted by vg or vgroup and is equal to the particle velocity v.
d
v group or vg 
dk

Relation between Group Velocity vg and Phase Velocity vp

The equations for group velocity and phase velocity are given by,

 1
dw
vg 
dk

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya


vp   2
k
where ω is the angular frequency of the wave and k is the propagation constant or wave vector.
  v p k  3
dw d v p k  dv p
  vp  k  4
dk dk dk
dv p dv p d
But, k k x  5
dk d dk

2 2 dk  1  d 2
we know that, k  or  and  2  2  or 
 k d   dk 2

dv p 2  2 dv p
 eqn (5) becomes, k  x x
dk  2 d
dv p dv p
or k   x
dk d
On substituting this values in equation (4) we get,
dV p
vg  v p  
d
 dv phase 
or v group  v phase    
 d 
This is the relation between group velocity and phase velocity.

Relation between Group Velocity vg and Particle Velocity v

The group velocity of a wave packet is given by,
d
vg   1
dk
where ω = 2πν and ν is the wave frequency
But from quantum theory of radiation, E = h   = E/h
 2
E
  2
h
On differentiating eqn. (2) we get,
2
d  dE  3
h
Also, we know that, k = 2/, and  = h/P
 4
p
 k  2
h
On differentiating eqn. (4) we get,
2
dk  dp  5
h

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya

Dividing equation (3) by equation (5), we have,

2
dE
d
 6 
h dE
 
dk 2 dp
dp
h
But we know that, if P is the momentum of the particle, then
P2
E
2m
On differentiating the above equation, we get,
 7 
2P dE P
dE  dP or 
2m dP m
From equations (1), (6) and (7) we get,
d dE P mv
vg     v
dk dP m m
where, P = mv and v = vparticle is the velocity of the particle.
vg  v or v group  v particle
The de-Broglie wave group associated with a particle travels with a velocity equal to the velocity of
the particle itself.

Expression for de-Broglie wavelength using group velocity

According to de-Broglie’s theory, it is assumed that a material particle in motion is associated with a
system of plane waves; the superposition of these waves gives rise to a wave packet. In such a wave
motion, the group velocity is to be considered. The group velocity is given by,

d
Vg   1
dk
But we know that, w = 2 and k = 2/
1
 d  2 d dk  2 d  
&

d d
 
dk 1
d 

Then from equation (1), group velocity becomes,
d
vg 
1
d 

Since, we know that the group velocity vg is same as the particle velocity ‘v’, we
have
d
v 
d  1 
 1  d
or d    2 
  v

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya

Let m be the mass of the particle, v be its velocity then E is its total energy. If V is the potential energy
of the particle, then
E  12 mv 2  V  3
But from quantum theory of radiation we have E = h, therefore equation (3) becomes
h  12 mv 2  V  4
Let the particle be moving in a field of constant potential, i.e., V is a constant.
Thus on differentiation equation (4) it becomes

m2 v dv  mvdv

1
hd 
2
d m
 dv  5
v h
From equation (2) & (5) we have,
 1  m
d     dv  6 
   h 
On integrating equation (6), we get
1 m
 v  constant
 h
Also considering the constant of integration as zero, we have

1 mv h h
 or  
 h mv p

The above equation is the de-Broglie’s equation, where P = mv gives the momentum of the particle.

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

According to this principle “It is impossible to determine precisely and simultaneously the values of
both the members of the pair of physical variables. Which describe the motion of the atomic system”.
Such variables are called canonically conjugate variables.
Example: Position and momentum, energy and time etc.,

Statement: “it is impossible to determine simultaneously both position and momentum of a moving
particle accurately at same time. The product of uncertainty in these quantities is always greater than
or equal to h/4π”.
If ∆x and ∆Px are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and momentum of a particle, then
h
x . p x 
4
If ∆x is small, ∆Px will be large and vice versa. That is if one quantity is measured accurately, the
other quantity becomes less accurate.
Similarly the other uncertainty relations for other physical variables pair are,

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 Applied Physics: (P22PHCS102/202) Unit – I: Quantum Physics PESCE, Mandya

h
E. t 
4
h
L .  
4
Applications of Uncertainty Principle
Non-existence of electrons in the nucleus and its implications non-relativistic approach
According to theory of relativity, the energy E of particle is expressed as,
E  mc2  1
where m is the relativistic mass of a particle moving the a velocity v and the expression for it in terms
of rest mass can be written as,

 2
mo
m
1  vc 2
2

If p is the momentum of the particle, then the expression for kinetic energy of the particle in terms on
momentum is given
p2
E  (3)
2m
According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle we have,

 5
h h
x.px  or px 
4 4 .x
We know that the diameter of the nucleus is of the order of 10-14 m. If an electron is to exist inside the
nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position x must not exceed the size of the nucleus,
i.e., x  1014 m
Using x in equation (5) we have,
h 6.63 10 34
px    0.5 10 20 Ns
4 .x 4 10 14

 p x  0.5 10 20 Ns

This is the uncertainty in momentum of an electron and it is equal to the momentum of the electron
inside the nucleus,
Using momentum value Px in an equation (3) we get,
p2 (0.2  1020 ) 2
E   31
 1.5 x1012 J
2m 2 x9.1x10
1.5 x1012
E  9.36x10 6 eV  9.4MeV
1.602 x1019
An electron may exist inside the nucleus if its energy is equal to or greater than 9.4MeV. But, the
experimental investigations on β-decay say that kinetic energy of the β–particles is 3 to 4 MeV. This
clearly indicates that, electrons cannot exist within the nucleus.
n  p  e 1  (energy) or p  n  e 1  (energy)