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INITIAL

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JET TRANSPORT CHARACTERISTICS:

By jet transport characteristics we mean the basic design requirements
for a jet transport aircraft in the following major areas:

I- Propulsion System
II- Aerodynamics
III- Flight Controls

Now we will discuss each topic in details,

I- Propulsion System
In general we can say that it is a system producing a force to move a mass in
a straight line or to change its state of motion.

Basically we have two types of engines producing propulsion force:

1- Reciprocating Engines
2- Jet Turbine Engines

But of course the jet turbine engine was the solution to meet the market
demands because we always want aircrafts to fly higher, faster and heavier.

Both engines use the four stage cycle of:

1- Intake
2- Compression
3- Combustion
4- Exhaust

And that of course with a completely different design.

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Newton’s Laws of Motion:

First law:
A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion tends to continue
in motion in a straight line unless caused to change its state by an external
force.

Second Law:

The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force causing it and

inversely proportional to the mass of the body.

a = Acceleration F = Force M = Mass

a=F
M

Or we can say that:

F=Mxa

Third law:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Jet Turbine Engine Basic Components:

1- Air Intake
2- Compressor Section
3- Burner Section
4- Turbine Section
5- Exhaust Section

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Compressor Section:
It is situated at the front of the engine; it draws air in through the Air Intake,
compresses it and delivers it to the burner section.
Compressor efficiency is measured by its compression ratio, the more
compression ratio it has the more efficient it is.

We have two types of compressors:

A- Centrifugal Flow Compressor

B- Axial Flow Compressor

A-Centrifugal Flow Compressor:

It is composed of an Impeller, Diffuser and a Compressor Manifold.
The impeller is movable and it is mounted to the diffuser which does not
rotate and the whole assembly is enclosed by the compressor manifold.
Each set of impeller and diffusers is called a stage.

Because of drastic change in air direction, centrifugal compressors are

relatively limited.

B- Axial Flow Compressor:

From its name we can see that it overcame the problem or the disadvantage
of the centrifugal flow compressor because the air moves in an axial motion
rather than the 90 degree change in direction in the centrifugal flow
compressor.

It is composed of Rotor Blades and Stator Vanes, the first rotates and the
second is stationary, each set of rotor blades and stator vanes is called a
stage, and we can have up to 9 or 10 stages per compressor.

We have two types of axial compression engines, those with single

compressors and those with dual compressors which we call Twin Spool.

In the case of the dual compressors engine and due to the fact that each
compressor has to rotate at its best efficient speed, each compressor is driven

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by a turbine shaft mechanically independent from each other, having two

turbines separately driving each compressor allows it to rotate at its best
efficient speed, which in turn gives us the best compression ratio we can
have from each compressor

Burner section:

This is an annular tube or ring of tubes made from heat resistant steel in
which the fuel and air are mixed and ignited.

About 25% of the air entering the burner section is mixed with fuel for
combustion, the remaining 75% by passes the fuel nozzle and is used to cool
the combustion chamber as well as the burned gases before they enter the
turbine section.

Jet engines ignition system does not have to be used continuously because of
the fact that once you have a combustion started you have a continuous fire
inside the inner chamber of the combustion chamber.

The ignition system uses Igniter Plugs which are turned off once the engine
is started, they sometimes operate continuously in curtain conditions such as
take off, landing, icing conditions and turbulence or unless they are
manually put in continuous ignition mode.

Turbo jet engines may have many combustion chambers sometimes up to 14,
they are connected with Crossover Tubes in order to have the flame from
one chamber ignite the others, once all the chambers are ignited these
crossover tubes are then blocked with a high pressure air blanket before the
temperature reaches very high limits.

Turbine Section:

It consists of one or more stages of alternate stationary and rotating aerofoil

section blades, the rotating blades are carried on discs and discs are
connected by a shaft to the compressor, the stationary blades are known as
Nozzle Guide Vanes (NGV).

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When the hot exhaust gases and unburned air leaves the combustion
chamber they are directed to the turbine section, they hit the nozzle guide
vanes and then the rotating blades which in turn rotate the shaft which
delivers motion to the compressor.

Each turbine absorbs sufficient energy from the hot gases leaving the
combustion section in order to deliver motion to the relative compressor and
keep it rotating at its best efficient speed.

Exhaust Section:

It is a slightly tapered tubular duct which connects he turbine outlet to the

exhaust nozzle, it is designed to increase the velocity of gases to a point
where they furnish maximum thrust as they leave the engine BUT YET the
speed of gases is kept below the speed of sound to avoid the shockwave
formation which in turn will obstruct the efficient flow of air through the
engine.

Inside the exhaust duct the airflow PRESSURE is DECREASING and the
airflow VELOCITY is INCREASING.

Development of the Jet Turbine Engines:

The development objectives are:

1- Improved fuel consumption.

2- Increased thrust to weight ratio.
3- Improved reliability.
4- Better control reduction of noise levels.

Hence, jet turbine engines are developed and they come in a variety of types.
TURBO JET ENGINE THRUST DEPENDS ON ACCELERATING A
SMALL MASS OF AIR WITH A HIGH VELOCITY.

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Centrifugal Compressor Engine:

It is relatively limited because it utilizes the centrifugal compressor as well

as the great increase in frontal area, size and weight in order to produce
higher thrust.

Axial Flow Compressor Engine: (Single Spool)

It replaced the centrifugal compressor engine because of its minimum frontal

area (Less Drag) and better compression ratio efficiency.

Twin Spool Engine:

It replaced the single spool engine under the demand of higher compression
ratios.

It consists of a low speed compressor (N1) and a high speed compressor

(N2) mechanically independent from each other and each compressor is
driven by its own turbine through mechanically independent shafts.

The LPC N1 is driven by the rear turbine.

This engine is capable of maintaining high compression ratios at high

altitudes.

Turboprop Engine:
It is a turbo jet with an additional turbine used to drive the propeller; this
turbine is called the Power Turbine.

It supplies the propeller with double the horse power of a conventional

reciprocating engine BUT STILL the propeller limitations apply to this
engine because reduction gearing has to be used in order to prevent the
propeller from reaching high R.P.M. to keep its tip speed below the speed of
sound.

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By-Pass or Turbo Fan Engine:

Sometimes referred to as Ducted Fan or By-Pass engine, it is the most
common type of engine used for aircraft propulsion today.

Approximately 20% of the total volume of air entering the engine is fully
compressed and delivered to the combustion chamber, the remainder 80% is
compressed to a lesser extent and By-Passes the combustion chamber to
provide COLD THRUST.

The by-passed cold air which we call the Secondary Air joins the hot air
coming out of the turbine section, mixes with it and comes out of the engine
producing the total thrust.

This mixing of cold and hot air helps lower the temperature of the exhaust
which in turn lowers the noise levels produced by this type of engine.

LPT drives the LPC

HPT drives the HPC

Fan Engine:
It is an extension of the by-pass principle without the hot and cold flow
mixing; it may be regarded as an intermediate stage between the turbo jet
and the turboprop engines.

Thrust Reversers:
Due to high landing speeds and high gross weights of modern jet aircrafts
thrust reversers have been developed in order to reduce the wearing of wheel
brakes.

It is located at the rear of the jet nozzle; it mechanically blocks the exhaust
gases and diverts them at an angle whereby the direction of thrust is
reversed.

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It is only most effective at high speeds immediately after touchdown when

the aircraft speed is highest.

Gas Turbine Engine Systems:

Systems normally associated with gas turbine engines are:

1- Lubricating System.
2- Fuel and Fuel Control System.
3- Ignition System.
4- Starter System.

1- Lubricating System:
It is used to lubricate the bearings and the gears in the engine, also one
important job of the lubricating system is that oil is routed through Oil-Fuel
Coolers where the fuel cools the oil and the oil heats the fuel.

It consists of an oil tank, oil pump, pressure relief valves, filters, sumps and
scavenge pumps.

2- Fuel and Fuel Control System:

Fuel is supplied to fuel nozzles through Fuel Control Unit (FCU) which
makes sure that an adequate amount of fuel is supplied to give the optimum
mixture and hence an optimum combustion.

It consists of boost pumps, engine driven pumps, filters, flow indicators,

shut off valves, fuel heater, main fuel control unit (FCU) and fuel nozzles.

3- Ignition System:
It produces a large flaming spark because the fuel-air mixture is moving at a
high velocity and it is not uniformly distributed.

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It is not designed for continuous operation as in piston engines but it can

operate continuously in certain conditions like take off, landing, icing
conditions, turbulence and also if it is manually put in continuous ignition
mode.

4- Starter System:
Pneumatic type starter is the most commonly used on large engines; it is
supplied by air from a ground cart, the APU or from the other engine if it is
running.

The starter rotates a shaft engaged through the gearbox to the N2 shaft
(HPC).

DURING A TURBO FAN ENGINE START THE STARTER DRIVES

ONLY THE N2 SHAFT.

Jet Engine Station Designation:

Numerical designation has been given to various sections in the jet engine to
facilitate reference; it can be from 1 to 5 or from 1 to 7 depending on the size
of the engine.

Some other designations are:

T for temperature
P for pressure
S for static
t for total
am for ambient air in front of the engine

Measurement of Thrust:
Because the engine pressure and the thrust produced by the engine are
proportional, the large jet engines use the turbine discharge pressure or
engine pressure ratio (EPR).

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(EPR) is the total pressure of the turbine discharge divided by the total
pressure of the compressor inlet.

EPR = Engine Output Pressure

Engine Input Pressure

Other Engine Indicators:

N1 Indicator: It shows the LPC speed in percent of the maximum R.P.M.

speed, it is used t measure the thrust in different engine
designs.

N2 Indicator: It shows the HPC speed in percent of the maximum R.P.M.

speed.

Exhaust Gas Temp: It shows the temperature of the gases in the turbine
(EGT) exhaust case.

Fuel Flow Indicators: It shows the fuel consumption rate in kilogram

(FF) per hour for each engine.

Environmental Problems Associated with Jet Engine

Operations:

These problems are basically divided into two categories:

1- Air Pollution.
2- Noise Pollution.

1- Air Pollution:

The major pollutants produced by combustors are:

1- Carbon Monoxide (CO)
2- Unburned Hydrocarbons (H/C)

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3- Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)

In an effort to control the air pollution manufacturers began the production

of the High By-Pass engines.

2- Noise Pollution:
Sound: Is anything that can be heard.
Noise: Is unwanted and irritating sound.
Noise is measured in decibels (db)
Aviation industry approached the noise problems in two different areas:

A- Engine Development.
B- Noise Abatement Procedures.

A- Engine Development:

There was an effort to develop and engine with a lower velocity exhaust
airflow and fitted with sound absorbing liners inside the fan ducts and
exhaust nozzle.

The result was the development of the Turbo Fan Engine.

B- Noise Abatement Procedures:

They are procedures performed by pilots in the take off and approach phases
of the flight in order to reduce noise.

Take Off Noise Abatement:

Immediately after lift off the pilot must maintain the steepest possible safe
climb gradient at take off thrust to gain as much height as possible.

After reaching a prescribed height, engine power must be reduced to climb

thrust and accelerate to normal climb speed.

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Low Drag Approach:

Pilots are required to delay landing flaps and landing gears extension and
maintain a low drag configuration until a prescribed height.

Low drag configuration means lower engine power and higher approach
speed which results in lower noise emission.

II- Aerodynamics

Aerodynamics has two general broad areas:

1- Basic Aerodynamic.
2- High Speed Aerodynamics.

Basic Aerodynamics:
Aerodynamics is the study of the flow of air and of forces acting on any
bodies moving through it.

Wind tunnels are the basic tools of aerodynamic research.

Bernoulli’s principle:
Daniel Bernoulli stated that, as the speed of the fluid increase the pressure
inside the fluid decrease.

Aerofoil:

An aerofoil is a shape or a contour with aerodynamic properties, it is a cross

section of an aircraft wing, and its upper surface is more curved than the
lower surface which makes air travel faster when it passes over it which in
turn decreases the air pressure.

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As a result of this pressure decrease on the upper side of an aerofoil a

Suction Force is created which we call LIFT.

Lift:
The net result of the static pressure over the surface of an aerofoil is the
lifting force; this force is acting on a point on the chord line called the
Center of Pressure or the Center of Left.

The resultant force acting on the center of pressure is perpendicular on the

chord line, it is resolved into two components, one is Lift which is
perpendicular on the free air stream and the other is drag which is parallel to
it.

If all conditions are constant (density&velocity) if the angle of attack is

changed both lift and drag will change as well as the coefficients of lift and
drag.

If the angle of attack is increased lift will increase to a certain point where
any further increase in the angle of attack will result in airflow separation
over the aerofoil which will eventually lead to a STALL. This maximum
point of increase is referred to as CLmax.

Drag:

Drag is the force component parallel to the free air stream.

Drag

Parasite Induced

Profile Structural

Total drag is the summation of the parasite drag and the induced drag.

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Parasite Drag:

Is further sub-categorized into Profile Drag which is drag of the aircraft’s

wing, and Structural Drag which is drag from everything else on the
structure like fuselage, tail, nacelles, etc...

Induced Drag:

Is the drag created by the production of lift, as an aerofoil goes through the
air vortices tend to form at the wing’s trailing edge and tips, which in turn
creates drag.

Total Drag = Parasite Drag + Induced Drag

Parasite drag is directly proportional with speed and induced drag is

inversely proportional with speed.

The intersection of the parasite drag and the induced drag slopes correspond
to a point on the total drag line where drag is at its minimum, we call this
point L/Dmax.

The other two basic forces affecting an aircraft in flight are Thrust and
Weight.

Aerofoil Characteristics:
An aerofoil has a:

Leading Edge:
This is the part of an aerofoil that first meets the oncoming wind.

Trailing Edge:
This is the aft point of an aerofoil where the airflow over the upper surface
joins the airflow from underneath the lower surface.

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Chord Line:
Which is an imaginary line drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

Camber:
This is the curvature of the section or the departure from the chord line.

We would also like to study some other definitions like:

Relative Wind:
It is the wind moving past the aerofoil and it is always parallel to the flight
path of the aircraft.

Angle of Attack:
The angle formed between the chord line and the relative wind.

Angle of Incidence:
It is the angle between the wing chord line and a line parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

Dihedral:
It is the upward angle of the aircraft’s wing with respect to the horizontal
axis; it is the most common design for Lateral Stability.

Wing Plan form:

It is the shape of the wing whether it is:
1- Straight wing.
2- Elliptical wing.
3- Tapered wing.
4- Swept back wing.

And the factors affecting the wing design are:

Wing Area:
Is the total surface area of the wing, we refer to it by S.

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Wing Span:
Is the tip to tip dimension of the aircraft wing regardless of its geometrical
shape, we refer to it by b.

Sweep:
Sweep back is the angle between a line perpendicular to the plane of
symmetry of the aircraft and the quarter chord c/4.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord: (MAC)

MAC is the chord of a section of an imaginary aerofoil on the wing, MAC is
a value used in engineering and weight&balance for convenience.

Aspect Ratio:
It is the relationship between the length and the width of the wing, higher
aspect ratio produces less induced drag.

Taper Ratio:
It is the ratio of the root chord to the tip chord, 2:1 is the best ratio to
produce lift across the span.

Thickness to Chord Ratio:

This ratio is always a compromise between structure and aerodynamic
designers.
Thickness of the wing to accommodate the gears and fuel has to be put into
account; thinness also has to be accounted for to reach a higher cruise mach
number.

Different Types of Speed:

1- Indicated Airspeed: (IAS)

It is the speed indicated on the airspeed indicator uncorrected for position

error.

2- Calibrated Airspeed: (CAS)

It is the IAS corrected for position error.

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3- Equivalent Airspeed: (EAS)

It is the CAS corrected for compressibility error at the actual flight level.

4- True Airspeed: (TAS)

It is the EAS corrected for air density, TAS increases significantly by altitude
while IAS remains the same.
TAS is primarily used for navigation and range calculations.

Ground Speed:

It is the TAS corrected for wind.

Speed of Sound:

The speed of sound mainly depends on the medium in which it travels; it

does not depend on the frequency of the sound wave.

Mach number: (M)

It is the relation between the TAS and the speed of sound.

Mach number = TAS

Speed of Sound

VMO & MMO:

They are the maximum operating speeds in mach or indicated at which the
aircraft should be intentionally flown, strength wise and handling.

VDF & MDF:

They are the maximum demonstrated speeds in mach or IAS used during the
certification testing.

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High Speed Aerodynamics:

1- Speed Regimes:

A- Subsonic mach numbers. (below 0.75M)

B- Transonic mach numbers. (from 0.75 to 1.2M)
C- Supersonic mach numbers. (from 1.2 to 5M)
D- Hypersonic mach numbers. (above 5M)

A- Subsonic Flight Regime:

It is when the airflow over the surface of a straight wing does not reach the
speed of sound.

B- Transonic Flight Regime:

It is when the airflow above the wing surface due to its design reaches Mach
1 or greater, it is within this speed that the greatest aerodynamic problems
take place.
Shockwaves form in this flight regime.

C- Supersonic Flight Regime:

It takes place between 1.2 mach and 5 mach, above 1.2 mach approximately
the shockwave reaches the trailing edge and the drag which was high at the
beginning of the shockwave formation decreases rapidly.

D- Hypersonic Flight Regime:

It takes place above 5 mach speeds. (Space Shuttles)

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2- Shockwave formation on the wing:

As we mentioned before, sometimes the aircraft speed is below mach 1 but

the local airflow above the wing exceeds mach 1. The oncoming air hits the
leading edge of the wing but due to the curvature of the upper surface of the
wing the air speeds up above it. It is then that the speed of air exceeds the
speed of sound forming Shockwaves as well as Compressibility problems.

3- Characteristics of Shockwaves:

- Shockwaves form when the air SLOWS from supersonic to subsonic.

- The density, pressure and temperature of the air passing through the
shockwave INCREASE.
- The velocity of the air passing through the shockwave DECREASE.

4- Critical Mach Number:

It is that aircraft mach at which the first portion of the airflow over the wing
equals the speed of sound, mach 1.

5- Factors Affecting Critical Mach Number:

A- Swept back win.

B- Thickness to chord ratio.
C- Vortex generator.

A- Swept Back Wing:

In a swept back wing, the velocity of the air hitting the leading edge of the
wing is resolved into two components:
V = Aircraft Velocity Vc = Lift Producing (chord wise flow)
Vsf = Span Wise Flow. (Negligible lift effect)
And because the Vc which is the velocity of air responsible for producing
the lift is just a component of the total V it is slower than the actual speed of
the aircraft, and thus the aircraft can achieve higher speeds with a swept
back wing design before the local airflow above the wing reaches the speed

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of sound. The swept back wing also helps increasing the critical mach
number of the aircraft.

B- Thickness to Chord Ratio:

The thinner the wing the higher the speed the aircraft can achieve before the
local airflow above the wing becomes sonic, but we also have to put into
consideration design needs because we need the wing thickness to
accommodate the fuel and the landing gears.

C- Vortex Generators:

It is a small aspect ratio wing placed vertically at the same angle of attack on
the surface of the wing in a manner so that its top is above the boundary
layer of air around the wing.
Vortices form at its tip which is above the boundary layer of air around the
wing, these vortices move in a cork screw manner bringing high energy air
from above the boundary layer down into that part of the wing where the
shockwave is starting to form, this mixing of high energy air with low
energy one gives the air in the boundary layer around the wing a higher
energy, which in turn helps in alleviating or delaying the formation of the
shockwave.

6- Problems Associated with High Speed Aerodynamics:

Mach Tuck: (Tuck Under)

A longitudinally stable aircraft tends to pitch nose up when the airspeed is

increased, if the aircraft is flown at higher speeds where compressibility and
shockwave formation start to take place the center of pressure starts moving
aft.
Having the center of pressure moving aft of a certain limit and with the C.G.
forward, a gradual drop of the nose starts to occur; if this nose drop is not
compensated for with a pull force or stabilizer trimming further speed
increase will occur compounding the effects and problems of compressibility
and shockwave formation.

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III- Flight Controls

In the flight controls section we will discuss the following:

1- Flight controls the basic concept.

2- General overview of design development.
3- Jet transport new flight controls design features.
4- Protection and warning systems.

1- Flight Controls the Basic Concept:

A- Primary flight Controls.

B- Secondary flight controls.

A- Primary Flight Controls:

The basic primary flight controls are these used to move the aircraft around
its three axes, lateral longitudinal and vertical.
They are as follows:
- Elevator controls pitch around lateral axe.
- Aileron controls roll around longitudinal axe.
- Rudder controls yaw around vertical axe.

B- Secondary Flight Controls:

- These flight controls are used for aircraft configuration during

different phases of flight.

- The Flaps and Slats are the basic secondary flight controls of any
aircraft.

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- The main function of the flaps and slats is to increase the wing surface
area to produce more lift in specific flight phases with low airspeed
such as take off, approach and landing.

2- General Overview of Design Development:

Following the foot steps in design development in the propulsion system and
aerodynamics, flight controls had to go through the same process to cope
with the everlasting need of flying higher, faster and heavier.
So the flight controls developed from:
A- Classic flight controls.
B- Hydraulic powered controls.’
C- Fly by wire.

A- Classic Flight Controls:

- The control column or stick was mechanically linked with steel cables
running from the cockpit to the related control surface.
- As the control surfaces became bigger and heavier control tabs and
trim tabs were used to assist the pilot.

Control Tabs:
- They are hinged to the trailing edge of the control surface, they are
used to assist pilot input on the control column, when the tab is moved
the control surface moves in the opposite direction because
aerodynamic forces acting on the tab assists in moving the main
control surface.

Trim Tabs:
- It is used to enable pilots to trim out any unbalanced condition during
flight without exerting any pressure on the primary control surface,
each trim tab is hinged to its parent flight control but it is operated by
an independent control.

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B- hydraulic Powered Flight Controls:

- With faster and heavier aircrafts, it became impossible to move flight

controls with pilot input only, even with the assistance of the control
tabs, the solution was the introduction of Hydraulic Powered flight
controls.
- Hydraulic actuators position the flight control with hydraulic power
assist of about 3000 psi pressure.
- System redundancy was made possible by having control surfaces
sourced from 2 or 3 hydraulic supplies as well as mechanical back-up
control.

C- Fly By Wire:

- Instead of controlling the control surface through steel cables they are
controlled by digital computers, the control column input sends an
electrical signal to a computer which routes it to the related control
surface to be moved after studying the possibility of executing this
input.
- It became impossible to over bank or over pitch the aircraft because
simply the computer senses the aircraft and flight conditions before
executing the input, and any input that might endanger the safety of
the flight path simply won’t be executed.
- Huge benefits aroused from the fly by wire technology such as:
- A big reduction in gross weight (300 to 500 kgs)
- Stability, maneuverability and well balance around all axes.
- Numerous back-up features.
- Simplified maintenance and improved reliability.

And of course a lot more benefits.

Artificial Feel:

- After the introduction of new technologies in flight controls it became

so easy to move the flight control surfaces to the extent that the pilot
might loose the sense of the reflex of his input on the control column,

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Artificial Feel system was introduced, it gives the pilot the same
feeling of the control column as if he is flying a conventional aircraft.
- The system senses static and pitot pressures and feed this data to the
control system.

3- Jet Transport New Flight Controls Design

Features:

A- New design features of primary flight controls.

B- New design features of secondary flight controls.

A- New Design Features of Primary Flight Controls:

a- Pitch control: Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer (THS)

The THS was required for different reasons:

- Due to the large C.G. envelope of today’s aircrafts a THS was needed,
without it a regular fixed tail elevator aircraft will have no elevator
travel space available after compensating or trimming the aircraft due
to the huge reduction of fuel weight during flight.
- Due to the large speed envelope of today’s aircrafts which requires
large trim changes, the THS was required. It can be set in streamline
with the elevator leaving the elevator with full range travel up and
down.
- Trim Drag: in the case of the fixed tail elevator, the drag of the
deflected elevator will be too high, and as we mentioned earlier the
THS can be streamlined with the elevator producing much less drag.

b- Pitch Control:

- Two significant new design features associated with roll control are
the:
1- Low speed ailerons.
2- Roll Spoilers.

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1- Low Speed Ailerons:

- A heavy jet aircraft with large wing span is equipped with Inboard
Ailerons which are used in the full range of speeds (low&high) and
the Outboard Ailerons which are used in the low speeds only to help
the aircraft roll, one very important condition that has to exist in order
for the outboard ailerons to operate is that the flaps has to be extended
to any degree.
- Once the flaps are fully retracted the outboard ailerons become flush
with the wing and seize from operating.
- If outboard ailerons were to be used at high speeds that might TWIST
the wing tip which will lead to an Adverse Roll.

2- Roll Spoilers:

- They are hydraulic power operated panels located on the top surface
of the wing.
- Due to the need of large flaps area to compensate for the poor lift at
low speeds the ailerons are limited in size, and as we mentioned
earlier that we can’t use the outboard ailerons at high speeds in order
to avoid adverse roll, the spoilers are used in conjunction with the
ailerons to help roll the aircraft.
- When the ailerons on one wing go up the spoilers on the same wing
go up in a specific proportion to help the aircraft roll, while the
spoilers on the other side remain flush with the wing.

c- Yaw Control:

- Unlike small aircrafts there is no need to use the rudder to co-ordinate

a turn a turn in large aircrafts, the yaw required for the turn co-
ordination is a by product of the deflected aileron and roll spoilers.

Rudder Limiter:

- The full range of rudder movement is required to control the aircraft

yaw in case of engine failure during take off, however the higher the
speed the less rudder deflection is needed.

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- The rudder limiter decreases the rudder deflection space with higher
speed, at higher speeds a very small rudder deflection will produce the
amount of yaw needed.
- As we did with the outboard ailerons, when the flaps are extended to
any degree the rudder limiter is disabled and we have full rudder
deflection ability again.

B- New Design Features of Secondary Flight Controls:

a- High Lift Devices:

Slotted Flaps:

- They can be in the form of single, double or even triple slotted flaps.
- They significantly improve lift because they extend chord wise which
effectively increases wing area, and they are designed to keep the
airflow properly attached to them due to the fact that high energy air
from below the wing passes through the slots to the top of the wing
giving the airflow on top higher energy.

Leading Edge Flaps:

- They increase the camber and provide smoother flow of air when the
air when the air hits the leading edge and they reduce airflow
separation tendencies. They also allow the wing to be rotated to higher
angles without facing the problems of airflow separation.

Slats:

- They increase lift by introducing high pressure air from below the
wing to the upper boundary layer of air which in turn increases the
energy of the airflow on top of the wing.
- By doing that they also increase the critical angle of attack at which
the aircraft stalls.

27
ABC ABC

Kruegers:

- They are not very common; its function is to provide seal between the
inboard slats and engine nacelle on each wing.

b- High Drag Devices:

- Spoilers are the high drag devices designed to help increase the flaps
in some flight phases due to the low drag high speed wing design of
new aircrafts.
- We mentioned earlier that spoilers are used as Roll Spoilers in
conjunction with ailerons to help rotate the aircraft with better
efficiency, they also have two other jobs:
• Speed Brakes.
• Ground Spoilers.

Speed Brakes:

- Spoilers are used as speed brakes in-flight in order to reduce the

speed; they are also used to increase the rate of descent.
- When the speed brake lever is pulled spoilers deflect with specific
proportion to either decrease the speed or decrease it and increase the
rate of descent together, in this case the inboard spoilers does not
deflect in order to avoid the aircraft buffet.

Ground Spoilers:

- To meet landing distance requirements of some runways ALL the

spoilers deflect as soon as the aircraft touches the ground to destroy
the lift and help sticking the aircraft down to the ground to increase
the brake efficiency.
- In some aircraft designs spoilers might cause the aircraft to pitch up,
especially with aft C.G. limits, this has to be compensated for
immediately with forward elevator control to hold the nose down.

28
ABC ABC

3- Protection and Warning Systems:

A-Low speed protection and warning systems:

Angle of Attack Protection: (Alpha Floor)

- At a specific angle of attack before the stall, the auto throttle system
will automatically set engine thrust to TOGA.

Stick Shaker:

- When aircraft speed approaches the stall speed, a motor fitted on the
control column operates giving the pilot an artificial warning of a pre-
stall buffet in the column.

Stall Warning:

- Along with the stick shaker a buzzer sound will be heard in case the
pilot’s hands are not on the control or he is not looking at the column.

B- High speed protection and warning systems:

Yaw Damper:

- It was developed to help prevent the yaw rolling oscillation known as

Dutch Roll, it detects the aircraft’s tendency to yaw and introduces
opposite rudder to stop it, and there are two kinds of yaw damper.

1- Parallel Yaw Damper:

- the yaw damper rudder inputs parallels the pilot rudder input and both
are reflected on the rudder pedals, the system is designed to deactivate

29
ABC ABC

during take off and landing to prevent rudder input control loads in
case of an engine failure.

2- Series Yaw Damper:

- It provides yaw damping rudder inputs without being deflected on the

pedals through a completely different route.

Mach Trim:

- It is programmed to send a signal to the pitch control surfaces

(elevator & THS) proportional to the Mach number so that the
stability remains positive through out the speed range, and this is to
protect the aircraft against unusual nose down behavior at very high
mach numbers. (Mach Tuck)

Maximum Speed Warnings:

- It is designed to give the pilot an oral warning to alert him not to

exceed Vmo & Mmo.
- In new jet designs it also gives an oral warning for maximum flaps
operating speeds at each flap setting.

30
ABC ABC

Jet Performance
- In this section we will discuss each phase of aircraft performance in
the following order:

1- Take off performance.

2- Climb performance.
3- Cruise performance.
4- Descent performance.
5- Approach climb performance. (Go Around)
6- Landing performance.

- But before we go into details we shall first discuss some very

important basic parameters in the following order:

A- Temperatures.
B- Speeds.
C- Altitude.

1- Temperatures:

- SAT -------- Static Air Temperature.

- OAT -------- Outside Air Temperature.
- Ram Rise.
- TAT -------- Total Air Temperature.
- RAT -------- Ram Air Temperature.

SAT or OAT:

- It is the outside air static temperature, it is obtained from ground

meteorological sources or directly from in-flight temperature
indication corrected for instrument and compressibility errors.
- It is required to calculate the TAS from the CAS, also the True
Altitude from the Indicated Altitude.
- It is also required for the determination of the thrust setting
parameters (EPR or N1) for the take off power.

31
ABC ABC

Ram Rise:

- It is the increase in air temperature due to compressibility.

- It is considered negligible until speeds above 0.3 mach are reached.

RAT:

- It is the OAT plus a percentage of the Ram Rise.

- RAT = SAT when the aircraft is stationary.

TAT:

- It is the OAT plus 100% of the Ram Rise.

2- Speeds:

- Indicated Airspeed.
- Calibrated Airspeed.
- Equivalent Airspeed.
- True Airspeed.
- Mach number.

All the speeds have been discussed in the aerodynamics.

3- Altitudes:

- Indicated altitude.
- Pressure altitude.
- Density altitude.
- Absolute altitude.
- True altitude.

Indicated Altitude:

- It is the altitude indicated on the altimeter when it is set to QNH.

32
ABC ABC

- It indicates the aircraft altitude above see level.

- It is the altitude assigned for aircrafts operating in controlled airspace.

Pressure Altitude:

- It is the altitude read on the altimeter when it is set to 29.92 inches of

mercury or 1013.2 mill bar (hecto pascal).
- It is important because all the flight levels assigned for aircrafts
operating at high altitudes are in pressure altitude.
- It is important as a basis for determining aircraft performance engine
power (EPR or N1)

Density Altitude:

- It is pressure altitude corrected for non standard temperature.

Absolute Altitude:

- It is the height above the surface.

- It is measured by the radio altimeter which operates until 2000ft.

True Altitude:

- It is the true height above sea level.

Take Off Speeds:

Vs1g:
- This speed used to be Vs.
- Vs1g is the speed at which the airflow separation over the wing
occurs; it may be indicated by a heavy buffet, vertical bounce and
nose pitching.
- The Vs1g is the speed right before the stall where Lift = Weight
because when the stall is already realized and the aircraft starts to
buffet at this point Weight > Lift, that’s why Vs1g is more accurate
than Vs.

33
ABC ABC

Note:
In all the definitions and determination of the take off speeds, an engine
failure is assumed to have taken place, and also not just any engine but the
most effective one which we usually call the critical engine.

VMCG:
- It is the minimum Ground Speed at which the aircraft rudder becomes
effective and we have directional control over the aircraft.
- Another definition:
It is the minimum speed on the ground at which take off can be
continued utilizing aerodynamic controls only (maximum rudder
deflection) when an engine becomes suddenly inoperative with the
remaining engines operating at take off thrust.
- We can positively say that Vmcg is the least speed at which you can
take a decision.
- Vmcg depends on the pressure altitude and the temperature.

VMCA:
- It is the minimum FLIGHT SPEED at which the aircraft is
controllable utilizing aerodynamic controls only, (maximum rudder
deflection) and a (maximum 5 degrees bank), when one engine
suddenly becomes inoperative with the remaining engines operating at
take off thrust.

Minimum Un-stick Speed: (Vmu)

- It is the minimum speed at which the aircraft can leave the ground
without hazardous effect.

34
ABC ABC

Lift Off Speed: (VLOF)

- It is the speed at which the aircraft lifts off.

- It depends on the angle of attack, flaps setting and gross weight.
- We can positively say that VLOF lies between VR and V2.

Minimum Tire Speed:

- From the name we can see that it is the maximum speed the tires can
withstand since they are exposed to high centrifugal forces at high
speeds.
- All Egypt Air tires can withstand up to 225 mph.

Maximum Brake Energy Speed: (VMBE)

- It is the maximum speed at which full brakes can be applied to a

complete stop without hazardous effect to the brakes components.
- If brakes are applied at speeds higher than VMBE brakes may overheat
and be destroyed from the heat energy.
- VMBE depends on take off weight, ambient temperature, ambient
pressure, runway slope and tail wind component along the runway.
- We can positively say that VMBE is the maximum limit for the V1
speed.

Engine Failure Speed: (VEF)

- It is the speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail.

V1:

- IT IS NOT A DECISION SPEED, it is the speed used as a

REFERRENCE whether to reject or continue the take off.

35
ABC ABC

- If an engine failure is recognized before V1 the take off has to be

rejected and a stop can be made within the accelerate-stop distance
without reverse thrust aid.
- If an engine failure is recognized at or above V1 the take off must be
continued.
- When the V1 is selected such that with an engine failure the required
take off distance is equal to the accelerate-stop distance the V1 is then
called Balanced V1 and the take off is called Balanced Take Off.
- We can positively say that the minimum value for V1 is VMCG and the
maximum value is VMBE.

Rotation Speed: (VR)

- It is the speed at which the aircraft is rotated for take off.

- The minimum VR is the V1 or 1.05 VMCA.
- It is also the speed that allows the aircraft to reach V2 at the required
screen height after an engine failure at V1.

Take Off Climb Speed: (V2)

- It is a target climb speed.

- It is also called take off safety speed.
- By FAA regulations V2 has to be higher than Vs1g by at least 13%, so
we can say that V2 minimum is 1.13 Vs1g.
- Also V2 has to be at least 1.1 VMCA.

Now after having discussed all the basic parameters related to performance
we will discuss in details aircraft performance in the different flight phases.

36
ABC ABC

1- Take Off Performance:

Stop Way:

- It is an area beyond the take off runway at least as wide as the runway
and centered upon the extended centerline of the runway.
- It is paved and able to support the aircraft during an aborted take off
without causing structure damage to the aircraft.
- It is designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the
aircraft during an aborted take off.
- If a stop way is available this helps in INCREASING the value of V1.

Clear Way:

- It is an area beyond the runway not less than 500ft. wide located about
the runway centerline.
- It extends from the end of the runway with an upward slope not
exceeding 1.25%.
- No objects or any terrain protrudes the clear way.
- Only threshold lights may protrude the clear way if their height above
the runway is 26 inches or less and they are located on the side of the
runway.
- The presence of a clear way DECREASES the value of V1.
- For the purpose of calculating the take off distance and the take off
run the clear way is included in the take off surface.
- The screen height can be measured from that surface.

Take Off Distance REQUIRED:

- It is the longer of the following:

1- The horizontal distance from the start of the ground roll to a point at
which the aircraft is 35ft. above the take off surface with a critical
engine failure at V1.
2- 115% of the horizontal distance from the start of the ground roll to a
point at which the aircraft is 35ft. above the take off surface with all
engines operating.

37
ABC ABC

Take Off Run REQUIRED:

- It is the longer of the following:

1- The horizontal distance from the start of the ground roll to a
point equidistant between the point at which VLOF is reached
and the point at which the aircraft is 35ft. above the take off surface
with an engine failure at V1.
2- 115% of the horizontal distance from the start of the ground roll to a
point equidistant between the point at which the VLOF is reached and
the point at which the aircraft is 35ft. above the take off surface with
all engines operating.

Accelerate-Stop Distance REQUIRED:

- It is the sum of all distances required to accelerate with all engines

operating and come to a full stop from the point reached at the end of
acceleration with a critical engine failure recognized before V1.

Take Off Distance AVAILABLE: (TODA)

- It is the runway length available for take off plus any adjoining
CLEAR WAY.

Take Off Run AVAILABLE: (TORA)

- It is equal to the runway length available for take off.

- It is an obstacle free surface capable of carrying the aircraft under all
normal operating conditions.

Accelerate-Stop Distance AVAILABLE: (ASDA)

- It is the runway length available for acceleration and subsequent

deceleration plus any available STOP WAY.

38
ABC ABC

Balanced Field:

- A field is called balanced when the take off distance is equal to the
accelerate stop distance.
- The total distance cannot exceed the length of the runway.

Unbalanced Field:

- A field is called Unbalanced when the take off distance is not equal
the accelerate stop distance.

Climb Gradient:

- It is the height obtained in relation to the ground distance covered.

- It is the net flight path achieved and it is expressed in terms of
percentage.

Take Off Path:

- It is the actual flight path of the aircraft as determined by the airplane

flight manual. AFM
- It starts from brake release up to 1500ft. or to a point at which the
transition to climb configuration is completed whichever is higher,
assuming critical engine failure in both cases.

Take Off Segments:

- The take off flight path has FOUR segments:

First Segment:
- It extends from the screen height to a point where the landing gears
are fully retracted using take off thrust and take off flaps at a constant
V2. (Positive Climb Gradient)

39
ABC ABC

Second Segment:
- It starts from the gears up point to a height of 400ft. using take off
thrust and take off flaps at a constant V2.
- This is the most challenging and limiting segment because a twin
engine aircraft has to achieve a minimum of 2.4% climb gradient.

Third Segment:
- It is the horizontal distance required at constant attitude with take off
thrust to accelerate to the final climb speed while retracting the flaps
according to their speed schedule. (1.2% climb Gradient)

Fourth Segment:
- It extends from the end of the third segment to a gross height of at
least 1500ft. with flaps up, maximum continuous thrust and at final
climb speed. (1.2% climb gradient)

FAA Regulations Require the Following:

- Aircrafts shall take off ONLY if its weight does not exceed the weight
at which the following requirements are met:

1- The accelerate stop distance required most not exceed the accelerate
stop distance available (ASDA).
2- The take off distance required must not exceed the take off distance
available (TODA).
3- The take off run required must not exceed the take off run available
(TORA).

Factors Affecting Take Off Performance:

- Controllable Factors.
- Uncontrollable factors.

40
ABC ABC

Controllable Factors:
1- Aircraft configuration. (Flaps, slats, etc…)
2- Wheel brake configuration. (Antiskid system)
3- Engine thrust.
4- Gross weight.

Uncontrollable Factors:
1- Runway length and the availability of a stop way or a clear way.
2- Runway conditions. (wet, dry, slushy, snowy, smooth or rough)
3- Runway slope.
4- Runway temperature OAT and surface pressure altitude.
5- Runway Wind Component.
6- Obstacles in the take off path.

Regulated Take off Weights: (RTOW)

- Following are the limitations affecting maximum take off weight

arranged according to Airbus coding sequence:

(1) Aircraft structure limit.

(2) Climb Limit.
(3) Runway limit.
(4) Obstacle Limit.
(5) Tire speed limit. (225 mph all Egypt Air tires)
(6) Brake energy limit. (V1 < or equal VMBE)
Airbus 320
(7) 3rd segment
(8) 2 engine operating
(9) Vmu

(1) Aircraft Structure Limit:

- It is the maximum take off weight (MTOW) the aircraft structure can
sustain, certified by civil aviation and approved by the manufacturer.

(2) Climb Limit:

41
ABC ABC

- It is the maximum allowable take off weight which fulfils the

minimum climb gradient requirements in the second take off segment.
(2.4%)

(3) Runway Limit:

- 115% of horizontal distance with all engines operating.
- Distance until 35ft. with critical engine failure.
- Go distance = Stop distance (ASDA)

(4) Obstacle Limit:

- Gross Gradient. (2.4%)
- Net Gradient. (1.6%, 2.4% minus 0.8%)

(5) Tire Speed Limit:

- It is the maximum allowable take off weight limited by the AFM for
maximum tire speed.
- All Egypt Air tires can sustain up to 225 mph.

(6) Brake Energy Limit:

- Is the MTOW approved by the AFM maximum speed which sustain
maximum allowable brake energy for ambient conditions in case of
rejected take off before V1.

Optimum Take Off Flaps Setting:

- If the problem is the runway, more flaps are useful.

- If the problem is the climb gradient, fewer flaps are useful.
- So we can say that the optimum flaps’ setting is a compromise
between the two values.
- Usually in Egypt Air operations (destinations) runway is not a
problem, but it might happen.
- Usually the climb gradient is the important factor.

Engine Ratings:

42
ABC ABC

- If the engine is run at maximum power (take off) for a long time its
life expectancy will be very short, to obtain a better life expectancy
we run engines at lower power settings by using different methods
like:
1- Assumed temperature method.
2- Derate method.
- Note that, engines produce full thrust (full rated engine) under specific
conditions.
- All our Egypt Air engines produce full thrust at ISA + 15 degrees,
which is at 30 degrees OAT max.

1- Assumed Temperature Method:

- It is called Assumed Higher Temperature (AHT) in Boeing

terminology.
- It is called Flex Temperature in Airbus terminology.
- In this method basically we lie to the engine and tell it that the
ambient temperature is higher than the actual, hence the engine will
produce less thrust which prolongs its life expectancy.
- TOGA can be used anytime it is needed.
- By using this method we cannot minimize VMCG.

2- Derate Method:

- Using this method, it is as if we are exchanging the engine on the

aircraft by a less power smaller engine.
- Once we derate the engine we cannot change it back until it is shut
down again and thus, TOGA cannot be used.
- Since TOGA cannot be used then we can minimize VMCG.

3- Climb Performance:

- The climb section of the flight starts at the end of the final take off
segment (fourth segment) and the beginning of the en-route climb.
- It is expressed by two terms:
A- Climb Angle.
B- Rate of Climb.

43
ABC ABC

A- Climb Angle: (Best Angle of Climb)

- It is usually expressed as a climb gradient, it measures the altitude

gained over a certain flight distance.
- When flying at the best angle of climb speed, the aircraft reaches the
highest altitude over the shortest distance.
- This technique is usually used during take off, landing and for
obstacle clearance.
- There is a specific speed to achieve the best angle of climb.

B- Rate of Climb: (Best Rate of Climb)

- Best rate of climb indicates the highest altitude gained over the
shortest period of time.
- Best rate of climb speed is the speed by which the aircraft reaches the
cruising altitude in the least period of time.
- This technique is best used for fuel saving.
- There is a specific speed to achieve the best rate of climb.

Climb Performance Data:

- This performance data is presented for different climb speed schedules

and for ISA deviations.
- This data provides time, distance and fuel consumption from brake
release to the top of climb for different cruise altitudes.

4- Cruise Performance:

- It is that portion of the flight conducted in level flight between the top
of climb and the top of descent.
- Factors affecting cruising altitude selection are:
A- Fuel Mileage. (Range)
B- Load Factor and cruise maneuver capability.

44
ABC ABC

A- Fuel Mileage: (Range)

Endurance:
- It is the need to stay airborne as long as possible for a specific
quantity of fuel.
- For every altitude and weight there is a specific IAS which results in
the lowest drag.
- Best endurance speed is that at which drag is minimum. (this speed is
used for holding)
- Fuel consumption is expressed by fuel flow or kg/hour.

Range:
- It is the need to fly as far as possible on a given quantity of fuel, or the
maximum air miles per unit of fuel.
- Best range speed is the highest IAS for the least drag or the least fuel
consumption and thus the greatest air miles per gallon.
- This speed is higher than best endurance speed.

As airline professionals we are interested in range and not endurance.

Specific Range:

- It is the distance traveled per unit of fuel.

- Or, the maximum Nautical Air Miles per unit of fuel. (NAM/1000kg)
- All cruise performance is based on specific range.
- Nautical air miles (NAM) are the unit of distance.
- 1000 kg or ton is the unit of fuel.

Specific Range = Cruise NAM

Cruise fuel consumption

Factors Affecting Specific Range:

- Altitude.
- Weight.
- Speed.

45
ABC ABC

Effect of Altitude:

- The larger the difference between IAS and TAS the more miles per
unit of fuel can be achieved.
- Therefore, the higher the better, provided you fly at the correct
weights.
- OPTIMUM ALTITUDE: is the altitude at which best fuel mileage
occurs.
- Plus or minus 2000ft. deviation from optimum altitude is acceptable
provided you can’t fly the optimum altitude.
- Due to ATC we cannot always fly optimum altitude, STEP CLIMB
technique is used to stay always as close as possible to optimum
altitude.

Effect of Weight:

- With in-flight weight reduction (fuel burn) specific range increases.

Effect of Speeds:

Maximum Range Cruise: (MRC)

- For every weight & altitude there is a speed for maximum range
called maximum range cruise.

Long Range Cruise: (LRC)

- For practical flight operation reasons like time cost we fly at long
range cruise speed.
- Flying at LRC speed we gain significant increased in speed compared
to MRC with only 1% of loss in specific range, which we can tolerate
to save time and in turn money.

B- Load Factor and Cruise Maneuver Capability:

- In order to have cruise maneuver capability we have to fly ABOVE

low speed buffet boundary and BELOW high speed buffet boundary.
- Low speed buffet is due to airflow separation.
- High speed buffet is due to shockwave formation.

46
ABC ABC

- We also have to maneuver with a smaller margin to avoid imposing

large G factors on the aircraft.

Drift Down:

- In the event of an engine failure, a descent to a lower altitude and an

adjustment in speed is necessary.
- Drift down procedure is designed to minimize loss of range.
- First we decelerate and hold the altitude until we reach the drift down
speed, then we start our descent to the altitude that we will hold until
further action is taken.

5- Descent Performance:

- It is the portion of the flight from the top of descent to the touch
down.
- Due to the large penalty in fuel consumption and range we want to fly
as long as possible in the cruise portion of the flight until it is a must
to start descent and short very shortly after descent.

Basic Descent Calculations:

- When planning for a descent we have to take into account the

expected radar vectors or instrument approach tracks and distances.

FL + 10 = Required Descent Distance

3

FL-------- Flight Level.

3---------- Constant.
10 NM--- Distance required to decelerate from descent speed to initial
approach speed.

Another Method

47
ABC ABC

Multiply the distance by 3 and subtract 3000ft. (required for deceleration) to

get the FL you have to be at.

DISTANCE X 3 = xx - 3000ft. = FL
Example: 60 X 3 = 180 – 30 = FL 150
Factors Affecting Descent Track Distance:

1- Wind Component:

- As a rule of thumb:
• Add 3NM for each 10 knots of tailwind.
• Subtract 3NM for each 10 knots of
headwind.

2- Aircraft Weight:

- At any constant speed the rate of descent is higher for light weights
than for heavy weights.

3- Aircraft Speeds:

- The higher the descent speed the higher the rate of descent.
- Maximum rate of descent will be obtained at the highest possible
airspeed.

4- Approach and Landing Performance:

- Approach and landing limitations are like those for take off, the
landing can be:
• Climb Limited.
• Field Length Limited.

48
ABC ABC

A- Climb Limited Approach and Landing

Performance:

- Approach and landing performance assume the need to abandon the

approach and reject the landing.

- Distinctions must be made between a go-around:

• In approach configuration.
• In landing configuration.

Climb limited landing weight:

- In case of a go-around the minimum gradient for a twin engine aircraft
is:
• 2.1% In approach configuration.
• 3.2% In landing configuration.

B- Field Length Landing Weight:

- Regulations require that the weight of the aircraft is not more than that
which will permit it to be stopped within specified percentages of the
effective length of the runway.

49
ABC ABC

Weight & Balance

Airplane Basic Empty Weight:

- It is the weight of the aircraft with everything on it except for the crew
and fuel.

Unusable Fuel:

- Is the fuel remaining in the tank after the fuel has run out.

Basic Operating Weight:

- It is the basic empty weight plus the weight of everything else that
makes the aircraft ready to fly, like flight crew, cabin crew, their
baggage, food, water and everything except for the fuel.

Maximum Zero Fuel Weight: (MZFW)

- It is the maximum airplane weight less the fuel.

Maximum Landing Weight: (MLW)

50
ABC ABC

- It is the maximum weight authorized at touch down, this is a structural

limitation.

Maximum Take off Weight: (MTOW)

- It is the maximum weight authorized at take off brake release, it

excludes taxi and run-up fuel, this is a structural limitation.
Maximum Flight Weight:

- It is the maximum flight weight with flaps and landing gears retracted
as limited by the airplane structure and airworthiness requirements.

Maximum Taxi Weight:

- It is the maximum weight authorized for ground maneuver for

structure limitation; it includes taxi and run-up fuel.

Gross Weight:

- It is the weight of the aircraft after everything has been added, gross
weight is not a limitation.

Payload:

- It is any weight that produces revenue, such as passengers,

passenger’s baggage and cargo.

Useful Load:

- Consists of payload + usable fuel + engine injection fluid.

Datum Line:

51
ABC ABC

- It is an imaginary line from which all measurements are made for

weight & balance calculations purpose.
- This imaginary line might be at the nose of the aircraft and sometimes
it is ahead of the nose so that we don’t get any negative values in our
calculations.

Body Station Numbers:

- It is how far in inches a body is from the datum line.

Moment Arm:

- It is the horizontal distance from the center of gravity of an object to

the datum line.

Moment:

- Moment = Moment Arm X Weight

- Moment/1000 = Moment Index.

Center Of Gravity:

- It is a point in the aircraft around which all weights are evenly

distributed and balanced; it is the point about which all moments are
equal in all directions.

Empty Weight Center of Gravity:

- It is the center of gravity of an aircraft in an empty weight condition.

Operating Center of Gravity:

52
ABC ABC

- It is the distance between the forward and aft limits of the center of
gravity.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord: (MAC)

- It is the chord of a section of an imaginary aerofoil on the wing.

Leading Edge MAC: (LEMAC)

- It is the distance in inches from the leading edge to the LEMAC.

Trailing Edge MAC: (TEMAC)

- It is the distance in inches from the datum line to the TEMAC.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord Length:

- TEMAC – LEMAC = MAC

Load Index:

- For every load there is a C.G. position which equals to a load index
figure.

Dry Operating Index: (DOI)

- It is the index figure which corresponds to the center of gravity of the

dry operating weight.

53
ABC ABC

- It is unique for each aircraft tail number and cabin seating

configuration.

Load Index Zero Fuel Weight: (LIZFW)

- Starting with the dry operating index, passenger and cargo load is
distributed on the aircraft, the result is LIZFW.

Load Index Take Off Weight:

- Adding the fuel weight index to the load index TOW will result in the
determination of the LITOW.

54
ABC ABC

Meteorology

Meteorology:

- It is the study of the atmosphere.

Weather:

- It is the state of the atmosphere at a given location and time.

Atmosphere:

- It is the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth.

- It is divided into layers; the troposphere is the one closest to the earth.

Tropopause:

- It is a thin layer of atmosphere at the top of the troposphere; it acts as

a lid to keep most of the water vapor as well as most of the weather.
- The height of the tropopause varies between 20,000ft to 30,000ft near
the poles, and 50,000ft to 60,000ft near the equator.

55
ABC ABC

Atmospheric Circulation:

- The primary cause of weather is the uneven heating of the earth’s

surface by the sun.
- Air flows from cool dense air of high pressure TO the warm less
dense air of low pressure.

Coriolis Force:

- It is a force introduced due to earth’s rotation; Coriolis deflects the

flow of the air to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in
the southern hemisphere.
- Wind flows clockwise, downward, and outward around a high.
- Wind flow counter clock wise, upward and inward around a low.

Moisture and Atmospheric Stability:

- Moisture is present in the atmosphere in 3 different states: solid, liquid

and gas.
- Clouds are composed of very small droplets of water or ice crystals,
we can estimate the base of the cloud using temperature-dew point
spread.
- Temperature – Dew point / 2.5 = xxx X 1000 = xxxxxft.

Temperature Inversion:

- Temperature usually decrease with increasing altitude, this is called

the Lapse Rate.
- The average lapse rate in the troposphere is 2 degrees per 1000ft.
- Sometimes temperature increase with the increase in altitude, we call
this phenomenon temperature inversion.
- Temperature inversion often occurs in stable air with little or no wind
and turbulence, visibility is always restricted by fog, smoke, haze and
low clouds.

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ABC ABC

Airmasses:

- It is a large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture

content.
- It stays stationary for several days, during this time it gains the
temperature and moisture properties of the underlying surface which
we call Source Region.
- Most common source regions are large deserts, Polar Regions and
oceans.

Fronts:

- When the airmass moves out of its source region and comes in contact
with another airmass with different characteristics, the boundary layer
between the two masses is called a Front.
- The change in pressure and temperature is the easiest way to
recognize the passage of a front.
- Also, the most reliable indication that you are crossing a front is the
change in wind direction and speed.

Types of Fronts:

1- Cold Front.
2- Warm Front.
3- Stationary Front.
4- Occluded Front.

1- Cold Front:

- A cold front separates an advancing mass of cold dense air from an

area of a warm lighter air.
- Because of its greater density it forces the warm less dense air
upwards.
- The speed of the cold front usually dictates the type of weather
associated with it.

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ABC ABC

- We have two types of cold fronts:

• Fast moving cold front.
• Slow moving cold front.
- General weather characteristics found in most fronts:
a- Cumulus clouds.
b- Showery precipitation.
c- Turbulence.
d- Strong gusty wind.
e- Clear skies and good visibility after front passage.

2- Warm Front:

- A warm front occurs when a mass of warm air overtakes and replaces
cool air.
- Warm fronts move at much slower speed than cold fronts.
- Weather characteristics associated with warm fronts:
a- Stratus clouds.
b- Little turbulence.
c- Steady precipitation ahead of the front.
d- Poor visibility with haze or fog.
e- Wide area of precipitation.

3- Stationary Front:

- When the force of two opposing airmasses is relatively equal, the

front that separates them is called a stationary front.
- The weather associated with a stationary front is usually a mix of that
found in both warm and cold fronts; it may influence local flying
conditions for several days since it is stationary.

4- Occluded Front:

- Frontal occlusion occurs when a fast moving cold front catches up to a

slow moving warm front.
o A- Cold front occlusion.
o B- Warm front occlusion.

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ABC ABC

A- Cold Front Occlusion:

- It develops when the air behind the fast moving cold front is colder
than the air ahead of the slow moving warm front.

B- Warm Front Occlusion:

- It develops when the air ahead of the slow moving warm front is
colder than the air behind the fast moving cold front.

CLOUDS

- Cumuliform - Stratiform
- Unstable air - Stable air
- Turbulent - Smooth
- Showery precipitation - Steady Precipitation
- Good Visibility - Poor visibility
- Clear ice - Rime ice

Clouds are classified according to their height as:

LOW from the surface to 6500ft AGL

Middle from 6500ft to 23000ft AGL
HIGH from 16500ft to 45000ft AGL
Extensive Vertical Development:
Bases range from 1000ft to 10,000ft tops up to 60,000ft MSL.

Thunderstorms:

- They produce the most hazardous weather in aviation and it should be

avoided at all costs.
- Conditions necessary for thunderstorm formation:
 Unstable air
 High moisture content

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ABC ABC

 Source of lift

Thunderstorm Life Cycle:

I- Cumulus Stage:

- In this stage the lifting action initiates the vertical movement of air,
the rising air cools to its dew point, water vapor condenses to water
droplets and ice crystals.
- Latent Heat from the condensation provides energy for the continued
vertical growth of the C.B.
- Strong updrafts are the main factor in this stage, updrafts as great as
3000 f.p.m.
- Water droplets and ice crystals rise and fall within the cloud getting
bigger in size with each cycle.

II- Mature Stage:

- As the drops become too large to be supported by the updrafts,

precipitation begins to fall to the surface.
- This creates downdrafts that may reach a velocity of 2500 f.p.m. and
signals the start of the mature stage.
- It is the most hazardous stage because of the strong updrafts and
downdrafts associated with it.
- The down rushing air produces a large drop in temperature and a rise
in pressure.
- The leading edge of the downdrafts is referred to as the First Gust
when it hits the surface.
- As the thunderstorm advances it creates Roll Clouds at the lower
leading edge of the cloud.

III- Dissipating Stage:

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ABC ABC

- Eventually downdrafts progresses taking the place of the weakening

updrafts and the entire thunderstorm begin to weaken.

Types of Thunderstorms:

1- Airmass Thunderstorm:
- Generally forms in a warm moist airmass.

2- Frontal Thunderstorm:
- Can be associated with any type of front.

3- Squall Line Thunderstorm:

- It is a non-frontal narrow band of thunderstorms which often form 50
to 200 miles ahead of a cold front and it normally contains severe
weather.

Thunderstorm Hazards:

- Hail - Turbulence
- Icing - First Gust
- Lightning - Funnel Clouds

Turbulence:

Main Causes of turbulence are:

1- Convective Currents:
- It is caused by thermal instability and is related to the development of
a thunderstorm.

2- Obstruction To Wind Flow:

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ABC ABC

- It is caused by Orographic Lifting of the air when it hits a mountain.

- It may be noticed by the formation of Linticular Clouds at the lee side
of the mountain due to the mountain waves.
- Rotor Clouds form underneath the Linticular clouds and they produce
the most hazardous turbulence.
- You should fly at least 3000 to 5000ft. above the mountain range to
avoid the turbulence.

3- Wind shear:

- It is a sudden change in wind direction and/or wind velocity.

- Low level wind shear is the most hazardous since it might be
unrecoverable at low altitudes.
- Microburst is one very dangerous type of wind shear, it is an intense
localized downdraft of a brief duration usually lasts no longer than 15
minutes, peak winds last 2-4 minutes and downdrafts may be as strong
as 6000 f.p.m., it covers an area of less than 2.5 miles in diameter.
- They are commonly associated with precipitation and often occur in
Virga which is when precipitation does not reach the ground and
evaporates beneath the cloud. It appears as streamers of precipitation
trailing from the cloud.

4- Clear Air Turbulence: (CAT)

- It’s a high altitude weather phenomenon although it might take place

at any altitude.
- Its presence carries no visual warning; it often develops around the
Jet Stream.
- Its vertical wind gradient is 5kts/1000ft.
- Its horizontal wind gradient is 40kts/100NM.
- It routes close to the polar side of a jet stream exceeding 100kts.
- You can climb or descent to avoid CAT.

5- Wake Turbulence:

- It results from the passage of an aircraft through the atmosphere. (Let

the small aircrafts worry about it)

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ABC ABC

Turbulence Flying:

1- Use turbulent air penetration speed.

2- Maintain level wings and control pitch attitude smoothly.
3- Allow the altitude to vary.
4- Auto-pilot usage is recommended.
Turbulence is classified as:

Light: light chops and slight changes in attitude and altitude.

Moderate: Moderate chops, changes in attitude and/or altitude but with
positive control over the aircraft.
Severe: Abrupt changes in attitude and altitude and the aircraft may be
momentarily out of control.
Extreme: Aircraft is practically out of control and it may cause structural
damage.

Jet Stream:

- It described as a narrow high speed corridor of wind moving around

the earth in a wave like pattern.
- It is usually found near the breaks in the tropopause.
- It is several thousand miles in length, several hundred miles in width
and a mile or so in depth.
- Wind speed along the core is 50kts or more.
- There are two types:
 Polar Jet Stream. (near the pole, approx. latitude 60)
 Sub-tropical Jet Stream. (near the equator, approx
latitude 30)

Jet Stream Turbulence:

- To avoid jet stream turbulence:

o If temperature is rising--- Climb
o If temperature is falling-- Descend

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ABC ABC

Icing:

- It is one of the major weather hazards in aviation; structural icing

intensity is light, moderate or heavy icing.
- Structural icing has two conditions necessary:
o The aircraft must be flying through visible moisture.
o Temperature where the moisture strikes must be 0 degrees or
less.

Types of Structural Icing:

Clear Ice:
- It forms when large droplets of water hit the surface of the aircraft,
and usually temperatures are between 0 and -10 degrees.

Rime Ice:
- It forms when small droplets of water hit the surface of the aircraft,
and usually temperatures are between 0 and -20 degrees.

Mixed Clear and Rime Ice:

- When water drops vary in size or when liquid drops are mixed with
snow or ice particles.

Frost:

- Frost is a ground phenomenon, it occurs in clear stable air with light

winds when the temperature is below freezing level.

Visibility:

- As pilots we are usually concerned with two types of visibility:

A- Prevailing Visibility:
- The greatest horizontal visibility equaled or exceeded throughout at
least half the horizon.

B- Flight Visibility:

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ABC ABC

- The average forward horizontal distance from the cockpit of an

aircraft in-flight, at which prominent unlighted objects can be seen
and identified by day, and prominent lighted objects may be seen and
identified by night.

- However, the most practical concern in flight operations is Slant

Range Visibility.
- Slant range visibility is usually less than surface horizontal visibility.
- Slant range visibility is most important during approach zone when
landing from an instrument approach.
- Horizontal surface visibility is most important during poor visibility
take-off.

Runway Visual Range: (RVR)

- It represents the horizontal distance a pilot will see down the runway
from the approach end.
- RVR is horizontal visual range, not slant visual range.
- RVR in contrast to prevailing visibility is based on what a pilot in a
moving aircraft will see looking down the runway.
- It is measured by a transmisometer and is reported in hundreds of feet
or meters.

A- Touchdown RVR:
- The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment serving the
touchdown zone.

B- Mid-RVR:
- The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment located
midfield of the runway.

C- Rollout RVR:
- The RVR readout values obtained from RVR equipment located near
the rollout end of the runway.

Ceiling:

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ABC ABC

- Ceiling is defined as the height above the ground or water of the base
of the lowest layer of clouds below 6000 meters (20,000ft.) covering
more than half the sky. Either Broken or Overcast.

Vertical Visibility:

- When the sky or clouds are totally or partially hidden from the
observer the sky is called Obscured, in this case the reported ceiling is
the vertical visibility the observer can see from the ground.

Restrictions to Visibility:

Fog:

1- Radiation fog.
2- Advection fog.
3- Upslope fog.

- These kinds are formed by cooling the air to its dew point.

1- Steam fog. (the most dangerous, ice & turbulence)

2- Precipitation-Induced fog.
3- Frontal fog.

- These are formed by adding moisture to the air near the ground.

- Haze, smoke, smog, and blowing dust or snow are also restrictions
to visibility.
- Rain, drizzle and snow are the forms of precipitation that present
ceiling and/or visibility problems.

Aviation Weather Reports:

1- METAR

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ABC ABC

2- SPECI
3- SIGMET

- These reports contain the actual weather conditions at selected

stations.

METAR:

- Aviation Routine Weather Report (SA), it is issued at hourly or half

hourly basis.

SPECI:

- Selected Special Weather Report, it can be issued at anytime a

significant change happens to one element or more in the METAR.

- Both METAR and SPECI can be appended by a TREND forecast; it

is the forecaster’s best estimate of what’s likely going to happen.

- TREND validity is 2 hours from the time of observation.

SIGMET:

- It contains significant occurrence or expected occurrence of specified

en-route weather phenomena which may affect safety of operation.
- Such as: thunderstorm (TS), tropical cyclone (TC), severe turbulence,
severe icing, dust storm, sand storm and volcanic ash.

Aviation Weather Forecasts:

1- Terminal Aerodrome Forecast. (TAF)

2- Landing Forecast.
3- Take-off Forecast.
4- Area Forecast. (ARFOR or GAMET)
5- Route Forecast. (REFOR)

- These are different kinds of forecasts which are occurrences expected

to happen.

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ABC ABC

- They help study the forecasted weather of the route or the destination
or the alternate.

TAF:

- There are two kinds of TAF’s:

Short TAF: Valid for 9 hours or less, issued every 3 hours. (8 times daily)

Long TAF: Valid for 18 to 24 hours, issued every 6 hours. (4 times daily)

Landing Forecast:

- Prepared to meet requirements of local operators or aircrafts within

one hour flying time from aerodrome.

a- Self-Contained landing forecast:

It consists of a concise statement of the expected meteorological
conditions at the aerodrome.

b- Trend-type landing forecast:

Appended to METAR or SPECI and shall indicate significant changes.

Take-Off Forecast:

- Contains information on expected conditions over the runway

complex.

Area Forecast: (GAMET or ARFOR)

- It covers the layer between FL 100 and FL 150 (in mountainous areas)
when there is heavy traffic operating in this layer.

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ABC ABC

Route Forecast: (ROFOR)

- It contains the same information of the area forecast but for a

specified route.
Significant Weather Chart: (SWC)

- It contains significant weather phenomenon in a chart form.

- It is issued 4 times daily at fixed times, 0000 UTC, 0600 UTC, 1200
UTC and 1800 UTC.
- The chart is effective from 3 hours before until 3 hours after the
validity time.
- It is issued for FL 100 and below (low level) and FL 100 and above
(medium & high level)

Information of Aerodrome Pavement Condition:

- During winter time information on aerodrome pavement condition

(snow, slush, ice or water) is made available through:
 SNOWTAM format.
 The EIGHT FIGURE group.

Aircraft Observations and Reports: (AIREP)

- Pilots are encouraged to make weather reports along their routes since
these reports constitute actual weather conditions at specific locations,
these reports might be very useful for other traffic in the vicinity.
- These reports might be:
1- Routine aircraft observations during en-route and climb-out phases of
the flight.
2- Special and other non-routine aircraft observations during any phase
of the flight.

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ABC ABC

FLIGHT PALNNING

- The main objective of the flight planning is to study the Fuel Flight
Planning from an operational point of view.
- It will be covered as follows:
o Minimum fuel requirements.
o Trip and alternate fuel calculations.
o Integrated range.
o Wind altitude trade.
o Computerized flight plan.
o Introduction to FMC

Minimum Fuel Requirements:

- Basic minimum fuel requirements consists of 5 components:

1- Taxi and APU fuel.

2- Trip fuel.
3- Alternate fuel.
4- Holding fuel.
5- In-flight contingencies fuel.

1- Taxi and APU Fuel:

- It consists of the fuel required to start the engines, taxi to the active
runway and APU fuel consumption in kg/min for an average taxi time
of 10 to 15 minutes.

2- Trip Fuel:

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ABC ABC

- It is the quantity of fuel required from take-off at the departure airport

until landing at the destination airport.
- It must contain the following 4 items:
a- Take-off and climb at selected speed schedule.
b- Cruise at selected speed schedule.
c- Descent from cruise level at selected speed schedule to initial
approach altitude. (normally 1500 AGL)
d- Approach and landing fuel calculations.

3- Alternate Fuel:

- It is the quantity of fuel required to fly from the destination to the

alternate.
- It must contain the following 4 items:
a- Go-around from the prescribed MDA or DH.
b- Climb to cruising level.
c- Cruising at long range cruise LRC speed schedule.
d- Descent and approach procedure.

4- Holding Fuel:

- It is based on 30 minutes of holding at 1500 AGL above the alternate

airport elevation at optimum holding speed.

5- In-flight Contingencies Fuel:

- It reserves a percentage of the trip fuel as defined in the national

regulations or company policy.
- In Egypt Air operations this percentage is usually 5% of the trip fuel.
- This amount is reserved for weather avoidance, deviation from
planned ISA, difference between actual and forecasted winds, ATC
constraints and any other contingency the flight might face.

NOTE:
- The Absolute Minimum Fuel for Diversion consists of:
1- Go-around at destination and approach and landing fuel at alternate.
2- Fuel required to fly for 30 minutes at 1500ft. above alternate airport
elevation at optimum holding speed.

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ABC ABC

Proceed immediately to alternate airport when the fuel remaining on

board approaches the minimum fuel required for diversion.

Trip and Alternate Fuel Calculation:

- To calculate the fuel required for a trip from A to B we need to extract

from performance graphs or tables included in the FCOM the fuel
needed for each flight based on:

1- Aircraft Weight 2- ISA deviation

3- Speed Schedule 4- Anti ice and bleed configuration
5- All distances are in Nautical Air Miles (NAM)

Integrated Range:

- Integrated range calculation might be in a graph format (Boeing) or a

table format (Airbus)
- They make flight planning very accurate and easy and also very useful
for calculating the fuel remaining after flying a predetermined air
distance during cruise.

Wind Altitude Trade:

- Flying at optimum altitude and optimum weight is the target every

pilot wants to achieve.
- Specific Range is the major product of the cruise portion of the flight.
- And thus, before I descend or climb to achieve better specific range
because of the fact that wind might be better for my flight at a higher
or lower level, I must enter the specific wind-altitude trade LRC table
to decide whether my decision will help gain range, lose range or give
me no range difference.
- Wind altitude trade is only applicable during the cruise portion of the
flight.

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ABC ABC

Computerized Flight Planning:

- Nowadays, flight planning is made very easy by using computer

because it takes into consideration all aspects like:
o Aircraft performance and company fuel policy.
o Meteo-upper winds and temperature database.
o Navigation database.

Introduction to FMC:

- The FMC navigation database contains over 2 million data items:

o All reporting points and airports around the world.
o All SIDS and STARS.
o Class1 NOTAM.
o Routes.

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ABC ABC

A.T.C.

Aerodrome Control Service:

- It is an air traffic control service for the aerodrome traffic.

- It is a service supplied by the airport through the tower for the traffic
at this specific aerodrome, it includes:
 Ground Control.
 Clearance Delivery. (Preflight)
 Tower.

Aerodrome Control Tower:

- It is the unit established to provide air traffic control service to the

aerodrome traffic.

Air Traffic Control Clearance:

- It is an authorization for an aircraft to proceed under certain condition

specified in the clearance by an air traffic control unit, example for
ATC clearances are:
 Taxi clearance.
 Take-off clearance.
 Departure Clearance.
 En-route clearance.
 Approach clearance.
 Landing clearance.

Air Traffic Control Service:

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ABC ABC

- It is a service provided for the purpose of:

1- Preventing collisions between aircrafts flying and each other, and
aircrafts on the maneuvering area on the ground and obstructions.
2- Expediting and maintaining an orderly flow of traffic.
Air Traffic Control Unit:

- It is the physical unit providing the service, it can be an:

 Area control center.
 Approach control office.
 Aerodrome control tower.

Air Traffic Service:

- It is the general service provided, it can be one of the following:

 Flight information service.
 Alerting service.
 Air traffic advisory service.
 Air traffic control service. (area control service, approach
control service, aerodrome control service)

Air Traffic Service Airspaces:

- They are airspaces of defined dimensions, alphabetically designated

from A to G, within which specific types of flights may operate and
specific types of services are supplied.

Alerting Service:

- It is a service provided to notify appropriate organizations and

authorities about aircrafts in need for search & rescue aid.

Approach Control Office:

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ABC ABC

- It is a unit established to provide air traffic control service to

controlled flights arriving at, or departing from, one or more
aerodromes.

Approach Control Service:

- It is an air traffic control service provided for controlled flight, to

sequence departing and arriving aircrafts and clear them to approach
and land at the aerodrome.

Area Control Center:

- It is a unit established to provide air traffic control service to

controlled flights in control areas under its jurisdiction.

Area Control Service:

- It is an air traffic control service provided for controlled flights in

control areas.

Control Area:

- It is a controlled airspace extending upwards from a specified limit

above the earth.

Control Zone:

- It is a controlled airspace extending upwards from the surface of the

earth to a specified limit.

Danger Area:

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ABC ABC

- It is an airspace of defined dimensions within which dangerous

activities (firing) take place at specified times, these activities are
hazardous for aircrafts.

Prohibited Area:

- It is an airspace of defined dimensions, above land or water within

which aircrafts are prohibited to fly at all.

Restricted Area:

- It is an airspace of defined dimensions above land or water within

which the flight of aircrafts is restricted in accordance with specified
conditions.

Flight Information Region:

- It is an airspace of defined dimensions within which flight information

service and alerting service are provided.

Flight Information Service:

- It is a service provided for the purpose of giving advice and

information useful for the safe conduct of flights.

Traffic Information:

- It is information issued by an air traffic service unit to alert pilots to

other traffic that might be in proximity of the aircraft or in the
intended route of the flight, and also to help pilots avoid collision.

Services, Airspace and Air traffic Units:

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ABC ABC

Services:

Air traffic services include:

- Alerting Service. ALR
- Flight Information Service. FIS
- Air Traffic Control Service. ATC.S and this includes:
- Area Control Service. ACS
- Approach Control Service. APP.C.S
- Aerodrome Control Service. AD.C.S

Airspace:
- Flight Information Region. FIR
- Control Area. CTA
- Control Zone. CTA
- Terminal Control Area. TMA

Units:
- Flight Information Center. FIC
- Area Control Center. ACC
- Aerodrome Control Tower. TWR
- Approach Control. APP

Cairo Control Zone:

- The tower.
- A circle of 10NM radius around CVO VOR/DME.
- Lower Limit--------Ground
- Upper Limit-------- 1000ft.

Cairo Approach Airspace:

- The control zone.

- A circle of 40NM radius around CVO VOR/DME.
- Lower Limit--------1000ft.
- Upper Limit--------FL 115.

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ABC ABC

Cairo Terminal Control Area: (TMA)

- Aircrafts are radar vectored in this area.

- A circle of 40NM radius around CVO VOR/DME and those portions
of the airways from a distance of 40NM to 60NM from CVO
VOR/DME.
- Lower Limit--------FL 115.
- Upper Limit-------- FL 245.

Traffic Information Given:

- When traffic information regarding conflicting traffic is given to

aircrafts, it is given in the following form:
 Relative bearing in terms of 12-hour clock.
 Distance in NM.
 Direction where traffic is proceeding.
 Level and type of aircraft if known.

Visual Flight Rules:

- If the ceiling is less than 450m or 1500ft. and ground visibility is less
than 5Km, VFR flights are not allowed to take-off, land or enter the
aerodrome traffic zone unless it is cleared to do so.

Cruising Levels: (IFR)

- From 360 degrees to 179 degrees-------- ODD FL.

- From 180 degrees to 359 degrees-------- EVEN FL.

Minimum Level:

- Except for take-off and landing or when authorized by the appropriate

authority, IFR flights shall fly:

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ABC ABC

o 600m (2000ft.) above the highest obstacle within 8Km from the
position of the aircraft in mountainous areas.
o 300m (1000ft.) above the highest obstacle within 8Km from the
position of the aircraft elsewhere.

Calculated Take-Off Time: (CTOT)

- CTOT = EOBT + TT + delay (if any)

- EOBT-------- Estimated off-block time.
- TT------------ Taxi Time.

Air Traffic Flow Management Service: (ATFM)

- It is a service provided by the Central Flow Management Unit

(CFMU) of the Euro-Control to manage the flow of traffic over
European airspace.
- It allocates Calculated Take-Off Times (CTOT) for aircrafts to adjust
their estimated time of arrival to European airports, and also make
sure that aircrafts cross certain positions at specific times to avoid
conflict with other traffic.

Flights excluded from ATFM:

- Flights in state of emergency including flights subject to unlawful
interference.
- Ambulance/medical flights.
- Flights operating for search & rescue or other humanitarian reasons.
- Any flight which includes in field 18 of its flight plan STS/HOSP
(status/Hospital).

Flights subject to ATFM but entitled for priority:

- Flights carrying heads of state.
- Flights carrying heads of government.

Position Reporting:

- In a non-radar status, flights shall make position reports when over a

compulsory reporting point or as soon as possible after crossing it.

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ABC ABC

- In a non-radar status, when there are no compulsory reporting points

along the route, flights shall make position reports after the first half-
hour of flight and then at hourly intervals thereafter.
- When operating under radar service, position reports shall be omitted
over compulsory reporting points, flights shall report only over points
designated by the air traffic service unit, and when advised that radar
service is terminated position reports shall be resumed as mentioned
above.

Contents of position reports:

1- Aircraft identification.
2- Position.
3- Time.
4- Flight Level.
5- Next position and expected time over it.
6- Position to come afterward.

Transponders:

- Mode A---A/C identification but no altitude reporting.

- Mode C---A/C identification & altitude reporting capability.
- Mode S---A/C identification, altitude, speed and collision
avoidance. (TCAS)
- X-Ponder- On ground use only.
- 7500------- Hijack situation.
- 7600------- Communication failure.
- 7700------- Emergency situation.

Communications Failure:

If in VMC:
- Aircrafts shall continue to fly in VMC and land at the nearest suitable
aerodrome, and report its arrival as soon as practicable by any other
mean of communication.

If in IMC:
- Maintain last assigned speed and level for 20 minutes.

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ABC ABC

- Proceed on course according to the flight plan.

- Commence descent from the navigation aid at the destination airport
at the expected approach time.
- Execute a full procedure instrument approach and land.

Distress Frequencies:

- VHF – 121.5 MHz

- UHF – 243.0 MHz
- HF – 500 kHz, 2182 kHz, 8363 kHz

82