CS25C02 – COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

PYTHON
AS PER THE LATEST ANNA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS

COMMON TO I SEMESTER B.E & B.TECH

( Civil Engineering ,Mechanical Engineering ,Petroleum Engineering )

Regulation 2025

EDITORS & AUTHORS

K.DANIEL RAJ
K.BENITLIN SUBHA

Primary Authors
Dr.J.Japhynth
Dr.T.Jasperline
K.Benitlin Subha
K.Daniel Raj
K.Diala
P.Daniel Raj
J.Vinisha

Ryan Publishers
 CS25C02-COMPUTER PROGRAMMING: PYTHON R 2025

ISBN: 978-93-48615-60-2

Publisher: Ryan Publishers

15, Sivan Koil 1st Street,
Banker’s colony Extension,
Kumaran Nagar,
Trichy - 620017, TamilNadu, India.
Website: www.ryanpublishers.co.in
Email: editor@ryanpublishers.co.in
Ph: +91 6374561101

Copyright © 2025 by Ryan Publishers

No part of this book shall be reproduced or transmitted in any form or

by any means (electronic or mechanical including photocopy,
recording, or any information storage or retrieval system) without the
permission in writing of the publisher.

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 CS25C02-COMPUTER PROGRAMMING: PYTHON R 2025

EDITORS & AUTHORS

EDITOR PROFILE EDITOR BIOGRAPAHY

Mrs.K.Benitlin Subha is working as

Assistant Professor in Department of
Information Technology at Kings
Engineering College, has about 10+ years
of teaching experience. She received her
B.Tech. degree in Information Technology
from Dr.Sivanthi Aditanar College of
Mrs.K.Benitlin Engineering, Tiruchendur, M.E. degree in
Subha Computer Science and Engineering from
Assistant Professor Anna University Tiruchirapalli. She is
KINGS
ENGINEERING
pursuing her Ph.D Degree in Anna
COLLEGE University, Chennai. Her area of Research
includes Machine Learning, IoT, Cloud
Computing, etc..
Mr.K.Daniel Raj is a passionate educator
and researcher with a background in
Information Technology and Computer
Science.He has published research articles
in reputed journals like IEEE, IGI Global,
and SCOPUS, and contributed as both an
Mr.K.Daniel author and reviewer. He is a reviewer and
Raj author of several international and national
passionate journals, with interests in Python
educator and programming, AI and ML. He is also a
researcher member of ISTE and actively contributes to
academic and research communities.

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 CS25C02-COMPUTER PROGRAMMING: PYTHON R 2025

PRIMARY AUTHORS

AUTHOR PROFILE AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY

Dr.J.Japhynth Principal of Dr. G.U. Pope

College of Engineering, holds an M.E.
from Anna University and a Ph.D. in Grid
Computing from Karunya University.
With over 22 + years of experience in
teaching and administration, she has
Dr.J.Japhynth published 20+ research papers and serves
Principal & Professor as a reviewer for reputed journals. A gold
Dr.GUPCE medalist and recipient of the Dale
Carnegie Certificate, she is also a frequent
guest speaker at academic institutions.

Dr. T. Jasperline is a distinguished

academician with over 21 years of
teaching and research experience. She
earned her Doctoral degree in 2018 and
currently serves as Professor and Head of
the Computer Science and Engineering
Department. She has published numerous
Dr.T.Jasperline research articles and is a lifetime member
Professor & of the (ISTE) and (IE). Her leadership and
Head of CSE dedication to academic excellence have
Dr.GUPCE significantly contributed to curriculum
development, student mentorship, and the
advancement of computer science
education.

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 CS25C02-COMPUTER PROGRAMMING: PYTHON R 2025

Mrs.K.Diala is an Assistant Professor in

the Department of Computer Science and
Engineering at Dr. G.U. Pope College of
Engineering, bringing over 21 years of
rich teaching experience. She has
published several research papers in
reputed journals and holds patents in her
Mrs.K.Diala field. She is a lifetime member of both
Assistant Professor (ISTE) and (IE), actively contributing to
Dr.GUPCE the academic and research community.

Mr.P.Daniel raj is an Assistant Professor

in the Department of Computer Science
and Engineering at Dr. G.U. Pope College
of Engineering, bringing over 12+ years of
teaching experience. He is committed to
fostering academic excellence and
Mr.P.Daniel raj contributing to the field of computer
Assistant Professor science through research and innovation.
Dr.GUPCE
Ms. Vinisha J is an Assistant Professor in
the Department of Information
Technology at St. Joseph’s Institute of
Technology, Chennai, with over five years
of teaching experience. Currently pursuing
her Ph.D., her expertise includes problem-
Ms.Vinisha J solving methodologies and intelligent
Assistant Professor computing systems. She has guided many
St.Joseph’s Institute of student projects and actively contributed
Technology to workshops on modern programming
practices.

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Message from the Editorial Board

We are pleased to present this comprehensive guide on CS25C02 –

Computer Programming: Python, meticulously crafted to align with the
Anna University Regulation 2025 syllabus. This book aims to provide
students with a solid foundation in Python programming, encompassing both
theoretical concepts and practical applications. Through clear explanations,
illustrative examples, and hands-on exercises, we endeavor to make
programming accessible and engaging for all learners. It is our hope that this
resource will inspire students to embrace the world of programming with
confidence and curiosity.

Editors & Authors

 K. Daniel Raj
 K. Benitlin Subha

Message from the Author Board

As contributors to this book, our collective goal is to demystify the

complexities of Python programming and present it in a manner that is both
understandable and enjoyable. Drawing from our diverse academic and
professional experiences, we have collaborated to develop content that not
only adheres to the prescribed syllabus but also fosters a deeper appreciation
for the art of programming. We trust that this book will serve as a valuable
companion in your educational journey, equipping you with the skills
necessary to excel in the field of computer science and engineering.

Primary Authors:

 Dr. J. Japhynth (Reviewer and Author )

 Dr. T. Jasperline (Reviewer and Author )
 K. Benitlin Subha
 K. Daniel Raj
 K. Diala
 P. Daniel Raj
 J. Vinisha

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CS25C02 – COMPUTER PROGRAMMING:

PYTHON
SYLLABUS

UNIT I : INTODUCTION TO PYTHON

Problem solving, Problem Analysis Chart, Developing an

Algorithm, Flowchart and Pseudocode, Interactive and Script
Mode, Indentation, Comments, Error messages, Variables,
Reserved Words, Data Types, Arithmetic operators and
expressions, Built-in-Functions, Importing from Packages.
Practical: Problem Analysis Chart, Flowchart and
Pseudocode Practices. (Minimum three)

UNIT II : CONTOL STRUCTURES

If, if-else, nested if, multi-way if-elif statements, while loop, for
loop, nested loops, pass statements.
Practical: Usage of conditional logics in programs.
(Minimum three)

UNIT III : FUNCTIONS

Hiding redundancy, complexity; Parameters, arguments and

return values; formal vs actual arguments, named arguments,
Recursive & Lambda Functions.
Practical: Usage of functions in programs. (Minimum three)

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UNIT IV : STRINGS & COLLECTIONS

String Comparison, Formatting, Slicing, Splitting, Stripping,

List, tuples, and dictionaries, basic list operators, searching and
sorting lists; dictionary literals, adding and removing keys,
accessing and replacing values.

Practical: String manipulations and operations on lists,

tuples, sets, and dictionaries. (Minimum three)

UNIT V : FILES OPERATIONS, PACKAGES

Create, Open, Read, Write, Append and Close files.

Manipulating directories, OS and Sys modules, reading/writing
text and numbers, from/to a file; creating and reading a
formatted file (csv, tab-separated, etc.)

Practical: Opening, closing, reading and writing in

formatted file format and sort data. (Minimum three),

UNIT VI : PACKAGES

Built-in modules, User-Defined modules, Numpy, SciPy,

Pandas, Scikit-learn

Practical: Usage of modules and packages to solve problems.

(Minimum three), Project (Minimum Two)

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Content

S.No Title Pg.No

1 Unit – I - Introduction to Python
Fundamentals of computing 01
Identifications of computational problem 06
1.1 Problem solving 09
1.2 Problem Analysis Chart 13
1.3 Developing an Algorithm 16
1.4 Flowchart and Pseudocode 19
1.4.1 Flowchart 19
1.4.1.1 Flow Chart Symbols 19
1.4.1.2 Rules for Drawing Flow Chart 20
1.4.2 Pseudocode 23
1.5 Python Programming Environment 26
1.5.1 Interactive Mode 26
1.5.2 Script Mode 27
1.6 Python Syntax and Indentation 29
1.7 Comments and Documentation 31
1.8 Error Messages and Debugging Basics 34
1.9 Variables and Reserved Words 38
1.9.3 Difference betweenVariables and 40

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Reserved Words
1.10 Data Types 42
1.10.1 Data Types in Python 42
1.10.2 type Conversion 44
1.11 Arithmetic Operators and Expressions 45
1.12 Built-in Functions 49
1.13 Importing from Packages 51
1.14 Practical 54
-Python History Overview- 58
1.15 Important Two Mark Questions 61
2 Unit – II - Control Structures
2.1 Introduction to Control Flow 65
2.1.1 Functions 66
2.2 Decision-Making Statements 70
2.2.1 Conditional If.. 70
2.2.2 If..Else..Condition 72
2.2.3 Chained Condition 74
2.3 Iterative Constructs 76
2.3.1 for loop 76
2.3.1 While loop 77
2.3.1 nested loops 78

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2.4 Jump Statements 79

2.4.1 Break 79
2.4.2 Continue 80
2.4.3 pass 81
2.5FruitFul Functions - 82
2.6 Practical 85
2.6 Important Two Mark Questions 93
3 UNIT- III - Functions
3.Introduction to Functions 96
3.1 Need for Functions: Hiding Redundancy &
Complexity 98
3.2 Function Definition and Calling 101
3.3 Parameters and Arguments 102
3.4 Return Values 103
3.5 Formal vs Actual Arguments 104
3.6 Named Arguments 106
3.7 Recursive Functions 107
3.8 Lambda (Anonymous) Functions 108
3.9 Practical 107
3.9.1 Usage of functions in programs 109
(Minimum three)

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3.10 Summary Table 110

3.11 Important Two Mark Questions 112
4 UNIT – IV - Strings and Collections
4.1 Strings in Python 116
4.1.1 String Slicing 117
4.1.2 Immutability 118
4.1.3 String Function and Methods 119
4.2 Python Collections Overview 124
4.2.1 Lists 124
4.2.2 Tuples 126
4.2.3 Sets 130
4.2.4 Dictionaries 130
4.3 Basic List Operators 134
4.3.1 Basic List Operators In Python 134
4.3.2 List Methods in Python 135
4.4 Searching and Sorting Lists 137
4.4.1 Searching in List 138
4.4.2 Sorting in List 141
4.5 Dictionary Literals, Keys, and Values 145
4.5.1 Dictionary Literals 146
4.5.2 Dictionary Keys 147

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4.5.3 Dictionary Values 148

4.5.4 Dictionary Items ( Keys + Values ) 148
4.6 Accessing Values 150
4.6.1 Adding Keys 150
4.7 Replacing Values 151
4.7.1 Removing Keys 152
4.8 Dictionary Operations in Python 154
4.9 Adding Removing ,Replacing Elements 155
4.10 Practical Exercises 156
4.10.1 String manipulations 156
4.10.2 operations on lists 157
4.10.3 operations on tuples 158
4.10.4 operations on sets 159
4.10.5 operations on dictionaries4.8 4.11 159
Important Two Mark Questions 160
5 UNIT- V -File Operations
Introduction 164
5.1 File Handling Concepts 165
5.2 Creating and Opening Files 166
5.3 Reading and Writing Files 168
5.4 Appending and Closing Files 170

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5.5 Directory Manipulation (OS and Sys 171

modules)
5.5.1 Accessing Details 172
5.5.2 Returning Path 173
5.5.3 Env & Comm Line Argument 174
5.5.4 Reading/Writing Text and Numbers , 174
From /To a File
5.6 Difference Between Os & Sys Module in 175
Python
5.7 Reading/Writing Formatted Files (CSV,
tab-separated, etc.) 176
5.7.1 Working with CSV Files in Python 176
5.7.1.1 Reading a CSV file 176
5.7.1.2 Reading CSV Files Into a
178
Dictionary With csv
5.7.1.3 Writing to a CSV file 178
5.7.1.4 Writing a dictionary to a CSV 178
file
5.7.2 Simple Way to Read CSV Files in
Python 180
5.8 Practical Excercises 183
5.9 Important Two Marks 186

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6 UNIT- VI- Packages

6. Introduction to Modules and Packages 189
6.1 Built-in Modules (math, random, sys, os, 191
etc.)
6.2 Packages 197
6.3 Build In Modules 200
6.4 Python Module Summary Table 213
6.5 User-Defined Modules 214
6.6 Popular Python Packages for Engineers 218
6.6.1 Numpy 218
6.6.2 SciPy 210
6.6.3 Pandas 220
6.6.4 Scikit-learn 220
6.7 Python Library Summary Table 221
6.8 Case Studies 223
6.9 Practicals 226
6.9.1 usage of modules and packages
(Minimum three each) 226
6.9.2 Mini Projects (Minimum Two) 230
6.10 Important Two Mark Questions 233

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UNIT – I

INTODUCTION TO PYTHON

Problem solving, Problem Analysis Chart, Developing an

Algorithm, Flowchart and Pseudocode, Interactive and Script
Mode, Indentation, Comments, Error messages, Variables,
Reserved Words, Data Types, Arithmetic operators and
expressions, Built-in-Functions, Importing from Packages.
Practical: Problem Analysis Chart, Flowchart and Pseudocode
Practices. (Minimum three)

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTING

What is Computer?

 The computer is a super-intelligent electronic device that

can perform tasks, process information, and store data.
 It takes the data as an input and processes that data to
perform tasks under the control of a program and produces
the output.
 A computer is like a personal assistant that follows
instructions to get things done quickly and accurately.
 It has memory to store information temporarily so that the
computer can quickly access it when needed.

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Types of Computer

Functionalities of Computer

 Input – Feeding data into the system.

 Processing – Working on the data using CPU.
 Storage – Saving data temporarily or permanently.
 Output – Displaying the result of processing.
 Control – Coordinating all operations within the
computer.

Components Of Computer

Computer = Hardware (physical parts) + Software (programs to

control the hardware)

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Hardware Components

These are the physical parts of a computer system.

a) Input Devices
Used to enter data into the computer.
Examples:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Scanner

b) Output Devices
Used to display or produce the result of processed data.

Examples:

 Monitor
 Printer
 Speakers

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c) Processing Unit
The brain of the computer, also known as the CPU.

It includes:

 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) – Performs all arithmetic

and logical operations.
 CU (Control Unit) – Directs the operation of the
processor.
 Registers – Small memory units for quick data access.

d) Memory/Storage Devices

Used to store data permanently or temporarily

Primary Memory (Volatile)

 RAM (Random Access Memory)

 ROM (Read Only Memory)

Secondary Storage (Non-Volatile):

 HDD (Hard Disk Drive)

 SSD (Solid State Drive)
 USB Flash Drives
 CDs/DVDs

Software Components

Programs and operating systems that control the hardware.

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a) System Software

Manages hardware and basic system operations.

Examples:

 Operating Systems (Windows, Linux, macOS)

 Device Drivers

b) Application Software

Programs that perform specific tasks for users.

Examples:

 MS Word, Excel
 Web Browsers
 Games

c) Utility Software

Helps maintain and optimize the system.

Examples:

 Antivirus
 Disk Cleanup Tools

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IDENTIFICATION OF COMPUTIONAL PROBLEM

Definition:

Identifying a computational problem means recognizing a real-

world issue that can be solved using a computer algorithm or
program. It involves translating the problem into a format that
can be handled using logical steps and computational methods.

Computational thinking can be split into four parts,

1. Decomposition
2. Pattern recognition
3. Abstraction
4. Algorithmic design

In order to solve a problem computationally, two things are

needed,

 A representation that captures all the relevant aspects of

the problem
 An algorithm that solves the problem by use of the
representation.

Problem: Create an app that calculates the average grade for

each student.

1. Decomposition:

We need to break the problem down into smaller tasks.

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 Input collection: Gather the grades for each assignment

for every student.
 Grade calculation: Calculate the average grade for each
student.
 Display result: Output the average grade for each
student.

Now the problem is divided into manageable chunks.

2. Pattern Recognition:

Identify patterns and repetitive elements in the problem.

 The steps to compute the average for one student can be

repeated for all students.
 We can recognize that the calculation of an average
involves a common formula (sum of grades divided by
the number of grades).

3. Abstraction:

Generalize the problem to focus only on the important details.

Ignore unnecessary details like the subject of assignments or

individual student names.

Abstract the process:

We just need to know the grades for each student and apply the
same calculation for all students. Focus on the structure: We

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will have a list of numbers (grades) for each student, and the
task is to calculate the average for that list.

4. Algorithm Design:

Create a step-by-step plan (algorithm) to solve the problem.

Step-by-step algorithm:

Input: Collect the grades for each student (e.g., in a list or table).

Process: For each student:

• Sum all the grades.

• Divide the sum by the number of assignments to find the
average.

Output: Display the average grade for each student.

Computational thinking allows us,

1. To take a complex problem

2. Understand what the problem is
3. Develop possible solutions
4. Present these solutions in a way that a computer, a
human can understand.

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1.1 PROBLEM SOLVING

1.1.1 Introduction

Problem solving is the process of identifying a computational or

engineering problem, analyzing its requirements, and
developing an efficient solution using systematic methods. In
the context of programming, problem solving is the foundation
for writing correct, efficient, and reusable code.

1.1.2 Definition

Problem solving in computer science can be defined as:

“A step-by-step process of defining a problem, designing a

procedure (algorithm), and implementing it using a
programming language to obtain the desired output.”

1.1.3 Characteristics of a Good Problem-Solving Process

1. Clarity – The problem statement must be clearly

understood.
2. Systematic Approach – Steps should follow a logical
sequence.
3. Efficiency – The solution must minimize time and space
complexity.
4. Correctness – The solution should produce accurate
results for all valid inputs.
5. Scalability – The approach should adapt to larger or
complex inputs.

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1.1.4 General Steps in Problem Solving

1. Problem Identification – Clearly state the problem.

2. Problem Analysis – Understand input, process, and
output requirements.
3. Solution Design – Develop an algorithm, flowchart, or
pseudocode.
4. Implementation – Translate the design into a program
(Python).
5. Testing and Verification – Run test cases to check
correctness.
6. Maintenance – Modify or optimize the solution as
requirements evolve.

1.1.5 Computational Problem Solving in Engineering

In engineering, problem solving often involves:

 Mathematical computations (e.g., stress analysis, area,

volume calculations).
 Data processing (e.g., analyzing sensor data, simulation
outputs).
 Automation (e.g., controlling devices, file handling,
batch processing).
 Modeling and Simulation (e.g., using Python libraries
for system modeling).

Example: Calculating Area of a Rectangle

Problem Statement: Write a program to compute the area of a

rectangle given its length and breadth.

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Step 1 – Problem Identification:

 Input → Length and Breadth

 Process → Multiply Length × Breadth
 Output → Area of the rectangle

Step 2 – Algorithm:

1. Start
2. Read length and breadth
3. Compute area = length × breadth
4. Display area
5. Stop

Step 3 – Pseudocode:
BEGIN

READ length, breadth

area ← length * breadth

PRINT area

END
Step 5 – Python Implementation:

# Program to calculate area of a rectangle

length = float(input("Enter length: "))
breadth = float(input("Enter breadth: "))
area = length * breadth
print("Area of rectangle:", area)

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Step 4 – Flowchart:

START

INPUT

PROCESS

OUTPUT

STOP

1.1.6 Summary

 Problem solving is a systematic process that transforms a

problem statement into a working solution.
 It involves understanding inputs/outputs, designing
algorithms, and implementing solutions in Python.
 Engineering applications frequently rely on
computational problem solving to automate and optimize
tasks.

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1.2 PROBLEM ANALYSIS CHART

1.2.1 Definition

A Problem Analysis Chart (PAC) is a tabular representation

that breaks down a problem into its fundamental components:

 Input – The data required for the problem.

 Process – The computational or logical steps needed to
transform input into output.
 Output – The expected result of the problem.

1.2.2 Components of Problem Analysis Chart (PAC)

Component Description Example

Problem Clearly defines what needs to be Find the area of a

Statement solved rectangle

Input Data values required from the user Length, Breadth

Operations or calculations Area = Length ×

Process
performed on input Breadth

Output Final result to be displayed Area of the rectangle

1.2.3 Steps to Construct a PAC

1. Identify the problem statement.

2. Determine all necessary inputs.
3. List the process steps needed to solve the problem.

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4. Define the expected output.

5. Tabulate the above information into a PAC.

1.2.4 Example: PAC for Area of Rectangle

Proble
Find the Area of a Rectangle
m

Input Length, Breadth

Process Area = Length × Breadth

Output Area of the rectangle

1.2.5 Example: PAC for Simple Interest

Proble
Calculate Simple Interest
m

Input Principal (P), Rate of Interest (R), Time (T)

Process SI = (P × R × T) / 100

Output Simple Interest amount

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1.2.6 Benefits of PAC

 Provides clarity before coding.

 Reduces logical errors by defining all inputs and outputs.
 Acts as a bridge between problem statement and
algorithm.
 Helps beginners systematically approach programming
problems.

1.2.7 Python Example Based on PAC

# Program to calculate area of rectangle using PAC

length = float(input("Enter length: "))
breadth = float(input("Enter breadth: "))
area = length * breadth
print("Area of rectangle:", area)

1.2.8 Summary

 The Problem Analysis Chart (PAC) is a tool to break a

problem into input, process, and output.
 It simplifies problem-solving by organizing requirements
before coding.
 PAC ensures that the transition from problem statement
→ algorithm → code is systematic.

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1.3 DEVELOPING AN ALGORITHMS

Definition of Algorithm:

An algorithm is a finite set of instructions for performing a

particular task. The instructions are nothing but the statements in
simple English language.

In computing, we focus on the type of problems categorically

known as algorithmic problems, where their solutions are
expressible in the form of algorithms. The term “algorithm” was
derived from the name of Mohammed al-Khowarizmi, a Persian
mathematician in the ninth century.

Al-Khowarizmi → Algorismus (in Latin) → Algorithm.

An algorithm is a well-defined computational procedure

consisting of a set of instructions that takes some value or set
of values, as input, and produces some value or set of values,
as output.

In other word, an algorithm is a procedure that accepts data;

manipulate them following the prescribed steps, so as to
eventually fill the required unknown with the desired value(s).

ALGORITHM
INPUT OUTPUT

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People in various professions follow specific procedures in their

work, each referred to by a different name. For example, a cook
uses a method known as a recipe, which transforms ingredients
(input) into a finished dish (output) through a series of steps.

1.3.1 Characteristics of a Good Algorithm

1. Precision – Every step in the algorithm must

be clearly and accurately defined.
2. Uniqueness – Each step should yield a unique
result, depending solely on the given input and
the result of previous steps.
3. Finiteness – The algorithm must terminate
after a limited number of steps.
4. Effectiveness – Among all possible
approaches, the algorithm should provide the
most efficient solution to the problem.
5. Input – It should accept one or more inputs to
begin the process.
6. Output – It must generate at least one output
as the result.
7. Generality – The algorithm should be
applicable to a wide range of input values, not
just specific cases.

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Example 1.3.1: Algorithm to Check if a Number is Even or

Odd

Algorithm Steps:

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 : Take a number as input
Step 3 : If the number is divisible by 2, it is even
Step 4 : Else, it is odd
Step 5 : Display the result
Step 6 : Stop

Example 1.3.2: Algorithm to Find the Largest of Two

Numbers

Algorithm Steps:

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 : Get two numbers as input
Step 3 : Compare the two numbers
Step 4 : If the first number is greater, it is the largest
Step 5 : Else, the second number is the largest
Step 6 : Display the result
Step 7 : Stop

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1.4 FLOW CHART AND PSEUDOCODE

1.4.1 Flow Charts

 Flowcharts are the graphical representation of the

algorithms.
 The algorithms and flowcharts are the final steps in
organizing the solutions.

 Using the algorithms and flowcharts the programmers

can find out the bugs in the programming logic and then
can go for coding.
 Flowcharts can show errors in the logic and set of data
can be easily tested using flowcharts

1.4.1.1 Flow chart Symbols

S. Name of Symbol Type Description

No symbol
1. Terminal Oval Represent the start
Symbol and stop of the
program.
2. Input/ Parallelogram Denotes either input
Output or output operation.
symbol

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3. Process Rectangle Denotes the process

symbol to be carried

4. Decision Diamond Represents decision

symbol Making and
branching
5. Flow Arrow lines Represents the
lines sequence of steps
and direction of
flow. Used to
connect symbols.
6. Connector Circle A connector symbol
is represented by a
circle and a letter or
digit is placed in the
circle to specify the
link. This symbol is
used to Connect
flow charts.

1.4.1.2 Rules for drawing flow chart

1. In drawing a proper flowchart, all necessary

requirements should be listed out in logical order.
2. The flow chart should be clear, neat and easy to
follow. There should not be any room for ambiguity
in understanding the flowchart.

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3. The usual directions of the flow of a procedure or

system are from left to right or top to bottom. Only
one flow line should come out from a process symbol.

4. Only one flow line should enter a decision symbol,

but two or three flow lines, one for each possible
answer, cap leave the decision symbol.

5. Only one flow line is used in conjunction with

terminal symbol.

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6. If flow chart becomes complex, it is better to use

connect or symbols to reduce the number of flow
lines.
7. Ensure that flow chart has logical start and stop.

1.4.1.3 Advantages of Flow chart

1. Communication: Flow charts are better way of

communicating the logic of the system.
2. Effective Analysis: With the help of flow chart, a problem
can be analyzed in more effective way.
3. Proper Documentation: Flow charts are used for good
program documentation, which is needed for various
purposes.
4. Efficient Coding: The flowcharts act as a guide or blue
print during the system analysis and program development
phase.
5. Systematic Testing and Debugging: The flow chart helps
in testing and debugging the program
6. Efficient Program Maintenance: The maintenance of
operating program becomes easy with the help of flowchart.
It helps the programmer to put efforts more efficiently on
that part.

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1.4.1.4 Disadvantages of Flowchart

1. Complex Logic: Sometimes, the program logic is quite

complicated. In that case flow chart becomes complex and
difficult to use.

2. Alteration and Modification: If alterations are required the

flowchart may require re- drawing completely.

3. Reproduction: As the flowchart symbols cannot be typed,

reproduction becomes problematic.

1.4.2 Pseudo Code

Pseudocode is an informal high-level description of the

operating principle of a computer program or algorithm. It uses
the basic structure of a normal programming language, but is
intended for human reading rather than machine reading. It is
text based detail design tool. Pseudo means false and code refers
to instructions written in programming language.

Pseudocode cannot be compiled nor executed, and there are no

real formatting or syntax rules. The pseudocode is written in
normal English language which cannot be understood by the
computer.

Example 1.4.1 : Pseudocode: To find sum of two numbers

READ num1, num2

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Sum = num1+num2

PRINT sum

Basic rules to write pseudocode:

1. Only one statement per line. Statements represents

single action is written on same line. For example to
read the input, all the inputs must be read using single
statement.
2. Capitalized initial keywords The keywords should be
written in capital letters. Eg: READ, WRITE, IF,
ELSE, ENDIF, WHILE, REPEAT, UNTIL

Example 1.4.2 : Pseudocode: Find the total and average of

three subjects

READ name, department, mark1, mark2, mark3

Total=mark1+mark2+mark3

Average=Total/3

WRITE name, department, mark1, mark2, mark3

1. Indent to show hierarchy Indentation is a process of

showing the boundaries of the structure.
2. End multi-line structures each structure must be ended
properly, which provides more clarity.

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Example 1.4.3 : Pseudocode: Find greatest of two numbers

READ a, b

IF a>b then

PRINT a is greater

ELSE

PRINT b is greater

END IF

1. Keep statements language independent.

Pseudocode must never written or use any syntax of any

programming language.

1.4.2.1 Advantages of Pseudocode

 Can be done easily on a word processor

 Easily modified
 Implements structured concepts well
 It can be written easily
 It can be read and understood easily
 Converting pseudocode to programming language is
easy as compared with flowchart

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1.4.2.2 Disadvantages of Pseudocode

 It is not visual
 There is no standardized style or format

1.5. PYTHON PROGRAMMING ENVIRONMENT

1. Interactive mode
2. Script mode
1.5.1 INTERACTIVE MODE

 Python has two modes: normal mode and interactive

mode.

Interactive Mode:

Also called Script Mode. In this mode, the user can type Python
commands directly in the interpreter. The interpreter
immediately executes the command and displays the result Each
statement is executed as soon as it is typed. This is particularly
useful for testing small code snippets.

 The prompt >>> indicates that the interpreter is ready for

user input.
 When an expression is typed after the prompt, the
interpreter displays the result immediately.
 Proper indentation is required while writing the code on
the interpreter shell.

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fig 1.5.1 Interactive mode

1.5.2. SCRIPT MODE

 Script mode is the standard mode.

 In this mode, Python commands are saved in a file with
the extension .py.
 The saved file can then be executed repeatedly.

Steps to run Python in Script Mode:

Step 1: Open Python Shell by double-clicking the Python IDE.

Step 2: On the File Menu, click on New File option.

Step 3: Give some suitable file name with extension .py (e.g.,
example.py).

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Step 4: A file will get opened and the type some programming
code.

Step 5: Now run your code by clicking on Run Menu → Run

Module (F5).

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The output will be displayed on the python shell.

1.6 PYTHON SYNTAX AND INDENTATION

1.6.1 PYTHON SYNTAX

 Python syntax refers to the set of rules that defines how

Python programs are written and interpreted.
 Unlike many programming languages (such as C, C++ or
Java), Python syntax is simple and emphasizes
readability.
 Statements in Python are written line by line and
executed sequentially.
 Each statement usually ends with a newline, not with a
semicolon (;).
 Indentation, rather than braces {} or keywords, is used to
define code blocks.

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Example: A simple Python statement

print("Hello, World!")

Example: Multiple statements on one line

x = 5; y = 10; print(x + y)

1.6.2 INDENTATION IN PYTHON

 Indentation means the space at the beginning of a line

of code.
 In Python, indentation is mandatory and indicates a
block of code.
 Other programming languages like C/Java use curly
braces { } to define blocks, but Python relies on
indentation only.
 The standard indentation is 4 spaces (tabs may also be
used, but mixing tabs and spaces should be avoided).

Example: Using indentation in if statement

x = 10

if x > 5:

print("x is greater than 5")

print("This line is also inside the block")

print("This line is outside the block")

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Output:

x is greater than 5

This line is also inside the block

This line is outside the block

1.6.2.1 INDENTATION ERRORS

 If indentation is not used correctly, Python raises an

IndentationError.
 This helps prevent ambiguity in program structure.

Example: Error due to incorrect indentation

x = 10

if x > 5:

print("x is greater than 5") # ❌ IndentationError

Error Message:

IndentationError: expected an indented block

1.7 COMMENTS AND DOCUMENTATION

Comments and documentation are essential for writing readable,

maintainable, and error-free code.

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They help programmers explain the logic, purpose, and

functionality of code segments without affecting execution.

Python ignores comments during program execution.

1.7.1 Comments in Python

Python provides two types of comments:

a) Single-Line Comments

 Begin with the # symbol.

 Everything after # on the same line is ignored by the
interpreter.

Example:

# This is a single-line comment

x = 10 # Assigning value 10 to variable x

print(x)

b) Multi-Line Comments

 Python does not have explicit multi-line comment syntax

(like /* ... */ in C).
 Instead, multi-line comments are created using triple
quotes (''' ... ''' or """ ... """).
 They can span across multiple lines.

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Example:

'''
This is a multi-line comment

explaining the program logic

Author: Student

Date: 2025-08-30

'''
print("Hello, Python")

1.7.2 Documentation Strings (Docstrings)

 Docstrings are special string literals used for

documenting modules, classes, functions, or methods.
 Declared using triple quotes (""" ... """ or ''' ... ''').
 Can be accessed at runtime using the __doc__ attribute.

Example: Function with Docstring

def add(a, b):

"""This function takes two numbers

and returns their sum."""

return a + b

print(add.__doc__) # Accessing the docstring

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Output:

This function takes two numbers

and returns their sum.

1.7.3 Importance of Comments and Documentation

 Increases readability of programs.

 Helps in debugging and maintenance.
 Acts as reference material for future developers.
 Essential for collaborative coding projects and
engineering software systems.

1.8 ERROR MESSAGES AND DEBUGGING BASICS

Errors are inevitable in programming and occur when the

Python interpreter fails to execute code correctly. Understanding
error messages and learning debugging techniques are essential
skills for every programmer. Python provides clear and
descriptive error messages that help identify the type and
location of the problem. Debugging is the systematic process of
detecting, analyzing, and fixing errors to ensure reliable
software execution.

1.8.1 Types of Errors in Python

(a) Syntax Errors

 Occur when Python code violates grammatical rules.

 Detected during the parsing stage, before execution.
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 Example: Missing colon, wrong indentation.

# Syntax Error Example

if True

print("Hello") # Missing colon after if

Error Message:

SyntaxError: expected ':'

(b) Runtime Errors (Exceptions)

 Occur while the program is running.

 Examples: division by zero, accessing invalid index,
wrong data type.

# Runtime Error Example

x = 10 / 0

Error Message:

ZeroDivisionError: division by zero

(c) Logical Errors

 The program runs without crashing but produces

incorrect results.
 Hardest to detect since Python does not raise an error.

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# Logical Error Example

# Program to calculate average (wrong formula used)

marks = [80, 90, 70]

average = sum(marks) * len(marks) # Incorrect

print("Average =", average)

1.8.2 Debugging Basics

Step 1: Reading Error Messages

 Identify the type of error (SyntaxError, ValueError,

etc.).
 Locate the line number provided in the traceback.

Step 2: Using Print Statements

 Insert print() statements at different points to check

variable values.
 Helps trace program flow and detect logic errors.

Step 3: Using Python Debugger (pdb)

 Python has a built-in debugger module: pdb.

 Allows step-by-step execution, variable inspection, and
breakpoints

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Example:
Import pdb

def divide(a, b):

pdb.set_trace() # Debugger starts here

return a / b

print(divide(10, 2))

Step 4: Exception Handling

 Use try-except blocks to gracefully handle errors.

try:

num = int("abc")

except ValueError as e:

print("Error occurred:", e)

1.8.3 Importance of Debugging in Engineering

 Ensures reliable and efficient software.

 Reduces development time and cost by preventing
failures.
 Improves system performance and accuracy.
 Essential for safety-critical engineering applications
(e.g., healthcare, automotive, aerospace).

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1.8.4 Best Practices for Debugging

 Read and interpret error messages carefully.

 Start debugging from the topmost error line in the
traceback.
 Use modular programming to isolate and test
components.
 Avoid excessive use of print(); rely on debugging tools.
 Write unit tests to catch errors early.

1.9 VARIABLES AND RESERVED WORDS

In Python programming, variables are symbolic names used to

store data values, while reserved words (keywords) are
predefined identifiers with special meaning. Understanding both
concepts is fundamental to writing valid and efficient programs.

1.9.1 VARIABLES IN PYTHON

Definition

A variable is a name given to a memory location that holds a

value. Python allows dynamic typing, meaning variables do not
need explicit declaration of type; their type is determined at
runtime.

Rules for Variable Naming

1. Must begin with a letter or underscore (_).

2. Cannot start with a digit.
3. Can contain letters, digits, and underscores.
4. Case-sensitive (Age and age are different).
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5. Cannot use reserved keywords as variable names.

Valid Examples:

student_name = "John"

marks = 95

_age = 20

Invalid Examples:

1stvalue = 100 # Starts with digit

for = 25 # 'for' is a reserved word

Variable Assignment

 Python uses the = operator for assignment.

 Multiple assignments are allowed in one line.

Examples:

x = 10 # Single assignment
a, b, c = 1, 2, 3 # Multiple assignment
y = z = 100 # Same value to multiple variables

Dynamic Typing

 The type of variable is determined automatically.

 Variable type can change during execution.

Example:

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x = 50 # integer
x = "Hello" # now a string

1.9.2 RESERVED WORDS IN PYTHON

Definition

Reserved words (or keywords) are predefined identifiers in

Python with special meaning. They are part of the Python
language syntax and cannot be used as variable names.

List of Python Reserved Words (Python 3.10+)

1.9.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARIABLES AND

RESERVED WORDS

Aspect Variables Reserved Words

User-defined names Predefined identifiers with
Definition
storing data special meaning
Flexibilit Chosen by programmer Fixed and cannot be

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Aspect Variables Reserved Words

y changed
Example student, marks, count for, while, if, class
Store values, perform Define control flow, logic,
Usage
computations and structure

1.9.5 APPLICATIONS : Applications of Variables

1. Data Storage and Processing – Used to store sensor

values, numerical results, and intermediate computations
in engineering programs.
2. Simulation Models – Variables represent real-world
parameters such as speed, pressure, temperature, or
voltage in engineering simulations.
3. User Input Handling – Store and manipulate user-
provided data in interactive applications.
4. Mathematical Computations – Perform calculations in
scientific and engineering problems (e.g., solving
equations, statistical analysis).

Applications of Reserved Words

1. Control Structures – Keywords like if, while, for are

used to define logic, iterations, and decision-making.
2. Function and Class Definitions – def, class help
organize code for modular and object-oriented
programming.
3. Exception Handling – try, except, finally provide robust
error handling in engineering applications.
4. Resource Management – Keywords like with ensure
safe handling of files and network connections.
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1.10 DATA TYPES

In Python, data types define the type of values that variables

can store. Since Python is a dynamically typed language, the
interpreter automatically determines the data type of a variable
during program execution.
Understanding data types is fundamental in programming
because they determine:

 How data is stored in memory.

 What operations can be performed on the data.
 How the program interprets the stored values.

1.10.1 Data Types in Python

Python provides several built-in data types, broadly categorized

as follows:

a) Numeric Types

 int – Integer values without decimal.

 float – Real numbers with decimal points.
 complex – Numbers with real and imaginary parts (a +
bj).

Example:

x = 10 # int
y = 12.5 # float
z = 3 + 4j # complex

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b) Sequence Types

1. str (String) – Collection of characters enclosed in quotes

(" " or ' ').
2. list – Ordered, mutable collection of items.
3. tuple – Ordered, immutable collection of items.
4. range – Represents an immutable sequence of numbers.

Example:

name = "Python" # string

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4] # list
coordinates = (10, 20) # tuple
r = range(1, 5) # range

c) Set Types

 set – Unordered collection of unique elements.

 frozenset – Immutable version of a set.

Example:

s = {1, 2, 3, 4} # set
fs = frozenset([1, 2, 3]) # frozenset

d) Mapping Type

 dict (Dictionary) – Collection of key–value pairs.

Example:

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student = {"name": "John", "age": 20, "marks": 95}

e) Boolean Type

 bool – Represents truth values: True or False.

Example:

is_valid = True
result = (10 > 5) # evaluates to True

f) None Type

 None – Special data type representing the absence of a

value or null value.

Example:

x = None

1.10.2 Type Conversion

Python supports type conversion in two forms:

1. Implicit Conversion (Type Casting by Interpreter) –

Automatically converts smaller data type to larger data
type to avoid data loss.
2. a = 10 # int
3. b = 5.5 # float
4. c = a + b # result is float (15.5)

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5. Explicit Conversion (Type Casting by User) –

Programmer manually converts data type using built-in
functions (int(), float(), str(), etc.).
6. x = "100"
7. y = int(x) # converts string to int

1.10.3 Applications of Data Types

1. Engineering Computations – Numeric types are used

for calculations in simulations, measurements, and
modeling.
2. Data Handling – Strings, lists, and dictionaries are used
for handling user input, datasets, and structured
information.
3. Database and Networking – Dictionaries and sets are
useful for representing key-value pairs and unique
identifiers.
4. Logical Decision-Making – Boolean values help in
control flow, testing conditions, and validations.
5. Error Representation – None is useful for representing
missing or undefined values in engineering software.

1.11 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS AND EXPRESSIONS

In Python, arithmetic operators are used to perform

mathematical operations on numerical data types such as
integers, floats, and complex numbers. An expression is a
combination of variables, constants, and operators that evaluates
to a value.
Understanding operators and expressions is essential for

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developing algorithms, solving engineering computations, and

building logic in programs.

1.11.1 ARITHMETIC OPERATORS IN PYTHON:

Definitions of Arithmetic Operators

1. Addition (+)
The addition operator is used to add two operands and
produce their sum.
Example: 5 + 3 = 8
2. Subtraction (-)
The subtraction operator calculates the difference
between two operands.
Example: 10 - 4 = 6
3. Multiplication (*)
The multiplication operator returns the product of two
operands.
Example: 7 * 3 = 21
4. Division (/)
The division operator divides the left operand by the
right operand and returns a floating-point result.
Example: 10 / 4 = 2.5
5. Floor Division (//)
The floor division operator divides two operands but
discards the decimal part, returning the largest integer
less than or equal to the result.
Example: 10 // 4 = 2
6. Modulus (%)
The modulus operator returns the remainder of a division
operation.
Example: 10 % 4 = 2

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7. Exponentiation (**)
The exponentiation operator raises the first operand to
the power of the second operand.
Example: 2 ** 3 = 8

Operato
Description Example Result
r
+ Addition 10 + 5 15

- Subtraction 10 - 5 5
* Multiplication 10 * 5 50
/ Division (float result) 10 / 3 3.333
// Floor Division 10 // 3 3
% Modulus (Remainder) 10 % 3 1

** Exponentiation (Power) 2 ** 3 8

Arithmetic Expressions

An arithmetic expression is a combination of numbers,

variables, and operators that produces a numerical result.

Examples:

a = 10
b=3

expr1 = a + b # 13
expr2 = a - b #7

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expr3 = a * b + 2 # 32
expr4 = a / b # 3.333...
expr5 = a % b #1
expr6 = a ** b # 1000

1.11.2 Operator Precedence and Associativity

When multiple operators are used in a single expression, Python

follows operator precedence rules.

Precedence Order (Highest to Lowest):

1. Parentheses ()
2. Exponentiation **
3. Multiplication, Division, Floor Division, Modulus *, /,
//, %
4. Addition, Subtraction +, -

Associativity:

 Most operators are left-to-right associative (evaluated

from left to right).
 Exponentiation (**) is right-to-left associative.

Example:

result = 2 + 3 * 4 # 2 + (12) = 14
power = 2 ** 3 ** 2 # 2 ** (9) = 512

1.11.3 Applications of Arithmetic Operators and

Expressions

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1. Engineering Calculations – Used for mathematical

modeling, solving equations, and scientific simulations.
2. Data Analysis – Helps in statistical computations like
mean, variance, and regression analysis.
3. Control Systems – Expressions are applied in feedback
loop calculations and signal processing.
4. Graphics and Game Development – Arithmetic is used
in positioning, scaling, and motion calculations.
5. Financial Applications – Useful in interest calculation,
budgeting, and forecasting.

1.12 BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS

Python provides a rich collection of built-in functions that can

be used directly without importing any external library. These
functions simplify programming by performing commonly
needed tasks such as mathematical operations, type conversions,
input/output handling, and data manipulation.

Characteristics of Built-in Functions

1. Available by default in Python (no need to import).

2. Can be used across different data types and applications.
3. Improve efficiency by reducing the need for manual
implementation.
4. Often serve as building blocks for larger programs.

Commonly Used Built-in Functions

Function Description Example Output

print() Displays output on the print("Hello") Hello

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Function Description Example Output

screen
Reads user input as a x = User
input()
string input("Enter: ") input
Returns length of a
len() len("Python") 6
sequence
Displays the data type of <class
type() type(10)
a variable 'int'>
Converts a value to
int() int("5") 5
integer
float() Converts a value to float float("3.2") 3.2
str() Converts a value to string str(25) "25"
Returns maximum value
max() max(4, 9, 2) 9
from a sequence
Returns minimum value
min() min(4, 9, 2) 2
from a sequence
abs() Returns absolute value abs(-7) 7
Rounds a number to
round() nearest integer or given round(3.75, 1) 3.8
decimals
Returns sum of elements
sum() sum([1, 2, 3]) 6
in a sequence

Example Program

# Demonstrating built-in functions

a = -15

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b = [2, 4, 6, 8]

print("Absolute value of a:", abs(a))

print("Maximum value in list:", max(b))

print("Sum of list:", sum(b))

print("Type of a:", type(a))

Output:

Absolute value of a: 15

Maximum value in list: 8

Sum of list: 20

Type of a: <class 'int'>

Applications of Built-in Functions

1. Data Analysis – Functions like sum(), max(), min() are

widely used in statistical and numerical analysis.
2. User Interaction – input() and print() support user-
driven programs and command-line applications.
3. Type Conversion – Functions like int(), float(), str() are
used in handling user inputs and file data.
4. Scientific Computation – Built-in mathematical
functions simplify calculations before applying advanced
libraries.
5. Automation and Scripting – Essential in writing small
scripts for system tasks and automation.

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1.13 IMPORTING FROM PACKAGES

In Python, a package is a collection of modules organized in a

directory structure. To use the functions, classes, or variables
defined in these modules, they must be imported into the
program. Importing allows code reusability, modular
programming, and efficient development.

Syntax for Importing

Python provides multiple ways to import from packages:

1. Import Entire Module

import math

print(math.sqrt(16)) # Using function with module name

2. Import Specific Functions/Classes

from math import sqrt, pi

print(sqrt(25))

print(pi)

3. Import Module with Alias

import numpy as np

print(np.array([1, 2, 3]))

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4. Import All Contents (Not Recommended)

from math import *

print(sin(0))

Commonly Used Standard Packages

 math – Provides mathematical functions like sqrt(), sin(),

cos().
 random – Used for generating random numbers.
 datetime – Deals with date and time.
 os – Provides operating system-related functions (file
handling, directory operations).
 sys – Provides system-specific parameters and functions.

Example Program

# Importing from math and random packages

import math
import random
num = 49
print("Square root of num:", math.sqrt(num))
print("Random number between 1 and 10:", random.randint(1,
10))

Output:

Square root of num: 7.0

Random number between 1 and 10: 6

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Applications of Importing from Packages

1. Scientific Computation – Using math, numpy, scipy for

engineering and research calculations.
2. Data Science and AI – pandas, matplotlib, scikit-learn
for data processing and machine learning.
3. System Programming – os and sys for file operations
and process management.
4. Web Development – Frameworks like flask and django
are imported as packages.
5. Automation – Packages like time, shutil are used in
scripting and automation tasks.

WHY PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE?

1. Time Management.
2. Project Implementation.
3. Communication Process.
4. Calculation.
5. S/W and H/W.
6. Web Developing.

1.14 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Problem 1: Find the Largest of Two Numbers

Problem Analysis

 Input: Two numbers (a, b)

 Process: Compare a and b
 Output: Largest number

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Flowchart

Pseudocode

Start
Input a, b
If a > b then
Print "Largest =", a
Else
Print "Largest =", b
EndIf

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Stop

Problem 2: Check Whether a Number is Even or Odd

Problem Analysis

 Input: A number (n)

 Process: Divide n by 2, check remainder
 Output: Even or Odd

Flowchart

Pseudocode
Start
Input n
If n % 2 == 0 then
Print "Even"
Else
Print "Odd"

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EndIf
Stop

Problem 3: Calculate Factorial of a Number

Problem Analysis

 Input: A positive integer (n)

 Process: Multiply numbers from 1 to n
 Output: Factorial value (n!)

Flowchart

Pseudocode

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Start
Input n
fact ← 1
For i = 1 to n
fact ← fact * i
EndFor
Print "Factorial =", fact
Stop

PYTHON:

 Python is a high level, interpreted, interactive and object

oriented- scripting language.

 Python was designed to be highly readable which uses

English keyword frequently where as other languages
use punctuation and it has fewer syntactical
constructions than other languages.

 Python is an interpreted, interactive object oriented and

beginner’s friendly language.

HISTORY OF PYTHON:

 Python was developed by guide Van Rossum in the lake

eighties and early nineties at the National research
Institute for Mathematics and Computer science in the
Netherlands.

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 Python is derived from many other languages, including

ABC, Modula-3, C, C++, Algol- 68, Small Talk and
Unix shell and other scripting languages.

 Python is copyrighted like Perl, Python source code is

now available under GNU General Public License (GPU)

 Python is now maintained by a core development team

as the institute although Guido Van Rossum still holds a
vital role in directing in progress.

 Python is Interpreted: This means that it is processed

at runtime by the interpreter and go do need to complete
your program before executing it. This is similar to
PERL and PHP

 Python Interactive: You can actually sit at a python

prompt and interact with the interpreter directly to write
your program

 Python is Object – Oriented: Python supports object

oriented style or technique of programming that
encapsulates code within objects.

PYTHON IS A BEGINNER’S LANGUAGE:

Python is the great language for the Beginner- level

programmers and supports the development of a wide range of
applications.

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Application:

 Bit torrent file sharing

 Google search engine, youtube

 Inter, cisco, HP, IBM

 I-Robot

 NASA

 Face book, Drop box

Example :

def newton sqrt (n):

approx = 0.5*n

better = 0.5* (approx + n / approx)

while better ! = approx

approx = better

better = 0.5* (approx + n/approx)

Return approx

S= int (input (“Enter the number”))

Print (‘The square root is’, newton sqrt)

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1.15 IMPORTANT TWO MARKS :

1) What is problem solving?

Problem solving is the step-by-step process of identifying a
problem, analyzing it, and creating a sequence of
instructions to achieve a correct solution. It helps in
developing logical thinking.

2) What is problem analysis?

Problem analysis is the stage where the problem is clearly
understood by identifying inputs, outputs, and constraints. It
ensures clarity before designing the solution.

3) What is an algorithm?
An algorithm is a finite sequence of well-defined steps used
to solve a problem. It must always terminate and give the
expected output.

4) State two characteristics of an algorithm.

An algorithm must be finite, meaning it should end after a
limited number of steps. It must also be unambiguous so
that every step is clearly defined.

5) What is a flowchart?
A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm
using standard symbols. It shows the logical flow of the
program from start to end.

6) Give two flowchart symbols with their meaning.

Oval represents the Start or End of a program.
Parallelogram is used to show Input and Output operations.

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7) What is pseudocode?
Pseudocode is a method of expressing algorithms in plain
English with programming-like structures. It helps in
designing before actual coding.

8) What is interactive mode in Python?

Interactive mode executes Python statements line by line in
the Python shell. It is useful for testing small code snippets
quickly.

9) What is script mode in Python?

Script mode allows writing Python code in a file and
running it as a complete program. It is used for larger and
reusable programs.

10) What is indentation in Python?

Indentation is the use of spaces or tabs at the beginning of a
line to indicate a block of code. Python relies on indentation
instead of braces.

11) How are comments written in Python?

Single-line comments use # and multi-line comments are
enclosed within triple quotes (''' ... '''). Comments improve
readability and are ignored by the interpreter.

12) What are error messages?

Error messages are system-generated notifications that
indicate mistakes in the code. They may be syntax errors,
runtime errors, or logical errors.

13) What is a variable?

A variable is a named memory location that stores data

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which can change during program execution. Example: x =

10.

14) State two rules for naming variables.

Variable names must not begin with digits and should not
use reserved keywords. They can contain letters, digits, and
underscores.

15) What are reserved words?

Reserved words are special keywords predefined by Python.
They have fixed meanings and cannot be used as variable
names, e.g., if, while, class.

16) List four Python data types.

Common data types are: int (integer values), float (decimal
values), str (string/text), and bool (Boolean values
True/False).

17) What are arithmetic operators?

Arithmetic operators are symbols used to perform basic
mathematical operations. Examples: + (addition), -
(subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division), % (modulus).

18) Define expression with example.

An expression is a combination of variables, values, and
operators that produces a result. Example: a + b * 5.

19) Give two built-in functions in Python.

The print() function displays output on the screen. The len()
function returns the length of a sequence like a string or list.

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20) Write an example of importing from a package.

Python allows importing functions from packages to reuse
code. Example: from math import sqrt imports the square
root function.

********

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UNIT II

CONTOL STRUCTURES

If, if-else, nested if, multi-way if-elif statements, while loop, for
loop, nested loops, pass statements. Practical: Usage of
conditional logics in programs. (Minimum three)

2.1 INTODUCTION TO CONTROL FLOW

Control flow refers to the order in which individual

instructions, statements, or function calls are executed within
a program. In Python and other programming languages, control
flow is determined by decision-making statements, loops, and
function calls, which allow programmers to alter the natural
top-to-bottom execution sequence.

1. Sequential Execution

By default, program statements execute one after another

in the order they appear.

Example: Assigning variables and printing values.

2. Decision Making (Selection)

Control flow can branch based on conditions using if, if-

else, and if-elif-else.

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Example: Checking if a number is positive or negative.

3. Repetition (Iteration)

Loops (for, while) allow repeating a block of code until a

condition is met.

Example: Printing numbers from 1 to 10.

4. Transfer of Control

Special keywords like break, continue, and pass can alter

the normal flow within loops.

5. Function Calls

Execution can jump to a function block and return to the

caller after completion.

2.1.1 FUNCTIONS

Function is a sub program which consists of sets of instructions

used to perform a specific task, a large perform is divided into
basic building blocks called functions.

Need for function:

When the program is too complex and large they are divided
into part. Each is separately coded and combined into single
program. Each subprogram is called as function.

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 Debugging, Testing and maintenance becomes easy

when the program is divided into subprograms.
 Functions are used to avoid rewriting same code again
and again in a program
 Function provides code re-usability.
 The length of the program is reduced.

Types of function:

1. User-defined function (programmer create)

2. Built-in function (already created & Stored)

Function Definition: (sub program)

 Def keyword is used to define a fn

 Give the fn name after def keyword followed by which
arguments are given
 End with colon (:)
 Inside the fn add the prgm statements to be executed
 End with or without return statement

Syntax:

def fun-name (Parameter 1,.. Parametern):

Statement 1…….. Statements

return [expression]

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Eg:

def my_add (a,b):

c = a+b

return c.

function name my_add

Statement c=a+b

Function Prototype:

 Function without Argument & rent & without return

types
 Function with Argument & without return type
 Function without Argument & with return type
 Function with Argument & with return type

Without Return Type

Without argument:

def add ():

a = int (input(“enter a :”))

b = int (input(“enter b:”))

c = a+b

print (c)

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add ()

With argument:

def add (a, b):

c = a+b

print (c)

a = int (input(“enter a:”))

b = int (input(“enter b:”))

add (a, b)

With Return Type:

Without argument:

def add ():

a = int (input(“enter a:”))

b = int (input(“enter b:”))

c = a+b

Return c

Print (c)

add ()

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With argument:

def add (a,b):

C = a+b

Return c

Print (c)

a = int (input(“enter a:”))

b = int (input(“enter b:”))

add (a, b)

2.2 DECISION-MAKING STATEMENTS

2.2.1 if …
2.2.2 if…else
2.2.3 if…elif…else
2.2.4 if…if

2.2.1 .Conditional (if):

conditional (if) is used to test a condition, if the condition is true

the statements inside if will be executed.

Syntax:

i. if condition:

if condition:

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Statement

Eg:

If a< 10:

Print (“The number is less than 10”)

Flowchart:

EXAMPLE :

Program to provide bonus mark if output

the category is sports
m=eval(input(“enter ur mark out of enter your mark out
100”)) of 100
c=input(“enter ur categery G/S”) 85
if(c==”S”): enter your categery
m=m+5 G/S
print(“mark is”,m) S
mark is 90

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2.2.2 if – else condition (alternative statement)

In the alternative the condition must be true or false. In this else

statement can be combined with if statement. The else
statement contains the block of code that executes when the
condition is false. If the condition is true statements inside the
if get executed otherwise else part gets executed.

The alternatives are

called branches, because they are branches in the flow of

execution.

Syntax:

if condition:

Statement 1

else:

Statement 2

Eg:

if a<10:

Print (“The number is less than 10”)

else 2

Print (“The number is not less than 10”)

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Examples:

1. odd or even number

2. positive or negative number

3. leap year or not

Flowchart:

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2.2.3 Chained condition:

if …elif…else

 The elif is short for else if.

 This is used to check more than one condition.
 If the condition1 is False, it checks the condition2 of
the elif block. If all the conditions are
 False, then the else part is executed.
 Among the several if...elif...else part, only one part is
executed according to the condition.
 The if block can have only one else block. But it can
have multiple elif blocks.
 The way to express a computation like that is a
chained conditional.

Syntax:

if condition:
.
.
elif condition:
.
.
else: statement

Eg:

def datatypes():

if a = A,a,B,b…..Z,z:

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print (“a:”, type (a))

elif a=0,1,….:

print (“a:”, type (a))

else:
print (“invalid data”)

Flow Chart:

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2.3 ITERATIVE CONSTRUCTS

2.3.1 FOR LOOP

The for loop used to iterative over a sequence or other iteratable
object It executes the block of code once for each item in the
sequence.

Syntax:

For variable in sequence: Body of for loop.

Eg:
for i in range (10):
print(i)

O/P:

1,2,3,4,45,6,7,8,9.

Flow chart

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2.3.2 WHILE LOOP

While loop repeatedly executes a block of code as longer a

specified condition is true. If the condition becomes false, the
loop terminate.

Syntax:

While condition
# code block

Eg:

Count = 0
While count < 5
Print (count)
Count =1

O/P:

0,1,2,3,4

Flowchart:

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2.3.3 NESTED LOOP

Flow Chart :

A nested while loop is a while loop inside another while loop.

The inner loop completes all its iterations for every single
iteration of the outer loop.

Syntax:

while condition1:

while condition2:

# code block of inner loop

# code block of outer loop

Example:
I = 0while i < 3: # Outer loop
j=0
while j < 2: # Inner loop
print(f"i = {i}, j = {j}"
j=j+1
i = i + 1 Output:i = 0, j = 0i = 0, j = 1i = 1, j = 0i = 1, j = 1i = 2, j = 0i = 2,
j=1

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2.4 JUMP STATEMENTS

2.4.1 BREAK STATEMENT

The break statement is used to exit a loop permanently.

Regardless of the loop condition when encountered, it
immediately terminates the inner most loop.

Syntax: break

Eg:

for i in range (10):

if 1 = = 3
break

print (i)

O/P:

1,2

Flowchart:

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2.4.2 CONTINUE STATEMENT

 The continue statement skips the current iteration of the

loop and moves to the next iteration
 It does not exit the loop

Syntax:

Continue
Eg:

for i in range (10):

if i == 3

Continue
print (i)

O/P:
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9

Flow Chart:

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2.4.3 PASS: (DO NOTHING)

Pass statement is a placeholder

It is used when a statement is syntactically recurred but you

don’t want to execute any code

Eg:

for i in range(5)

if i = = 3

pass

print(i)

O/P:

1,2,3,4

Flow chart :

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2.5 FRUITFUL FUNCTIONS

Function that returns values are called as fruitful functions.

Input the value fruitful fun return value

 Return values
 Parameters
 Local and global scope
 Function composition
 recursion

2.5.1 Return values

A fruitful function is one that computes a result and returns a

value to the caller using the return statement

Syntax:

def function _ name (parameter)

# function logic

return value

Eg:

def add (a,b):

return a +b

result = add (3,5)

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Print (result)

O/P: 7

2.5.2 Parameters

Parameters are the values that are passed into a function. When
its called they are place holders that allow the function to accept
input and perform its task with different values.

Syntax:

def _ function name (p1, p2):

# function body

Eg:

def greet (name):

return f “hello, {name} !”

message = greet (“joe”)

print (message)

O/P:

Hello Joe!

2.5.3 Function composition

It is the process of combining two or more functions to produce

a new fn.
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In python you can compose functions by calling one fn inside

another fn.

Eg:

def square(x):

return x*x

def double (x):

return x*2

def square _ than _ double (x)

return double (square(x))

result = square _ then _ double(3)

print (result)

2.5.4 Recursion

Property in which one fn call its repeatedly parameters are

changed on each all

Syntax:

def recursive function (parameter)

if base _ condition

return base value

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else:

return recursive_ function (modified _ parameter)

Eg:

def _ factorial (n):

if n = = 0

return 1

else:

return n* factorial (n-1)

print (factorial (5))

O/P:

120

2.6 PRACTICAL

Practical Model – 1: Pass or Fail

Q: Write a program to check whether a student has passed

or failed using conditional logic.

Algorithm

 Start
 Read the marks of the student

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 If marks ≥ 50, then display "Pass"

 Else, display "Fail"
 Stop

Pseudocode

BEGIN

READ marks

IF marks >= 50 THEN

PRINT "Pass"

ELSE

PRINT "Fail"

ENDIFEND

Flowchart
Draw Flowchart Manually

Python Program

# Program to check pass or fail

marks = int(input("Enter your marks: "))

if marks >= 50:

print("Pass")else:

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print("Fail")

Sample Output

Enter your marks: 65Pass

Enter your marks: 40Fail

Practical Model – 2: Age Validation

Q: Write a program to check if a person is a minor, adult, or

invalid age.

Algorithm

 Start
 Read age of the person
 If age < 0, display "Invalid age"
 Else if age < 18, display "Minor"
 Else, display "Adult"
 Stop

Pseudocode

BEGIN

READ age

IF age < 0 THEN

PRINT "Invalid age"

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ELSE IF age < 18 THEN

PRINT "Minor"

ELSE

PRINT "Adult"

ENDIFEND

Flowchart
Draw Flowchart Manually

Python Program

# Program for age validation

age = int(input("Enter your age: "))

if age < 0:

print("Invalid age")elif age < 18:

print("Minor")else:

print("Adult")

Sample Output

Enter your age: 15Minor

Enter your age: 23Adult

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Enter your age: -5Invalid age

Practical Model – 3: Menu Driven Calculator

Q: Write a program to perform addition or subtraction

based on user’s choice.

Algorithm

 Start
 Display menu with choices: 1. Addition, 2. Subtraction
 Read user choice
 If choice = 1, read two numbers and display their sum
 Else if choice = 2, read two numbers and display their
difference
 Else, display "Invalid choice"
 Stop

Pseudocode

BEGIN

DISPLAY "1. Addition"

DISPLAY "2. Subtraction"

READ choice

IF choice = 1 THEN

READ a, b

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PRINT a + b

ELSE IF choice = 2 THEN

READ a, b

PRINT a - b

ELSE

PRINT "Invalid choice"

ENDIFEND

Flowchart
Draw Flowchart Manually

Python Program

# Menu-driven calculatorprint("1. Addition")print("2.

Subtraction")

choice = int(input("Enter your choice: "))

if choice == 1:

a = int(input("Enter first number: "))

b = int(input("Enter second number: "))

print("Result:", a + b)elif choice == 2:

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a = int(input("Enter first number: "))

b = int(input("Enter second number: "))

print("Result:", a - b)else:

print("Invalid choice")

Sample Output

1. Addition2. SubtractionEnter your choice: 1Enter first number:

20Enter second number: 15Result: 35

1. Addition2. SubtractionEnter your choice: 3Invalid choice

Practical Model – 4: Largest of Three Numbers

Q: Write a program to find the largest among three

numbers.

Algorithm

1. Start
2. Read three numbers a, b, c
3. If a > b and a > c, then a is largest
4. Else if b > c, then b is largest
5. Else, c is largest
6. Stop

Pseudocode

BEGIN

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READ a, b, c

IF a > b AND a > c THEN

PRINT "a is largest"

ELSE IF b > c THEN

PRINT "b is largest"

ELSE

PRINT "c is largest"

ENDIF

END

Flowchart
Draw Flowchart Manually

Python Program

# Program to find largest of three numbers

a = int(input("Enter first number: "))

b = int(input("Enter second number: "))

c = int(input("Enter third number: "))

if a > b and a > c:

print("Largest number is:", a)elif b > c:

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print("Largest number is:", b)else:

print("Largest number is:", c)

Sample Output

Enter first number: 10Enter second number: 25Enter third

number: 7Largest number is: 25

2.6 IMPORTANT TWO MARKS

1. What is the use of the if statement in Python?

The if statement is used to test a condition. If the condition

is true, the block of code under if is executed.

2. Differentiate between if and if-else.

if executes a block only when the condition is true, while if-

else executes one block if the condition is true and another
block if it is false.
3. What is a nested if statement?

A nested if is an if statement inside another if statement. It

is used when multiple levels of decision-making are needed.

4. What is an if-elif ladder (multi-way decision)?

The if-elif ladder is used when multiple conditions need to

be checked sequentially. Only one block of code is executed

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depending on the condition that evaluates to true.

5. Write a simple syntax of while loop.

while condition:

# statements
It executes repeatedly until the condition becomes false.

6. What is the use of a for loop in Python?

The for loop is used for iteration over a sequence (like list,
string, range). It executes once for each item in the
sequence.

7. What is a nested loop?

A nested loop is a loop inside another loop. For each

iteration of the outer loop, the inner loop executes fully.

8. What is the purpose of the pass statement?

The pass statement is a null operation. It is used as a

placeholder when no action is required in a block.

9. Write the output of the following code:

for i in range(3):

for j in range(2):

print(i, j)

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Output:

00

01

10

11

20

21

10. What happens if we forget to update the condition inside

a while loop?

If the condition always remains true, the loop runs infinitely,

leading to an infinite loop.

*******

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UNIT III

FUNCTIONS

Hiding redundancy, complexity; Parameters, arguments and

return values; formal vs actual arguments, named arguments,
Recursive & Lambda Functions. Practical: Usage of functions in
programs. (Minimum three)

3. INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONS

Definition

A function is a reusable block of code that performs a specific

task. Instead of writing the same code again and again, we put it
inside a function and reuse it.

Why Functions are Needed?

 Hiding redundancy: Repeated code can be avoided.

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 Hiding complexity: Large programs can be divided into

smaller, simple parts.
 Reusability: Write once, use many times.
 Readability: Programs become easier to understand.

Example Program

# Without function
print("Area of rectangle:", 10 * 5)
print("Area of rectangle:", 7 * 4)

# With function

def area(length, width):

return length * width

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print("Area of rectangle:", area(10, 5))

print("Area of rectangle:", area(7, 4))

Output

Area of rectangle: 50Area of rectangle: 28

3.1 NEED FOR FUNCTIONS: HIDING REDUNDANCY &

COMPLEXITY

Definition

In programming, functions are used to hide redundancy and

reduce complexity.

Hiding Redundancy

 Redundancy means repeating the same code multiple times.

 Functions help us avoid writing the same block of code
again and again by grouping it into a reusable function.

Hiding Complexity

 Complex problems can be divided into smaller, easy-to-

understand tasks using functions.
 Each function handles only one task, making the overall
program easier to read, understand, and debug.

Example 1: Without Function (Redundant Code)

# Program without using functions

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print("Square of 2 is:", 2*2)

print("Square of 3 is:", 3*3)

print("Square of 4 is:", 4*4)

Output:
Square of 2 is: 4
Square of 3 is: 9
Square of 4 is: 16

Here, the logic x*x is repeated again and again → Redundancy.

Example 2: With Function (Redundancy Removed)

def square(x): # Function definition

return x * x

# Function call

print("Square of 2 is:", square(2))

print("Square of 3 is:", square(3))

print("Square of 4 is:", square(4))

Output:

Square of 2 is: 4
Square of 3 is: 9
Square of 4 is: 16

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Now, the code x*x is written only once inside the function →
Redundancy hidden.

Example 3: Hiding Complexity with Functions

def get_marks():

return int(input("Enter marks: "))

def calculate_grade(marks):

if marks >= 90:

return "A"

elif marks >= 75:

return "B"

elif marks >= 50:

return "C"

else:

return "Fail"

def display_result(grade):

print("Your Grade is:", grade)

# Main Program

marks = get_marks()

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grade = calculate_grade(marks)

display_result(grade)

Output (Sample Run):

Enter marks: 82Your Grade is: B

Here, the complex task (grading system) is split into 3 smaller

functions:

1. get_marks() – Input handling

2. calculate_grade() – Logic part
3. display_result() – Output display

This makes the program easier to read and maintain →

Complexity hidden.

3.2 FUNCTION DEFINITION AND CALLING

A function in Python is defined using the def keyword, followed

by the function name, parameters, and a block of statements.
Functions must be called to execute their code.

Syntax:

def function_name(parameters):
"""Optional docstring: explains purpose of the function"""
# block of code
return value

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Fig 3.2 Function Definition And Calling

Example:

def greet():
print("Welcome to Python Functions!")

# Function call
greet()

 Definition: Creates the function and assigns it a name.

 Call: Executes the function by its name, optionally
passing arguments.

3.3 PARAMETERS AND ARGUMENTS

Functions can receive inputs through parameters and arguments.

 Parameters: Variables defined inside parentheses of the

function definition.
 Arguments: Actual values or variables passed during
the function call.

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Example:

def add(x, y): # x, y are parameters

return x + y

print(add(5, 7)) # 5, 7 are arguments

Types of Arguments:

 Positional Arguments – Order matters.

 Default Arguments – Provide fallback values.
 Variable-Length Arguments – *args (non-keyword),
**kwargs (keyword arguments).

3.4 RETURN VALUES

Functions can send results back using the return statement.

 Single Return: Function returns one value.

 Multiple Returns: Functions can return tuples
containing multiple values.

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Example:

def divide(a, b):

quotient = a // b
remainder = a % b
return quotient, remainder

q, r = divide(17, 5)
print("Quotient:", q, "Remainder:", r)

Here, the function hides the complexity of division and exposes

clear output.

3.5 FORMAL VS ACTUAL ARGUMENTS

Definition

Formal Arguments

 The variables declared in the function definition.

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 They act as placeholders to receive values when the

function is called.
 Example: In def add(a, b):, a and b are formal arguments

Actual Arguments

 The real values (or variables) that are passed when calling
the function.
 They replace the formal arguments during execution.
 Example: In add(5, 10), the values 5 and 10 are actual
arguments.

Example Program 1: Simple Addition

def add(a, b): # a and b are formal arguments

print("Sum:", a + b)

add(5, 10) # 5 and 10 are actual arguments

Output:

Sum: 15

Example Program 2: Greeting Function

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def greet(name): # name → formal argument

print("Hello,", name)

greet("Daniel") # "Daniel" → actual argument

Output:

Hello, Daniel

This distinction is important because formal arguments act as

placeholders, while actual arguments supply data.

Basis Formal Argument Actual Argument

Variables in the Values given in the

Definition
function definition function call

Exists only inside the Exists in the calling

Existence
function program

Example (in
a, b 5, 10 in add(5,10)
add(a,b))

3.6 NAMED ARGUMENTS

In Python, arguments can be passed by explicitly mentioning the

parameter name, making code clearer and avoiding positional
confusion.

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Example:

def student(name, age, course):

print(name, "is", age, "years old studying", course)

student(age=19, course="CSE", name="Rahul")

Advantages:

 Improves readability
 Reduces errors in large functions
 Allows skipping some parameters if defaults are defined

3.7 RECURSIVE FUNCTIONS

A recursive function is one that calls itself. It is often used to

solve problems that can be broken down into smaller, similar
sub-problems.

Rules for Recursion:

1. A base case must stop recursion.

2. Each recursive call should simplify the problem.
Example – Factorial:

def factorial(n):
if n == 0:
return 1
else:
return n * factorial(n - 1)

print("Factorial of 5 is", factorial(5))

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 Advantages: Reduces code length, natural

representation of mathematical definitions.
 Disadvantages: Higher memory usage (stack calls), risk
of infinite recursion if base case is missing.

3.8 LAMBDA (ANONYMOUS) FUNCTIONS

Lambda functions are small, unnamed functions created with the

lambda keyword. They are useful for short operations where
defining a full function is unnecessary.

Syntax:

lambda arguments: expression

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Example:

square = lambda x: x * x
print(square(7))

 Can be used with higher-order functions like map(),

filter(), and reduce().

Example with filter():

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
evens = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))
print("Even numbers:", evens)

3.9 PRACTICAL

3.9.1 USAGE OF FUNCTIONS IN PROGRAMS

(MINIMUM THREE)

Program 1 – Prime Number Checker

def is_prime(n):
if n <= 1:
return False
for i in range(2, int(n**0.5) + 1):
if n % i == 0:
return False
return True

num = 29
print(num, "is prime?", is_prime(num))

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Program 2 – Fibonacci Sequence (Recursion)

def fibonacci(n):
if n <= 1:
return n
return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2)

for i in range(6):
print(fibonacci(i), end=" ")

Program 3 – Using Lambda with Map & Filter

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, numbers))

evens = list(filter(lambda x: x % 2 == 0, numbers))

print("Squares:", squares)
print("Evens:", evens)

3.10 SUMMARY TABLE :

Definition (Easy Outp

Concept Example Program (Simple)
Words) ut

Hiding Avoids repeating the python\ndef square(x):\n

25100
Redundancy same code again and return
again by grouping it into x*x\nprint(square(5))\nprint(

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Definition (Easy Outp

Concept Example Program (Simple)
Words) ut

a function. square(10))

python\ndef add(a,b):\n
Breaks a big/complex
return a+b\n\ndef sub(a,b):\n
Hiding problem into smaller
return a- 155
Complexity functions to make it
b\n\nprint(add(10,5))\nprint(s
easy to understand.
ub(10,5))

Parameters are variables

Parameters in function definition. python\ndef greet(name):\n
Hello
& Arguments are actual print(\"Hello\",
Daniel
Arguments values passed when name)\n\ngreet(\"Daniel\")
calling the function.

A function can return a

Return python\ndef cube(x):\n return
result back to the main 27
Values x**3\n\nprint(cube(3))
program.

Formal Arguments –
python\ndef add(a,b): # a,b
Formal vs Variables defined inside
are formal\n return
Actual function.Actual 7
a+b\n\nprint(add(3,4)) # 3,4
Arguments Arguments – Values
are actual
passed while calling.

python\ndef student(name,
We can pass arguments
Named age):\n print(name, Jojo
by name instead of
Arguments age)\n\nstudent(age=20, 20
position.
name=\"Jojo\")

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Definition (Easy Outp

Concept Example Program (Simple)
Words) ut

A function calling itself python\ndef fact(n):\n if

Recursive
repeatedly until a n==1:\n return 1\n return 120
Function
condition is met. n*fact(n-1)\n\nprint(fact(5))

A small one-line
Lambda
function without a python\nsquare = lambda x:
(Anonymous 36
name, often used for x*x\nprint(square(6))
) Function
simple tasks.

3.11 IMPORTANT TWO MARKS

 Need for functions

Functions help us avoid repetition and make programs simple
by dividing them into smaller, reusable parts. They improve
readability and reduce errors.

 Redundancy
Redundancy means writing the same code again and again.
Functions remove redundancy by storing repeated code in
one place and reusing it.

 Complexity
Large programs are difficult to understand. Functions reduce
complexity by breaking them into smaller, manageable
sections.

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 Parameter
A parameter is a variable used in the function definition. It
acts as a placeholder to accept input values when the function
is called.

 Argument
An argument is the actual value or data passed to a function
during the call. It replaces the parameter temporarily while
the function executes.

 Return value
Functions can send back a result to the main program using
the return statement. If no return is given, Python
automatically returns None.

 Formal arguments
Formal arguments are the variables defined in the function
header. They act as placeholders for the values passed during
a function call.

 Actual arguments
Actual arguments are the real values or variables passed to a
function during its call. They are substituted into the formal
arguments.

 Named arguments
Named arguments are passed using the parameter name
during the function call. This improves clarity and order, for
example: greet(name="John").

 Recursion
Recursion means a function calling itself again and again until

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a base condition is reached. It is useful in problems like

factorial and Fibonacci.

 Example of recursion

The factorial of a number can be calculated by recursion
where n! = n * (n-1)!. The base condition stops the function
when n = 0.

 Lambda function

A lambda is an anonymous (nameless) function written in
one line using the lambda keyword. It is often used for small
calculations.

 Example of lambda

For example, add = lambda x, y: x+y creates a function that
returns the sum of two numbers without using def.

 Code reusability

Functions provide reusability, meaning once written, the
same function can be used many times in a program or in
other programs.

 Multiple return values

In Python, functions can return more than one value by
separating them with commas. The values are returned as a
tuple.

 Default return

If a function does not use the return statement, it
automatically returns the special value None in Python.

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 Built-in vs User-defined functions

Built-in functions are provided by Python (like len(), max()),
while user-defined functions are created by the programmer.

 Default arguments

Parameters can have default values which are used when no
argument is passed. For example, def greet(name="Guest").

 Syntax of function

The general syntax is:

def function_name(parameters):

statements

********

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UNIT IV

STRINGS & COLLECTIONS

String Comparison, Formatting, Slicing, Splitting, Stripping,

List, tuples, and dictionaries, basic list operators, searching and
sorting lists; dictionary literals, adding and removing keys,
accessing and replacing values. Practical: String manipulations
and operations on lists, tuples, sets, and dictionaries. (Minimum
three)

4.1 STRINGS:

String is basically sequence of characters

Eg:

>>>str = “hello python”

>>> str 1 = str.upper ()

print (str 1)

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print (str)

len (str)

O/P:

HELLO PYTHON

Hello python

12

4.1.1 STRING SLICING:

A substring of a string is obtained by taking a slice. Similarly

we can slice a list to refer to sublist of the items in the list

Eg:

>>>str = “Hello python”

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>>>print (str [0.6])

>>>print (str [0:])

>>>print (str [9:12])

>>>print (str[1:11])

O/P

Hello

Hello python

hon

ello python

4.1.2 IMMUTABILITY:

We cannot change the existing string

>>>str = “Hello python”

>>> print (str[0])

>>>'h'

Type error

To make the desire changes we need to take new string and

manipulate it as per our requirements.

>>>> str = "Hello python"

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>>> new_str = 'P' + str [6:]

>>> print (new_str)

O/P:

Hello Python

4.1.3 STRING FUNCTIONS AND METHODS:

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1.String concatenation:

Joining of two or more string is called string Concatenation.

>>>str1= "Hello"

>>>str2= "Python".

>>> Print (str1+ str2)

2.string comparison:

>,<=,= =

>>> str = "Hello"

>>> str1 "Python"

>>> print (str > Str1)

False

3.String Repeatation:

we can repeat the string using * Operator

>>>str = "Hello"

print ( str*4)

Hello Hello Hello Hello.

4.Membership test:

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The membership of particular character is determined using

Keyword

>>>str1 = "Hello"

>>> ‘H' in Str1

True

>>>'E' in str1

False.

PYTHON STRING METHODS:

1. Count()

Count the list values

2. Capitalize()

Capitalize the first letter

3. find ()

Finds the needed value

4. Index
5. isainum ()

return true if all are alphabets or numbers

6. is digit()

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Return true if all are numbers

7. is lower ()
8. is upper()

STRING MODULE:

The String module contains number of constants and functions

to process the strings. We use the string module python program
we need to import it at the beginning,

1. The cap words function to display first letter capital

2. The upper function and lower case
3. Translation of character to other form

1. The capwords function to display first letter capital.

Syntax:

String.capwords (str)

>>>str="hello Python Program"

>>> String. Capwords (str)

O/P:

Hello Python Program

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2.The upper function and lower case

Syntax:

String. upper(str)

String. lower (str)

3. Translation of character to other form:

The maketrans() returns the translation table for passing to

translate(), that will map each character in from-ch into the
character at the same position in to-ch. The from-ch and to-ch
must have the same lengths

Syntax:

string. maketrans (from-ch,to_ch)

Eg:

String module 2.py

from-ch= "aco"

to-ch= "012"

new_str = str. maketrans (from-ch, to-ch)

str = "I love programming in python”

print (str)

print (str. translate ( new_str))

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O/P:

I love programming in python

I l2v1 pr2gramming in python

In above program we have generated a translation table for the

characters a, e and o characters. These characters will be
mapped to 0, 1 and 2 respectively using the function maketrans.

The actual conversation of the given string will take place using
the function translate.

4.2 PYTHON COLLECTIONS OVERVIEW

4.2.1 LISTS

 Arrays and list are both used in python to store data

 Number is used to create an array in python
 It’s a module which contains array they are used to store
any type of data and can be indexed
 The functions which can be performed in list and array
are distinct

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Call by Value (Local variable)

def modify (x):

x=x+10

Print ("Inside function:",x)

num = 5

modify (num)

print("Outside function:", num)

O/P:

Inside function: 15

Outside function: 5

 Cannot be Modified in place

 so, when passed to a function a new copy is created
 Tuples are Immutable

Global variable

 Mutable object can be modifies in place

 So changes inside a fn reflect outside
 Lists are mutable

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Call by Reference

Def modify (lst):

Print (“Inside function: lst”)

Numbers = [1,2,3]

Modify (numbers)

Print (“outside function”, number)

O/P:

Inside function: [1,2,3,10]

Outside function: [1,2,3,10]

4.2.2 TUPLE

 A Tuple is a sequence of values. The values can be of any

type and they are idexed as Integers.

 Tuples are immutable.

 Tuples are comma separated list of values.

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Eg:

>>> Tuple =(A’, ‘a’, ‘E’, ‘e’, ‘I’, ‘i’, ‘O’, ‘o’, ‘U’, ‘u’)

(or)

Tuple = A’, ‘a’, ‘E’, ‘e’, ‘I’, ‘i’, ‘O’, ‘o’, ‘U’, ‘u’

It is not necessary to enclose Tuples within paranthesis. To

create a tuple with a single element we have to include a
common in final

Eg:

>>> t1 = ‘a’

>>> type (t1)

>>> class. Tuple

Another way to create a tuple is by built in function. If we create

a Tuple with no arguments that is referred as empty tuple.

Eg:

>>>t2 = Tuple (‘fruit’)

>>>print (t2)

(‘f’, ‘r’, ‘u’, ‘i’, ‘t’)

>>>print (t2 [2])

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O/P

Tuples are immutable which means we cannot update or change

the values of tuple but we can replace one tuple with another.

Eg:

>>> t = (1,2,3,4,5)

>>>t = (‘a’,) + t[1]

>>>print (t)

O/P

(a,2,3,4,5)

4.2.2.1 TUPLE ASSIGNMENT

1. An assignment to all of the elements in a tuple using a

single assignment statement
2. Python has a very powerful tuple assignment feature that
allows a tuple of variable on the left of an assignment to
be assigned values from a tuple on the right of the
assignment
3. The left side is a tuple of variables the right side is a
tuple of values each value is assigned to its respective
variable

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4. All the expressions on the right side are evaluates before

any of the assignments this feature makes tuple
assignment quite versatile.
5. Naturally, the no. of variables on the left and the no. of
values of the right have to be the same.

Tuple Assignment

>>> (a,b,c,d) = (1,2,3)

Value Error: need more than 3 values to Unpack,

4.2.2.2 TUPLE PACKING / UNPACKING

In tuple packing, the values on the left are ‘packed’ together in a

tuple

>>> b=("George", 25, "20000") # tuple packing

In tuple unpacking, the values in a tuple on the the right are

'unpacked’ into the variable

The right side can be any kind of sequence

>>> b= "George", 25, "20000") # tuple packing.
>>> (name, age, salary)=b #tuple unpacking.
>>> name
'George'
>>>age

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25
>>>salary
‘20000’

4.2.3 SETS

 Definition: Unordered collection of unique items,

written inside {}.
 Key features:
o No duplicate elements
o Supports mathematical operations like union,
intersection, difference

Example:

nums = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4}
print(nums) # {1, 2, 3, 4}

4.2.4 DICTIONARIES:

A Dictionary organises information position in python by

association. Not position in python. In python a dictionary
associates a set of keys with data values.

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A Python dictionary is written as a sequence of keys or value

pairs separated by commas. These pairs are called entities. The
entire sequence of entity is enclosed in curly braces.

NOTE:

Element in dictionaries and not by are accessed via keys and not
by their position

Dict {'Name': 'Joe', 'Age: 7, 'class': first}

4.2.4.1 DICTIONARY OPERATION

Operation Description Example Output

Define using {} student =

{'name': 'Daniel',
Create Dictionary with key–value {"name":"Daniel",
'age': 23}
pairs "age":23}

Access Value Use key inside [] student["name"] Daniel

Use .get()
Get Value (safe) student.get("age") 23
method

{'name':'Daniel',
Assign new key– student["course"] =
Add Item 'age':23,
value "Python"
'course':'Python'}

Reassign value to {'name':'Daniel',

Update Value student["age"] = 24
key 'age':24}

Remove Item student.pop("age") {'name':'Daniel'}

pop(key)

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Operation Description Example Output

removes by key

popitem()
Remaining dict
Remove Last Item removes last student.popitem()
without last pair
inserted

Delete Key Use del keyword del student["name"] {}

Clear Dictionary Remove all items student.clear() {}

dict_keys(['name','a
Keys Get all keys student.keys()
ge'])

dict_values(['Danie
Values Get all values student.values()
l',23])

Get key–value dict_items([('name',

Items student.items()
pairs 'Daniel'),('age',23)])

Loop Keys Iterate dictionary for k in student: print(k) name age

for v in student.values():
Loop Values Iterate values Daniel 23
print(v)

for k,v in
Iterate key–value
Loop Items student.items(): name Daniel age 23
pairs
print(k,v)

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4.2.4.2 DICTIONARY METHODS

Method Description Example Output

Removes all elements

clear() student.clear() {}
from the dictionary

Returns a shallow copy {'name':'Daniel','age'

copy() x = student.copy()
of the dictionary :23}

Creates a new dictionary

fromkeys(se with keys from a dict.fromkeys(['a','b'],'
{'a':'zero','b':'zero'}
q, value) sequence and a common zero')
value

Returns value for key;

get(key,
returns default if key not student.get('age', 0) 23
default)
found

Returns view object with dict_items([('name','

items() student.items()
all key–value pairs Daniel'), ('age',23)])

Returns view object with dict_keys(['name','ag

keys() student.keys()
all keys e'])

Returns view object with dict_values(['Daniel',

values() student.values()
all values 23])

Removes item with

pop(key,
given key and returns its student.pop('age') 23
default)
value

popitem() Removes and returns the student.popitem() ('age', 23)

last inserted key–value

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Method Description Example Output

pair

Returns value of key; if Adds

setdefault(ke student.setdefault('cou
key not present, inserts 'course':'Python' if
y, default) rse','Python')
with default value not present

Updates dictionary with

student.update({'age':2 {'name':'Daniel','age'
update(dict2) key–value pairs from
4}) :24}
another dictionary

4.3 BASIC LIST OPREATIONS

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4.3.1 BASIC LIST OPERATORS IN PYTHON

Operator Description Example Output

+ Concatenates two lists [1,2,3] + [4,5] [1,2,3,4,5]

[1,2,1,2,1,2
* Repeats list elements [1,2] * 3
]

Checks if element exists

in 3 in [1,2,3] True
in list

Checks if element does

not in 5 not in [1,2,3] True
not exist

Returns number of items len([10,20,30]

len() 3
in list )

Returns smallest
min() min([4,7,1]) 1
element

max() Returns largest element max([4,7,1]) 7

sum() Returns sum of elements sum([1,2,3,4]) 10

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4.3.2 LIST METHODS IN PYTHON

Method Description Example Output

Adds element to the

append(x) lst.append(10) [1,2,3,10]
end

Inserts element at
insert(i, x) lst.insert(1,99) [1,99,2,3]
index i

Adds all elements of lst.extend([4,5]

extend(list2) [1,2,3,4,5]
another list )

Removes first
remove(x) lst.remove(2) [1,3,4]
occurrence of element

Removes and returns

Returns last
pop(i) element at index i lst.pop()
element
(default last)

clear() Removes all elements lst.clear() []

Returns index of first

index(x) lst.index(3) 2
occurrence of x

Returns number of
count(x) lst.count(2) 1
times x appears

Sorts list in ascending

sort() lst.sort() [1,2,3,4]
order (by default)

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Method Description Example Output

Reverses the order of

reverse() lst.reverse() [4,3,2,1]
elements

Returns a shallow
copy() lst.copy() [1,2,3]
copy of list

4.4 SEARCHING AND SORTING LISTS

Python is an interpreted, object-oriented, high level,

programming language with dynamic semantics. Developed by
Gudio Van Rossum in 1991. It supports multiple programming
paradigms, including structured, object-oriented and functional
programming.
List are mutable means that you can change the values of list,
like we can add an element, remove, repeat and allows indexing
and slicing like strings an element from a list by using different
operators.
List can be created by using square brackets. By placing
elements inside square bracket[ ],separate by commas. For
example: list1= ["a","b"]. There is a one more type of list known
as "Nested list". It is list within list.
For example: list1=["a","b"[1,2]"c"]

Lists are one of the most important collection data structures

in Python, and often we need to search for elements or sort the
list for better organization.

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4.4.1 SEARCHING IN LISTS

Searching means finding whether an element exists in a list or

locating its position. Python provides multiple ways to search
for elements, from simple membership operators to efficient
searching algorithms.

1. Using Membership Operators (in, not in)

These are the simplest ways to check if an element exists in a

list.

Example:

numbers = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]

print(20 in numbers) # Trueprint(100 not in numbers) # True

2. Using index() Method

The index() method returns the first index position of the given
element.
If the element is not found, it raises a ValueError.

Example:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry",

"banana"]print(fruits.index("banana")) # 1

3. Linear Search (Manual Search)

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Linear search checks each element in the list one by one until
the target element is found. This method works on unsorted
lists.

Example:

def linear_search(lst, target):

for i in range(len(lst)):

if lst[i] == target:

return i # return index

return -1 # not found

numbers = [15, 8, 42, 23, 4]print(linear_search(numbers, 23)) #

3print(linear_search(numbers, 100)) # -1

4. Binary Search (Efficient for Sorted Lists)

Binary search is faster but works only on sorted lists. It

repeatedly divides the list into halves to find the target element.

Example using bisect module:

import bisect

numbers = [5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30]

pos = bisect.bisect_left(numbers, 20)

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if pos < len(numbers) and numbers[pos] == 20:

print("Found at index:", pos) # 3else:

print("Not Found")

5. Searching with List Comprehension

List comprehensions can be used to find all positions of an

element.

Example:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "banana", "grape"]

positions = [i for i, x in enumerate(fruits)

if x == "banana"]

print(positions) # [1, 3]

Summary

 Simple Search → in, not in, index()

 Linear Search → Works for any list but slower for large
data
 Binary Search → Works only on sorted lists, faster (log n
time)
 List Comprehension → Finds multiple positions easily

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Quick Exercise

1) Write a program to check if a number is present in a list.

2) Find the index of "cherry" in the list
["apple","cherry","grape"].
3) Implement a linear search function and test it with a list of
marks.
4) Use binary search to find the position of 45 in
[10,20,30,40,45,50].
5) Print all index positions of "apple" in a list using list
comprehension.

4.4.2 SORTING IN LISTS

Sorting means arranging the elements of a list in a particular

order, either ascending or descending. Python provides
multiple ways to sort lists, from built-in methods to custom
functions.

1. Using sort() Method

 Sorts the list in place (changes the original list).

 Default is ascending order.
 Accepts two optional arguments:

reverse=True → sort in descending order.

key=function → sort based on custom logic.

Example:

numbers = [5, 2, 9, 1, 7]

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numbers.sort()print(numbers) # [1, 2, 5, 7, 9]

numbers.sort(reverse=True)print(numbers) # [9, 7, 5, 2, 1]

2. Using sorted() Function

 Returns a new sorted list (does not change the original).

 Same parameters as sort().

Example:

marks = [45, 89, 23, 67]

sorted_marks = sorted(marks)

print(sorted_marks) # [23, 45, 67, 89]

print(marks) # [45, 89, 23, 67]

(unchanged)

3. Sorting with key Parameter

The key parameter allows sorting based on a specific rule or

property.

Sort by string length:

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "kiwi", "cherry"]

fruits.sort(key=len)print(fruits)

# ['kiwi', 'apple', 'cherry', 'banana']

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Sort case-insensitive:

names = ["Zara", "daniel", "Lulu", "joselin"]

names.sort(key=str.lower)

print(names) # ['daniel', 'joselin', 'Lulu', 'Zara']

4. Sorting with Custom Function

You can define your own function and use it in sorting.

Example: Sort numbers by remainder when divided by 5

def remainder5(x):

return x % 5

nums = [15, 22, 8, 19, 31]

nums.sort(key=remainder5)

print(nums) # [15, 31, 22, 8, 19]

5. Reversing a List (Not Sorting)

Sometimes we just want to reverse order without sorting.

Example:

letters = ['a','b','c','d']

letters.reverse()print(letters) # ['d','c','b','a']
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4.4.2.1 Difference between sort() and sorted()

Feature sort() sorted()

Changes Original
Yes No (returns new list)
List

Return Value None New sorted list

Slightly faster (in- Slightly slower (creates

Speed
place) copy)

Summary

 sort() → modifies the original list.

 sorted() → returns a new sorted list.
 Use reverse=True for descending order.
 Use key for custom sorting.
 reverse() only reverses, does not sort.

Quick Exercise

1) Sort a list of numbers [45, 12, 78, 34] in ascending and

descending order.
2) Sort the list ["dog","cat","elephant","bee"] by string length.
3) Use sorted() to sort a list without changing the original.
4) Write a custom sort that arranges numbers based on their
last digit.
5) Reverse a list ["one","two","three"] without sorting.
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4.4.3 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

Searching:

 Finding a student record by roll number.

 Checking availability of an item in a shopping cart.

Sorting:

 Arranging exam scores from highest to lowest.

 Sorting product names alphabetically.
 Sorting transactions by date or amount.

Summary:

 Searching → Linear search (in, index()), Binary search

(bisect).
 Sorting → sort(), sorted(), custom key-based sorting.
 Python uses Timsort (Hybrid of Merge + Insertion Sort)
internally for efficiency.

4.5 DICTIONARY LITERALS, KEYS, AND VALUES

A dictionary in Python is an unordered, mutable collection of

key-value pairs. It allows fast access to data using a unique
key instead of an index (as in lists). Dictionaries are widely used
for mapping relationships (like student roll numbers to names,
product IDs to prices, etc.).

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4.5.1 DICTIONARY LITERALS

 A dictionary literal is created using curly braces {}

with key-value pairs.
 The syntax is:
 dictionary = {key1: value1, key2: value2, key3: value3}
 Keys must be unique and immutable (string, number,
tuple).
 Values can be any data type (string, list, another
dictionary, etc.).

Syntax:

my_dict = {key1: value1, key2: value2, key3: value3}

Example:

student = {

"name": "Daniel",

"age": 23,

"department": "CSE"

}print(student)

Output:

{'name': 'Daniel', 'age': 23, 'department': 'CSE'}

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Table for Dictionary Literal Example:

Key Value

name Daniel

age 23

department CSE

4.5.2 DICTIONARY KEYS

 Keys act as identifiers for values.

 Must be unique → if a duplicate key is added, the latest
value overwrites the old one.
 Keys must be hashable (strings, numbers, tuples).

Example:

student = {"id": 101, "name": "Arun", "id": 102}

print(student)

Output: {'id': 102, 'name': 'Arun'} → The first id is overwritten.

Accessing Keys:

student = {"name": "Arun", "age": 20, "course": "CSE"}

print(student.keys()) # dict_keys(['name', 'age', 'course'])

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4.5.3 DICTIONARY VALUES

 Values can be any data type: string, int, list, dictionary, etc.
 Values can be repeated (not unique).

Example:

student = {"name": "Arun", "age": 20, "marks": [80, 85, 90]}

print(student.values()) # dict_values(['Arun', 20, [80, 85, 90]])

Accessing a value using a key:

print(student["name"]) # Arun
print(student.get("marks")) # [80, 85, 90]

4.5.4 DICTIONARY ITEMS (KEYS + VALUES)

items() returns both keys and values as pairs (tuples).

Example:

student = {"name": "Arun", "age": 20, "course": "CSE"}

print(student.items())

Output: dict_items([('name', 'Arun'), ('age', 20), ('course',

'CSE')])

4.5.5 PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

# Storing product prices

products = {"pen": 10, "notebook": 40, "bag": 500}

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# Accessing keys
for item in products.keys():
print(item)

# Accessing values
for price in products.values():
print(price)

# Accessing items
for item, price in products.items():
print(item, ":", price)

Output:

pen
notebook
bag
10
40
500
pen : 10
notebook : 40
bag : 500

4.5.6 APPLICATIONS OF DICTIONARY KEYS &

VALUES

 Student Database: Roll number → Name.

 Inventory Management: Product ID → Quantity.
 Phonebook: Name → Phone number.
 Language Translation: Word → Equivalent meaning.
 Configuration Settings: Option → Value.

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Summary:

 Dictionary Literals define key-value pairs inside {}.

 Keys must be unique and immutable.
 Values can be any type and repeated.
 Useful methods: .keys(), .values(), .items().

4.6 ACCESSING VALUES

Values are accessed using their keys.

Syntax:

value = dictionary[key]

Example:

print("Name:", student["name"])print("Age:", student["age"])

Output:

Name: DanielAge: 23

You can also use dictionary.get(key) which

returns None if the key doesn't exist (instead of
an error).

4.6.1 ADDING KEYS

You can add a new key-value pair by assigning a value to a new

key.

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Syntax:

dictionary[new_key] = new_value

Example:

student["year"] = 3print(student)

Output:

{'name': 'Daniel', 'age': 23, 'department': 'CSE', 'year': 3}

Table after Adding a Key:

Key Value

name Daniel

age 23

department CSE

year 3

4.7. REPLACING VALUES

You can replace a value by assigning a new value to an existing

key.

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Syntax:

dictionary[key] = new_value

Example:

student["age"] = 24print(student)

Output:

{'name': 'Daniel', 'age': 24, 'department': 'CSE', 'year': 3}

Table after Replacing Value:

Key Value

name Daniel

age 24

department CSE

year 3

4.7.1 REMOVING KEYS

Keys can be removed using

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 del dictionary[key]
 dictionary.pop(key)

Example:

# Using deldel student["department"]print(student)

# Using pop

removed_value = student.pop("year")print("Removed:",
removed_value)print(student)

Output:

{'name': 'Daniel', 'age': 24}

Removed: 3

{'name': 'Daniel', 'age': 24}

Table after Removing Keys:

Key Value

name Daniel

age 24

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4.8 DICTIONARY OPERATIONS IN PYTHON

Operation Syntax / Method Example Code Output

student =
Dictionary
dict_name = {key: {"name": {'name': 'Daniel',
Literal
value, ...} "Daniel", "age": 'age': 23}
(Creation)
23}

dict_name[key] student["name"]
Access Value Daniel 23
dict_name.get(key) student.get("age")

dict_name[new_key student["year"] = {'name': 'Daniel',

Add New Key
] = value 3 'age': 23, 'year': 3}

Replace dict_name[existing_ student["age"] = {'name': 'Daniel',

Value key] = new_value 24 'age': 24, 'year': 3}

Remove Key del {'name': 'Daniel',

del dict_name[key]
(del) student["year"] 'age': 24}

Returns 24
Remove Key student.pop("age"
dict_name.pop(key) Remaining: {'name':
(pop) )
'Daniel'}

Remove Last dict_name.popitem( Removes last

student.popitem()
Item ) inserted item

Check Key
key in dict_name "name" in student True
Exists

Get All Keys dict_name.keys() student.keys()

dict_keys(['name',

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Operation Syntax / Method Example Code Output

'age'])

Get All dict_values(['Daniel'

dict_name.values() student.values()
Values , 23])

dict_items([('name',
Get All Items dict_name.items() student.items() 'Daniel'), ('age',
23)])

Clear {} (empty
dict_name.clear() student.clear()
Dictionary dictionary)

4.9 ADDING, REMOVING, AND REPLACING

ELEMENTS

Lists:

fruits = ["apple", "banana"]

fruits.append("cherry") # add
fruits.remove("banana") # remove
fruits[0] = "grape" # replace

Dictionaries:

student = {"name": "Alice", "age": 20}

student["dept"] = "CSE" # add
del student["age"] # remove
student["name"] = "Bob" # replace

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Sets:

nums = {1, 2, 3}
nums.add(4)
nums.discard(2)

4.10 PRACTICAL EXERCISES

4.10.1 STRING MANIPULATIONS

Exercise 1: Palindrome Check

Write a Python program to check whether a given string is a

palindrome or not.
Example:
Input: madam → Output: Palindrome

word = input("Enter a string: ")

if word == word[::-1]:
print("Palindrome")
else:
print("Not a Palindrome")

Exercise 2: Word Frequency Counter

Write a program to count how many times each word occurs in a

given sentence.

sentence = "python is easy and python is powerful"

words = sentence.split()
freq = {}
for word in words:

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freq[word] = freq.get(word, 0) + 1
print(freq)

Exercise 3: String Formatting

Write a Python program to input name, age, and grade of a

student and display them using string formatting.

name = "Arun"
age = 20
grade = "A"
print(f"Student {name} is {age} years old and scored grade
{grade}.")

4.10.2 OPERATIONS ON LISTS

Exercise 1: Find Maximum and Minimum

Write a Python program to find the largest and smallest number

in a list.

numbers = [10, 25, 7, 56, 89, 3]

print("Max:", max(numbers))
print("Min:", min(numbers))

Exercise 2: Sorting a List

Write a program to sort a list of numbers in ascending and

descending order.

numbers = [5, 3, 8, 6, 2]
print("Ascending:", sorted(numbers))

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print("Descending:", sorted(numbers, reverse=True))

Exercise 3: List Comprehension

Write a program to generate a list of squares of numbers from 1

to 10.

squares = [x**2 for x in range(1, 11)]

print(squares)

4.10.3 OPERATIONS ON TUPLES

Exercise 1: Tuple Packing and Unpacking

person = ("Arun", 20, "CSE")

name, age, course = person
print(name, age, course)

Exercise 2: Find Element in Tuple

t = (1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
print("Is 5 in tuple?", 5 in t)

Exercise 3: Tuple Concatenation

t1 = (1, 2, 3)
t2 = (4, 5, 6)
print("Concatenated Tuple:", t1 + t2)

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4.10.4 OPERATIONS ON SETS

Exercise 1: Set Union and Intersection

a = {1, 2, 3, 4}
b = {3, 4, 5, 6}
print("Union:", a | b)
print("Intersection:", a & b)

Exercise 2: Removing Duplicates

numbers = [1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4, 5]
unique = set(numbers)
print("Unique Numbers:", unique)

Exercise 3: Set Difference

a = {1, 2, 3, 4}
b = {2, 4, 6}
print("Difference:", a - b)

4.10.5 OPERATIONS ON DICTIONARIES

Exercise 1: Student Marks Dictionary

Write a program to store student names as keys and marks as

values, then print them.

marks = {"Arun": 85, "Kavi": 92, "Meena": 78}

for name, score in marks.items():
print(name, ":", score)

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Exercise 2: Updating Dictionary

student = {"name": "Arun", "age": 20}

student["course"] = "CSE"
print(student)

Exercise 3: Frequency Count Using Dictionary

text = "apple banana apple orange banana apple"

words = text.split()
freq = {}
for word in words:
freq[word] = freq.get(word, 0) + 1
print(freq)

Summary of Practical Exercises:

 Strings → Manipulation, formatting, word frequency.

 Lists → Sorting, searching, comprehensions.
 Tuples → Packing/unpacking, searching, concatenation.
 Sets → Union, intersection, removing duplicates.
 Dictionaries → Storing, updating, counting frequencies.

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4.11 IMPORTANT TWO MARKS

STRINGS

1. What is string comparison in Python?

String comparison is checking whether two strings are equal
or which one is greater/lesser based on ASCII/Unicode
values using operators like ==, !=, <, >.

2. Give an example of string comparison.

print("apple" < "banana") # True

3. What is string formatting?

String formatting allows inserting variables into strings
using format() or f-strings.
Example:

name = "Daniel"print(f"Hello {name}")

4. What is string slicing?

Extracting a part of a string using [start:end:step].
Example: "Python"[0:3] → 'Pyt'

5. Differentiate between split() and strip().

 split() breaks a string into a list based on a separator.

 strip() removes leading and trailing whitespaces.

Example for split() and strip().

"hi,hello".split(",") → ['hi','hello']

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" hello ".strip() → 'hello'

LISTS, TUPLES, DICTIONARIES

1. What is the difference between lists and tuples?

 List: Mutable (can be changed).

 Tuple: Immutable (cannot be changed).

Example of list and tuple

list1 = [1, 2, 3]

tuple1 = (1, 2, 3)

2. What are dictionary literals?

Dictionary literals are created using {key: value} notation.
Example: student = {"name":"Daniel", "age":23}
3. How to add and remove keys in a dictionary?

I. Add: dict["key"] = value

II. Remove: dict.pop("key") or del dict["key"]

4. How to access dictionary values?

Using keys: dict[key] or dict.get(key)

5. How to replace a dictionary value?

Reassign value to the key.
Example: student["age"] = 2

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BASIC LIST OPERATIONS

6. What are basic list operators in Python?

+ (concatenation), * (repetition), in (membership), len()
(length).

7. Give an example of list concatenation.

[1,2] + [3,4] → [1,2,3,4]

8. How to search an element in a list?

Using in operator or list.index().
Example: 3 in [1,2,3] → True

9. How to sort a list in Python?

Using sort() (in-place) or sorted() (returns new list).
Example: nums = [3,1,2]; nums.sort() → [1,2,3]

*********

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UNIT V

FILES OPERATIONS

Create, Open, Read, Write, Append and Close files.

Manipulating directories, OS and Sys modules, reading/writing
text and numbers, from/to a file; creating and reading a
formatted file (csv, tab-separated, etc.);Practical: Opening,
closing, reading and writing in formatted file format and sort
data. (Minimum three)

5.INTRODUCTION:

File is a named location on disk to store related information.

Since, RAM (Random Access Memory) is volatile. Which loses
its data when computer is turned off we use files for future use
of the data.

I/P & O/P

CPU N/W
derive

Main Second
memory memory

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5.1 FILE HANDLING COCEPTS

Opening and closing file:

open H
A
close
N
read D
Pspp
write E
database
Your program

File types:

 Text file
 Binary file
Text file:

 It is a type of file which is used to store textual

information
 Structured as a sequence of lines
 Once you store a data in a text file it remains even if you
shutdown and restart a computer
Binary file:

Is any type of file that, is not a text file.

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5.2 CREATING AND OPENING FILES

Fig 5.2 CREATING AND OPENING FILES

Opening a file:

In python there is an in built fn called open() to open a file

The open function:

Syntax:

file object = open(file _name

[, access-mode] [, buffering])

file_name→that contains the name of the file that we want to

access

access mode → It determines the mode in which the file has to

be opened.

buffering → If the buffering Value is set too, no buffering takes

place

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If the value is 1, line buffering takes place.

Buffering Value> 1, the buffering action is performed with the

indicated buffer size.

If -ve the buffer size & system default.

Eg:

f=open("Popes.txt", 'r', "encoding="utf-8”)

Python file modes:

Mode Description
‘r’ Open a file for reading
‘w’ Open a file for writing creates a new file if
it does not exist.
‘rb’ Open only a file for reading only in a binary
format
‘wb’ Opening a file for writing only in a binary
format
‘rt’ Opens a file for both reading and writing

‘wt’ Opens a file for both writing and reading

‘rbt’ Open a file for reading and writing in a

binary file
‘wbt’ Open a file for writing and reading ina
binary file.
‘a’ Open a file for appending at the end.

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‘ab’ Open a file for appending in binary format

‘a+’ Open a file for both appending and reading

‘ab+’ Open a file for both appending and reading

in binary format
‘+’ Open a file for update

Closing a file:

In python for closing a file

The close method: the close() is used.

Syntax

file object. close()

Eg:

f = open("text.txt",'r', encoding="utf-8')

f.close()

5.3 READING AND WRITING FILES

Reading a file

 To read a file in python we must open a filein reading mode.

 We can use the read() size method to read the size of datas.

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 If size parameter is not specified it reads and file return the

whole

Fig 5.3 READING AND WRITING FILES

Eg:

f= open ("Popes.txt","r", "encoding="utf-8')

f. read(4) →read till the 4th word Eg(Dr.G.)

f.read()→reads the whole file

f.tell ()→ tells were we are reading (4)

f.seek→tells 10th word. (e)

f. read line ()→reads line by line.

Writing a file for writing the contents to the file we must 1st
open it in the write mode. Here we use ‘w’, ‘a’ or ‘r’ as a file
mode.

F= open ("Popes.txt", 'w', encoding= ‘utf-8’)

f.write("Dr. G. U. Pope”\n)
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f.write ("College of “\n)

f.write ("Engg "\n)

f. write("sawyerpuram" \n)

f. write ("AUNIT OF” \ n)

5.4 APPEND AND CLOSE FILES IN PYTHON

Append Mode ('a' or 'a+')

Adds data at the end of an existing file without deleting

previous content.

'a' → Append only

'a+' → Append and Read

Syntax:

file = open("filename.txt", "a")

file.write("Text to append\n")

file.close()

Using with (Recommended):

with open("filename.txt", "a") as file:

file.write("Text to append\n")# Automatically closes file

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Close a File

 close() saves changes and frees system resources.

 Using with handles closing automatically.

Key Points:

 Always close files after operations.

 Append mode prevents overwriting existing data.

5.5 DIRECTORY MANIPULATION (OS AND SYS

MODULES)

Python provides a lot of libraries to interact with the

development environment. If you need help using the OS and
Sys Module in Python, you have landed in the right place. This
article covers a detailed explanation of the OS and Sys Module
including their comparison. By the end of this article, you will
be able to easily decide which module suits your Python
application development.
What is the OS Module?
OS stands for the Operating System module in Python that
allows the developers to interact with the operating system. It
provides functions to perform tasks like file and directory
manipulation, process management, and more. For example,
we can get information about the operating system, such as the
current working directory and the user's home directory. This
makes it suitable for managing the system-level operations.
What is the Sys Module?
On the other hand, the System, abbreviated as the Sys Module
helps us to interact with the Python runtime environment. It

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allows access to variables used or maintained by the Python

interpreter. It also provides tools such as ‘sys.argv’ for
command-line arguments, system-specific parameters, or
exiting scripts. Also, developers can easily manipulate
parameters related to the interpreter's configuration, standard
streams, and exit codes. Hence, we can easily manipulate the
various parts of the Python Runtime environment.

The os and sys modules help manage files and directories.

Sys. Module Vs OS Module

Below are some of the examples by which we can understand
the difference between sys module and os module in Python:

5.5.1 Accessing Details

The Sys Module can access the command line arguments and
the os module can access the location of the script as shown in
the below code.

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5.5.2 Returning Path

The OS Module gives the Python Path within the system and the
Sys module gives the Python Path that is shown below:

5.5.3 Environment Variables and Command Line

Arguments

You can use OS Module to get the Environment Variables and

Sys module to access the Command line arguments. This is
illustrated as shown below.

import os, sys

print(os.getcwd()) # Current directory

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os.mkdir("NewFolder") # Create directory

os.rename("old.txt", "new.txt")
os.remove("new.txt") # Delete file
os.rmdir("NewFolder") # Remove directory
print(sys.version) # Python version info

5.5.4 Reading/Writing Text and Numbers

Writing numbers:

f = open("numbers.txt", "w")
for i in range(1, 6):
f.write(str(i) + "\n")
f.close()

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Reading numbers:

f = open("numbers.txt", "r")
nums = f.readlines()
nums = [int(x.strip()) for x in nums]
print(nums)
f.close()

5.6 Difference between os and sys module in Python

Feature os Module sys Module

Deals with operating system Provides access to Python

dependent functions like file interpreter variables and
Purpose
handling, process management, functions that interact with
directory operations. the runtime environment.

Used for file paths, Used for command-line

creating/removing directories, arguments, exiting programs,
Usage
environment variables, process controlling standard I/O,
management. Python version info.

Example os.getcwd(), os.mkdir(), sys.argv, sys.exit(),

Functions os.remove(), os.environ sys.version, sys.path

python import os; python import sys;

Example
print(os.getcwd()) → shows print(sys.argv) → shows
Code
current directory command-line args

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5.7 READING/WRITING FORMATTED FILES (CSV,

TAB-SEPARATED, ETC.)

5.7.1 Working with csv files in Python

A CSV (Comma Separated Values) file is a plain text file
where each line represents a data record, and fields within each
record are separated by commas. It's commonly used for
spreadsheets and databases due to its simplicity and readability.
Below are some operations that we perform while working
with Python CSV files in Python
5.7.1.1 Reading a CSV file
Reading from a CSV file is done using the reader object. The
CSV file is opened as a text file with Python’s built-in open()
function, which returns a file object. In this example, we first
open the CSV file in READ mode, file object is converted to
csv.reader object and further operation takes place. Code and
detailed explanation is given below.

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Explanation:
 with open(...) opens the CSV file in read mode safely using
a context manager.
 csv.reader(csvfile) turns the file into a CSV reader object.
 next(csvreader) extracts the first row as column headers.
 Loop through csvreader to append each row (as a list) to
rows.
 Print total rows, headers and first 5 data rows in a formatted
view.
5.7.1.2 Reading CSV Files Into a Dictionary With csv
We can read a CSV file into a dictionary using the csv module
in Python and the csv.DictReader class. Here's an example:
Suppose, we have a employees.csv file and content inside it
will be:
name,department,birthday_month
John Smith,HR,July
Alice Johnson,IT,October
Bob Williams,Finance,January
Example: This reads each row as a dictionary (headers as
keys), then appends it to list .

Explanation:
 with open(...) opens the file using a context manager.
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 csv.DictReader(file) reads each row as a dictionary using

headers as keys.
 data_list.append(row) stores each dictionary in a list.
5.7.1.3 Writing to a CSV file
To write to a CSV file, we first open the CSV file in WRITE
mode. The file object is converted to csv.writer object and
further operations takes place. Code and detailed explanation is
given below.

Explanation:
 fields defines the column headers and rows contains the
data as a list of lists.
 with open(..., 'w') opens the file in write mode using a
context manager.
 csv.writer(csvfile) creates a writer object for writing to the
CSV.
 writerow(fields) writes the header row to the file.
 writerows(rows) writes all data rows to the CSV at once.

5.7.1.4 Writing a dictionary to a CSV file

To write a dictionary to a CSV file, the file object (csvfile) is
converted to a DictWriter object. Detailed example with
explanation and code is given below.
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Explanation:
 with open(...) opens file safely using a context manager.
 csv.DictWriter(...) maps dictionary keys to CSV columns.
 writeheader() writes column headers.
 writerows(mydict) writes all dictionaries as CSV rows.

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5.7.2 SIMPLE WAYS TO READ TSV FILES IN PYTHON

Reading a TSV (Tab-Separated Values) file

in Python involves parsing the file and extracting structured
data where each field is separated by a tab character (\t). In this
article, we will use a sample file named Dani.tsv to
demonstrate how to read data from a TSV file.

5.7.2.1 Using read_csv(sep='\t')

Pandas library provides a powerful read_csv() function and by

simply setting sep='\t', you can handle TSV files effortlessly. It
reads the entire file into a structured DataFrame, making it
perfect for data analysis and manipulation.
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv('dani.tsv', sep='\t')
print(df)

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Explanation: pd.read_csv(...) reads a tab-separated file using

pandas and stores the data in df, a DataFrame that simplifies
viewing, analyzing and handling tabular data.

5.7.2.2 Using csv.reader()

This method is great if you're looking for a lightweight and
built-in solution. Python’s csv module can read TSV files just
by setting the delimiter to '\t'. It reads the file line by line and
returns each row as a list.
import csv
with open("dani.tsv", newline='') as file:
tsv_reader = csv.reader(file, delimiter='\t')
for row in tsv_reader:
print(row)

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Explanation: csv.reader() reads the TSV file line by line,

splitting each row into a list using the tab ('\t') delimiter. Each
line is printed as a list of values.

5.7.2.3 Using Generator expression

This is a minimal and memory-friendly approach for quick
tasks or when working with very large files line by line. It
doesn't require any libraries and processes each line as it’s read.
with open("dani.tsv") as f:
data = (line.strip().split('\t') for line in f)
for row in data:
print(row)

Explanation: Generator expression read the file line by line,

strips any leading spaces, splits the line by tabs and prints each
row as a list.

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5.7.2.4 Using csv.DictReader()

If you want to access each row using column headers as
keys, csv.DictReader() is a perfect fit. It reads each row into a
dictionary where keys are the column names, making your
code more readable.
import csv
with open('dani.tsv', newline='') as f:
reader = csv.DictReader(f, delimiter='\t')
for row in reader:
print(row)

Using csv.DictReader()

Explanation: csv.DictReader() reads the TSV file and returns

each row as an ordered dictionary, using the first line of the
file as column headers.

5.8 Practical Exercise :

Opening, Closing, Reading, Writing, and Sorting Data in

Files

Objective:

 Learn to open and close files.

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 Read and write data in a formatted way.

 Sort data from files.

Practical 1: Writing and Reading Data in a File

# Writing formatted data to a filewith open("data1.txt", "w") as

file:

file.write("ID\tName\tMarks\n")

file.write("1\tAlice\t85\n")

file.write("2\tBob\t90\n")

file.write("3\tCharlie\t78\n")

# Reading data from the filewith open("data1.txt", "r") as file:

for line in file:

print(line, end="")

Output:

ID Name Marks

1 Alice 85

2 Bob 90

3 Charlie 78

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Practical 2: Appending Data to a File

# Appending new student datawith open("data1.txt", "a") as file:

file.write("4\tDavid\t88\n")

# Reading updated file

with open("data1.txt", "r") as file:

for line in file:

print(line, end="")

Output:

ID Name Marks
1 Alice 85
2 Bob 90
3 Charlie 78
4 David 88

Practical 3: Sorting Data from a File

# Reading file and sorting based on marks

data = []with open("data1.txt", "r") as file:

next(file) # Skip header

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for line in file:

parts = line.strip().split("\t")

data.append((parts[0], parts[1], int(parts[2])))

# Sorting based on marks

data.sort(key=lambda x: x[2], reverse=True)

print("Sorted Data (Highest Marks

First):")print("ID\tName\tMarks")for record in data:

print(f"{record[0]}\t{record[1]}\t{record[2]}")

Output:

Sorted Data (Highest Marks First):

ID Name Marks
2 Bob 90
4 David 88
1 Alice 85
3 Charlie 78

Key Points:

 Always close files or use with to manage automatically.

 Use append mode to add data without overwriting.
 Use lists and sorting to organize file data.

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5.9 IMPORTANT TWO MARKS

1. What is the difference between `open()` modes `w` and

`a`?

The `w` mode creates a new file or overwrites an existing file,

while the `a` mode adds new data at the end of the file without
removing old content.

2. What does the `close()` method do in file handling?

It closes the file object and ensures all data is properly saved
from the buffer to the disk.

3. How do you read a file line by line in Python?

We can use a loop like `for line in file:` or use the `readline()`
method to read one line at a time.

4. Which function is used to write data into a file?

The `write()` function is used to write strings or converted

numbers into a file.

5. Which function is used to create a new directory in

Python?

The `os.mkdir('foldername')` function is used to create a new

directory in the given path.

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6. What is the use of `os.getcwd()`?

It returns the current working directory of the program where

files are being executed.

7. What does `sys.argv` represent?

It is a list in Python that stores all command-line arguments

passed to a script, including the script name.

8. How to remove a directory using the OS module?

The `os.rmdir('foldername')` function is used to remove an

empty directory from the system.

9. How do you write numbers to a text file in Python?

Numbers must be converted to string using `str()` and then

written into the file using `write()`.

10. Which method is used to read the entire file content at

once?

The `read()` method reads all the contents of a file as a single

string.

*******

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UNIT VI

PACKAGES

Built-in modules, User-Defined modules, Numpy, SciPy,

Pandas, Scikitlearn. Practical: Usage of modules and packages
to solve problems. (Minimum three), Project (Minimum Two)

6. INTRODUCTION TO MODULES AND PACKAGES

What is Module in Python?

The module is a simple Python file that contains collections
of functions and global variables and with having a .py
extension file. It is an executable file and to organize all the
modules we have the concept called Package in Python.

Examples of modules:

1. Datetime
2. Regex
3. Random etc.
Example: Save the code in a file called demo_module.py

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def myModule(name):
print("This is My Module : "+ name)
Import module named demo_module and call the myModule
function inside it.
import demo_module
demo_module.myModule("Math")
Output:
This is My Module : Math

What is Package in Python?

The package is a simple directory having collections of
modules. This directory contains Python modules and also
having __init__.py file by which the interpreter interprets it as
a Package. The package is simply a namespace. The package
also contains sub-packages inside it.

Examples of Packages:

1. Numpy
2. Pandas
Example:
Student(Package)
| __init__.py (Constructor)
| details.py (Module)
| marks.py (Module)
| collegeDetails.py (Module)

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What is Library in Python

The library is having a collection of related functionality of
codes that allows you to perform many tasks without writing
your code. It is a reusable chunk of code that we can use by
importing it into our program, we can just use it by
importing that library and calling the method of that library
with a period(.). However, it is often assumed that while a
package is a collection of modules, a library is a collection of
packages.
Example:
Importing pandas library and call read_csv method using an
alias of pandas i.e. pd.
import pandas as pd
df = pd.read_csv("file_name.csv")

6.1 Built-in MODULES

Python Module is a file that contains built-in functions,

classes,its and variables. There are many Python modules,
each with its specific work.
In this article, we will cover all about Python modules, such as
How to create our own simple module, Import Python modules,
From statements in Python, we can use the alias to rename the
module, etc.
6.1.1 What is Python Module

A Python module is a file containing Python definitions and

statements. A module can define functions, classes, and
variables. A module can also include runnable code.

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Grouping related code into a module makes the code easier to

understand and use. It also makes the code logically organized.

6.1.2 Create a Python Module

To create a Python module, write the desired code and save

that in a file with .py extension. Let's understand it better with
an example:
Example:
Let's create a simple calc.py in which we define two functions,
one add and another subtract.

# A simple module, calc.py

def add(x, y):
return (x+y)
​
def subtract(x, y):
return (x-y)

6.1.3 Import module in Python

We can import the functions, and classes defined in a module

to another module using the import statement in some other
Python source file.
When the interpreter encounters an import statement, it imports
the module if the module is present in the search path.
Note: A search path is a list of directories that the interpreter
searches for importing a module.

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For example, to import the module calc.py, we need to put the

following command at the top of the script.

6.1.4 Syntax to Import Module in Python

import module
Note: This does not import the functions or classes directly
instead imports the module only. To access the functions inside
the module the dot(.) operator is used.
Importing modules in Python Example
Now, we are importing the calc that we created earlier to
perform add operation.
# importing module calc.pyimport calc
print(calc.add(10, 2))
Output:
12

6.1.5 Python Import From Module

Python's from statement lets you import specific attributes

from a module without importing the module as a whole.

Import Specific Attributes from a Python module

Here, we are importing specific sqrt and factorial attributes

from the math module.

# importing sqrt() and factorial from the

# module math

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from math import sqrt, factorial

​
# if we simply do "import math", then
# math.sqrt(16) and math.factorial()
# are required.
print(sqrt(16))
print(factorial(6))
Output:
4.0
720

6.1.6 Import all Names

The * symbol used with the import statement is used to import
all the names from a module to a current namespace.
Syntax:
from module_name import *

6.1.6 What does import * do in Python?

The use of * has its advantages and disadvantages. If you know

exactly what you will be needing from the module, it is not
recommended to use *, else do so.

# importing sqrt() and factorial from the

# module math
from math import *
​
# if we simply do "import math", then
# math.sqrt(16) and math.factorial()

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# are required.
print(sqrt(16))
print(factorial(6))
Output
4.0
720
6.1.7 Locating Python Modules
Whenever a module is imported in Python the interpreter looks
for several locations. First, it will check for the built-in module,
if not found then it looks for a list of directories defined in
the sys.path. Python interpreter searches for the module in the
following manner -
 First, it searches for the module in the current directory.
 If the module isn’t found in the current directory, Python
then searches each directory in the shell
variable PYTHONPATH. The PYTHONPATH is an
environment variable, consisting of a list of directories.
 If that also fails python checks the installation-dependent
list of directories configured at the time Python is installed.

6.1.8 Directories List for Modules

Here, sys.path is a built-in variable within the sys module. It

contains a list of directories that the interpreter will search for
the required module.

# importing sys module

import sys
# importing sys.path
print(sys.path)

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Output:
['/home/nikhil/Desktop/gfg',
'/usr/lib/python38.zip', '/usr/lib/python3.8',
'/usr/lib/python3.8/lib-dynload', '',
'/home/nikhil/.local/lib/python3.8/site-packages',
'/usr/local/lib/python3.8/dist-packages',
'/usr/lib/python3/dist-packages',
'/usr/local/lib/python3.8/dist-
packages/IPython/extensions',
'/home/nikhil/.ipython']
6.1.9 Renaming the Python Module
We can rename the module while importing it using the
keyword.
Syntax: Import Module_name as Alias_name

# importing sqrt() and factorial from the

# module math
import math as mt
​
# if we simply do "import math", then
# math.sqrt(16) and math.factorial()
# are required.
print(mt.sqrt(16))
print(mt.factorial(6))

Output
4.0
720

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6.2 PACKAGES

 Packages are namespaces which contains many modules,

many packages.
 Along with packages and modules the package contains
a file named.
 init-py. Infalt to be a package there must be a file called
__init__ Py in the folder.

6.2.1 How to create a Package

Step1:

Create a folder named

My Maths in your working drive.

Step 2: Inside My Maths directory create a folder --init-Py

step 3: create a folder named Add. inside

step 4: Inside Add create a Python file named.

Add.py.

def add- fun (a,b):

Add atb
return Add.

step 5: Similarly, Inside Add create a python file named sub.py.

def a sub- fun (a,b),

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Sub = a-b
return sub

step 6: similarly, Inside Add python file named Mul.py

def mul_fun(a,b)
Mul = a*b
return Mul

Step 7: Inside Add create a python file named Div.Py

def div_fun (a, b)

Div a/b;
return div

Step 8 : Now on the D: create a driven program which will

involve all the above this functionalities present in the My
Maths package. We have named this driver testing_arithmetic.

Step 9 : Next Page

Step 10:

Output:

The addition of 10 and 20 is: 30

The Subtraction of 10 and 20 is: -10

The Multiplication of 10 and 20 is: 200

The Division of 10 and 20 is: 0.5

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My Maths

__init__py

add

Add.py
Def add_fun (a,b):
Add= a+b
Return Add

Sub.py Def sub_fun (a,b):

Add= a-b
Return sub

Mul.py
Def mul_fun (a,b):
Add= a*b
Return mul

Div.py
Def div_fun (a,b):
Add= a/b
Return div

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Step 9:

Import MyMaths.Add.add

Import MyMaths.Sub.sub

Import MyMaths.Mul.mul

Import MyMaths.Div.div

Print (“The Addition of 10 and 20 is:”)

MyMaths.Add.add.add_fun(10,20)

Print (“The Subraction of 10 and 20 is:”)

MyMaths.Sub.sub.sub_fun(10,20)

Print (“The Multiplication of 10 and 20 is:”)

MyMaths.Mul.mul.mul_fun(10,20)

Print (“The Division of 10 and 20 is:”)

MyMaths.Div.div.div_fun(10,20)

6.3 BUILD-IN MODULES

Python is one of the most popular programming languages

because of its vast collection of modules which make the work
of developers easy and save time from writing the code for a
particular task for their program. Python provides various types
of modules which include Python built-in modules and external

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modules. In this article, we will learn about the built-in

modules in Python and how to use them.
What are Python Built-in modules?
Python built-in modules are a set of libraries that come pre-
installed with the Python installation. It will become a tedious
task to install any required modules in between the process of
development that's why Python comes with some most used
modules required. These modules provide a wide range of
functionalities, from file operations and system-related tasks to
mathematical computations and web services. The use of these
modules simplifies the development process, as developers can
leverage the built-in functions and classes for common tasks,
providing code reusability, and efficiency. Some examples of
Python built-in modules include "os", "sys", "math", and
"datetime".
We can run the below command to get the all available
modules in Python:
help('modules')

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6.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF BUILT-IN MODULES IN

PYTHON

 Reduced Development Time : Built-in modules in Python

are made to perform various tasks that are used without
installing external module or writing the lengthy code to
perform that specific task.

 Optimized Performance:Some Python built-in modules

are optimized for performance, using low-level code or
native bindings to execute tasks efficiently.

 Consistency: Python Built-in modules provide consistent

way to solve problems. Developers familiar with these
modules can easily understand and collaborate on
codebases across different projects.

 Standardization :As these modules are part of the Python

Standard Library, they establish a standard way of
performing tasks.

 Documentation : Python's official documentation is

comprehensive and includes detailed explanations and
examples for Python built-in modules. This makes it easier
to learn and utilize them.

 Maintainability :Python Built-in modules are maintained

by the core Python team and community, regular updates,
bug fixes, and improvements are to be expected, ensuring
long-term viability.

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 Reduced Risk :Using third-party libraries can introduce

risks, like discontinued support or security vulnerabilities.

6.3.2 JSON MODULE IN PYTHON

"json" module in Python is used to encode and decode JSON

data. JSON format is a widely used on the web to exchange the
information. It is extremely useful for reading and writing data
in the JSON format.
Example:
In the below example, we have used json module to convert the
Python dictionary into JSON format. Firstly, we import
the "json" module and then define the Python dictionary after
that we convert the Python dictionary into JSON format using
"json.dumps()" method of "json" module in Python and finally
print the JSON data.
import json data = {
"name": "Jonny",
"age": 30,
"is_student": True,
"courses": ["Web Dev", "CP"]}json_string = json.dumps(data,
indent=4)print(json_string)
OUTPUT

{
"name": "Jonny",
"age": 30,
"is_student": true,

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"courses": [
"Web Dev",
"CP"
]
}

6.3.3 TKINTER MODULE IN PYTHON

"tkinter" is the standard GUI (Graphical User Interface)

library in Python. "tkinter" module is used to create windows,
buttons, text boxes, and other UI elements for desktop
applications.
Example
Firstly we imports the "tkinter" module as "tk" and defines a
function, "on_button_click", which updates a label's text. A
main GUI window titled "Tkinter Example" is created,
containing a label and a button. The label displays "Click the
button below", and the button, labeled "Click Me", triggers
the previously defined function when pressed. The application
remains responsive to user interactions by using
the "root.mainloop()" event loop, allowing the label's
message to change upon button clicks.
import tkinter as tk def on_button_click():
label.config(text="Hello, Geeks!")
root = tk.Tk()root.title("Tkinter Example") label = tk.Label(root,
text="Click the button below") label.pack(pady=40) button =

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tk.Button(root, text="Click Me", command=on_button_click)

button.pack(pady=40) root.mainloop()

Output: In the below output we can see that when we click

on "Click Me" button the text changes.

6.3.4 RANDOM MODULE IN PYTHON

The "random" module in Python is used to generates random

numbers and provides the functionality of various random
operations such as 'random.randint()', 'random.choice()',
'random.random()', 'random.shuffle()' and many more.
Example
In the below code, firstly we import the random module, then
we are printing the the random number from "1 to 10" and

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random item from the list by

using random.randint() and random.choice() methods of
random module respectively.
import random num = random.randint(1, 10)print(f"Random
integer between 1 and 10: {num}")fruits = ["Java", "C", "C++",
"Python"]chosen_fruit = random.choice(fruits)print(f"Randomly
chosen language: {chosen_fruit}")
Output
Random integer between 1 and 10: 9
Randomly chosen language: Python

6.3.5 MATH MODULE IN PYTHON

The math module offers mathematical functions used for

advanced arithmetic operations. This includes trigonometric
functions, logarithmic functions, and constants
like pi and e. This module is used to perform complex
calculations using Python program.
Example
In the below example, we have used math module the find the
square root of a number using math.sqrt() method and the
value of PI using math.pi method and then print the result
using print() function of Python.
import mathsqrt_val = math.sqrt(64)pi_const =
math.piprint(sqrt_val)print(pi_const)

Output
8.0
3.141592653589793

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6.3.6 DATETIME MODULE IN PYTHON

The "datetime" module allows for manipulation and reading

of date and time values. Some of the basic method
of "datetime" module are "datetime.date", "datetime.time",
"datetime.datetime", and "datetime.timedelta".
Example
In the below example, we have print the today' date and current
time by using datetime.date.today() method
and datetime.datetime.now().time() method
of "datatime" module in Python.
import datetimedate_today = datetime.date.today()time_now =
datetime.datetime.now().time()print(date_today)print(time_now)
Output
2023-10-19
07:28:16.279090

6.3.7 OS MODULE IN PYTHON

The "os" module in Python is used to interact with the

operating system and offers OS-level functionalities. For
example, interacting with file system, reading directory, and
launching application.
Example
In the below example, we have used "os" module to fetch the
directory path using os.getcwd() method and then print the
path.
import osdirectory = os.getcwd()print(directory)Output
/home/guest/sandbox

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6.3.8 SYS MODULE IN PYTHON

The "sys" module in Python provides functions and variables

that interact with the Python runtime environment. It allows
developers to access Python interpreter attributes and
manipulate them. It offers a range of other functionalities, such
as input/output stream access, memory info access, and more.
In the below example, we have used sys module to print the
current version of Python programming language and also print
the list of command line arguments passed while running the
Python program.
import sysprint("Python version:", sys.version)print("Command
line arguments:", sys.argv)sys.exit(1)
In the below output, we can see the current version is printed
and command line arguments in the form of list along with the
name of Python program name.

6.3.9 RE MODULE IN PYTHON

The re module in Python provides support for working with

regular expressions. Regular expressions (often abbreviated as
"regex") are powerful tools for matching strings or sets of

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strings using a specialized syntax that allows for flexible

pattern matching.
Example
In the below example, we write an simple example of finding
the matching string using "re" module in Python. After
importing "re" module we define a pattern and a text. We
search for the email pattern that may present in the text using
search() function and then print the first found email in the text.
After that we find all occurrences of mails in the text and then
print them.
import repattern = r"[a-zA-Z0-9._%+-]+@[a-zA-Z0-9.-]+\.[a-
zA-Z]{2,4}"
text ="Contact us at info@example.com and
support@example.org for more details."
match = re.search(pattern, text)
if match:
print("First found email:", match.group())
emails = re.findall(pattern, text)
print("All found emails:", emails)

Output
First found email: info@example.com
All found emails: ['info@example.com',
'support@example.org']

6.3.10 HASHLIB MODULE IN PYTHON

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The "hashlib" module in Python provides algorithms for

message digests or hashing. It allows for data integrity checks
using algorithms like SHA-256, MD5, and more.

Example
In this example, firstly, we import the hashlib module then
define a sample message string. Convert the string into its
SHA-256 hash representation using hashlib.sha256() function.
Print the resulting hash.
import hashlibmessage = "Hello, World!"hashed =
hashlib.sha256(message.encode()).hexdigest()print(hashed)

Output
dffd6021bb2bd5b0af676290809ec3a53191dd81c7f70a4b28688
a362182986f

6.3.11 CALENDAR MODULE IN PYTHON

The calendar module allows operations and manipulations

related to calendars.

Example
In this example, we print the October month of year 2023.
Firstly, we import the "calendar" module. Generate a string
representation of October 2023 using the month() function.
Print the calendar for October 2023.
import calendarcal_october = calendar.month(2023,
10)print(cal_october)

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Output
October 2023
Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa Su
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
16 17 18 19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
30 31

6.3.12 HEAPQ MODULE IN PYTHON

The "heapq" module in Python provides a collection of

functions for implementing heaps based on regular lists. A
heap is a special tree-based data structure that satisfies the heap
property, and it is commonly used to implement priority
queues.
Example
In the below example, we have implemented the heap data
structure using "heapq" module in Python and applied various
heap methods on heap such
as heapify(), heappush(), and heappop();
import heapqnumbers = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5]
heapq.heapify(numbers)heapq.heappush(numbers,
7)print(heapq.heappop(numbers))

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print(heapq.heappushpop(numbers, 8)) print(heapq.nlargest(3,

numbers)) print(heapq.nsmallest(3, numbers))

Output
1
1
[9, 8, 7]
[2, 3, 3]

6.4 PYTHON MODULES SUMMARY TABLE

Module Purpose Example Code Output

import json;
Encode/Decode {"name":
json data={"name":"Jonny"};
JSON data "Jonny"}
print(json.dumps(data))

GUI creation
import tkinter as tk; Opens GUI
tkinter (windows,
tk.Tk().title("Example") window
buttons, labels)

Generate
import random; Random integer
random random numbers
print(random.randint(1,10)) (e.g., 7)
& selections

Mathematical 8.0
import math;
math functions & 3.14159265358
print(math.sqrt(64), math.pi)
constants 9793

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Module Purpose Example Code Output

Work with date import datetime;

datetime 2023-10-19
& time print(datetime.date.today())

Interact with
Prints current
os Operating import os; print(os.getcwd())
directory
System

Python runtime
& system-
sys import sys; print(sys.version) Python version
specific
parameters

Regular
import re;
Expressions ['mail@abc.com
re print(re.findall(r"\w+@\w+\.\w
(pattern ']
+", "mail@abc.com"))
matching)

import hashlib;
Hashing (MD5, SHA-256 hash
hashlib print(hashlib.sha256("hi".enco
SHA-256, etc.) string
de()).hexdigest())

Calendar import calendar; Prints October

calendar
operations print(calendar.month(2023,10)) 2023 calendar

Heap / Priority import heapq; nums=[3,1,4];

heapq Queue heapq.heapify(nums); 1
operations print(heapq.heappop(nums))

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6.5 USER DEFINED MODULES

User-defined modules in Python:

User-defined python modules are the modules, which are

created by the user to simplify their project. These modules can
contain functions, classes, variables, and other code that you can
reuse across multiple scripts.

How to create a user-defined module?

We will create a module calculator to perform basic

mathematical operations.

# calculator.py

def add(a, b):

return a + b

def sub(a, b):

return a - b

def mul(a, b):

return a * b

def div(a, b):

return a / b
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In the above code, we have implemented basic mathematic

operations. After that, we will save the above python file as
calculator.py.

Now, we will use the above user-defined python module in

another python program.

# main.py

import calculator

print("Addition of 5 and 4 is:", calculator.add(5, 4))

print("Subtraction of 7 and 2 is:", calculator.sub(7, 2))

print("Multiplication of 3 and 4 is:", calculator.mul(3, 4))

print("Division of 12 and 3 is:", calculator.div(12, 3))

Output:

Addition of 5 and 4 is: 9

Subtraction of 7 and 2 is: 5

Multiplication of 3 and 4 is: 12

Division of 12 and 3 is: 4.0

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How to import python modules?

We can import python modules using keyword import. The

syntax to import python modules is given below.

Syntax to Import Python Modules

import module_name

Example to Import Python Modules:

import math

print(math.sqrt(4))

Output:

2.0

In the above program, we imported all the attributes of module

math and we used the sqrt function of that module.

Now, let’s see how we can import specific attributes from the
python module.

To import specific attributes or functions from a particular

module we can use keywords from along with import.

Syntax to import python module using Attribute:

from module_name import attribute_name

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Example of import python module using Attribute:

from math import sqrt

print(sqrt(4))

Output:

2.0

Now, let’s see how we can import all the attributes or functions
from the module at the same time.

We can import all the attributes or functions from the module at

the same time using the * sign.

Syntax to import python module using all Attributes:

from module_name import *

Example to import python module using all Attributes:

from math import *

print(sqrt(4))

print(log2(8))

Output:

2.0

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3.0

Python modules are instrumental in code reuse, program

organization, and enhancing the functionality of Python
programs. They enable developers to separate implementation
details, improve code readability, and maintain large-scale
projects effectively. With a vast collection of built-in modules,
Python provides a rich ecosystem of functionalities, making it
easier to accomplish a wide range of tasks without the need for
additional package installations.

6.6 POPULAR PYTHON PACKAGES FOR ENGINEERS

Python is a very versatile language, thanks to its huge set of

libraries which makes it functional for many kinds of
operations. Its versatile nature makes it a favorite among new
as well as old developers. As we have reached the year
2025 Python language continues to evolve with new libraries
and updates getting added to it which enhance its capabilities.
The developers must be familiar with at least the most popular
libraries. In this article, we will look at some of the Python
libraries that every developer should explore at least once.

6.6.A.What is a Library?

In a programming language context, a library refers to the

collection of pre-written code modules that serve a specific
functionality. These modules are reusable, these are
integrated into the programmer's code which increases the
development process and functionality of the software. It is

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an encapsulation of common tasks or complex sets of

algorithms that provide a set of functions that a developer can
use to his advantage without having to create software from
scratch. These are repositories of code that promote code reuse,
modularization, and collaboration with the programming
community. Popular languages such as Java, Python, and
JavaScript have many libraries that cover diverse domains
making software development easier.

6.6 .B What are Python Libraries?

Python libraries are reusable code modules that contain pre-

written code. You can integrate it into your code to save time
and effort. They cover many diverse domains, such
as NumPy, which stands out for numerical computation
and can very easily perform operations on large arrays and
matrices. Pandas, another trendy library, is widely used for
data manipulation and analysis and contains efficient data
structures like DataFrames. These and many more libraries
collectively contribute to Python's popularity by making the
development process easier and promoting a collaborative
ecosystem.

6.6.1 NumPy

 Supports large arrays, matrices, and mathematical

operations.

import numpy as np
arr = np.array([1, 2, 3, 4])

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print("Mean:", np.mean(arr))

6.6.2 SciPy

 Used for scientific computing.

from scipy import stats

data = [10, 20, 30, 40, 50]
print("Mean:", stats.tmean(data))

6.6.3 Pandas

 Data analysis and manipulation.

import pandas as pd
data = {"Name": ["A", "B"], "Age": [20, 21]}
df = pd.DataFrame(data)
print(df)

6.6.4 Scikit-learn

 Machine learning package.

from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression

import numpy as np
x = np.array([[1], [2], [3]])
y = np.array([2, 4, 6])
model = LinearRegression().fit(x, y)
print("Prediction:", model.predict([[4]]))

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6.7 PYTHON LIBRARIES SUMMARY TABLE

Library Purpose Key Features

Numerical Multidimensional arrays, element-wise

NumPy
computing operations, linear algebra

DataFrame & Series, time series

Pandas Data analysis
handling, missing data cleaning

Line, bar, scatter plots; pyplot for simple

Matplotlib Data visualization
plotting

Data flow graphs, runs on CPU/GPU,

TensorFlow Deep learning
Google’s ML framework

Tensors, dynamic computation graph,

PyTorch Deep learning
fast training

Classification, regression, clustering,

Scikit-learn Machine learning
easy API

Supports GET, POST, cookies, API

Requests HTTP requests
interaction

Neural networks Easy API, works with TensorFlow,

Keras
(high-level) supports CNN & RNN

Statistical Works with Pandas, attractive plots, color

Seaborn
visualization themes

Plotly Interactive plots Works with Pandas/NumPy, 3D & web-

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based charts

Natural Language
NLTK Tokenization, stemming, text analysis
Processing

Beautiful
Web scraping Parse HTML/XML, extract data easily
Soup

Pygame Game development Graphics & sound for 2D games

Handles large text, topic modeling,

Gensim NLP & similarity
cosine similarity

Fast tokenization, POS tagging, entity

spaCy Industrial NLP
recognition

Scientific
SciPy Integrals, optimization, linear algebra
computing

Numerical
Theano GPU acceleration, integrates with NumPy
computation

Modular design, supervised/unsupervised

PyBrain Neural networks
learning

Interactive
Bokeh Zoomable, web-embedded charts
visualization

Deep learning on
Hebel GPU acceleration, NumPy integration
GPU

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6.8 Case Studies: Using File Operations & Packages in

Problem Solving

Introduction

In real-world applications, data must be stored, retrieved, and

processed efficiently. File operations help in storing data
permanently, while Python packages provide ready-to-use
functions to simplify problem-solving.

Case Study Example: Student Result Management System

Problem Statement

A college wants to maintain student marks in a text file. The

system should:

1) Store student names and marks in a file.

2) Read data back and process it.
3) Use packages (statistics, os) to find average, highest scorer,
and total students.

Step 1: Writing Student Data into File

# student_results.py

filename = "results.txt"

# Writing student marks into file

with open(filename, "w") as f:

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f.write("Daniel,85\n")

f.write("Joselin,92\n")

f.write("Sam,78\n")

f.write("Lulu,88\n")

Step 2: Reading and Processing Data

import statistics

import os

students = {}

# Reading student data from file

with open("results.txt", "r") as f:

for line in f:

name, mark = line.strip().split(",")

students[name] = int(mark)

# Extract marks

marks = list(students.values())

print("Student Records:", students)

print("Total Students:", len(students))

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print("Average Marks:", statistics.mean(marks))

print("Highest Marks:", max(marks))

print("Top Scorer:", max(students, key=students.get))

print("File Size:", os.path.getsize("results.txt"), "bytes")

Output

Student Records: {'Daniel': 85, 'Joselin': 92, 'Sam': 78, 'Lulu':

88}

Total Students: 4

Average Marks: 85.75

Highest Marks: 92

Top Scorer: Joselin

File Size: 34 bytes

Explanation

File Operations:

 "w" mode used to write data.

 "r" mode used to read data line by line.
 strip() removes newline \n.
 Data split into name and marks using split(",").

Packages Used:

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 statistics.mean() → To calculate average.

 max() with dictionary → To find top scorer.
 os.path.getsize() → To check file size.

6.9 PRACTICALS

6.9.1 : Usage of modules and packages to solve problems

Practical 1: File Handling with OS Module

Aim:

To list all `.txt` files in a directory and calculate their total size
using the os module.

Algorithm:

1. Import the os module.

2. Define a function to scan through a directory.
3. Use os.listdir() to get all files in the directory.
4. Check if the file ends with .txt.
5. Display the filename and add its size using os.path.getsize().
6. Display the total size of all text files.

Program:

import os

def txt_file_info(directory):
total_size = 0
print("Text files in directory:")

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for file in os.listdir(directory):

if file.endswith(".txt"):
print(file)
total_size += os.path.getsize(os.path.join(directory, file))
print("Total size of text files:", total_size, "bytes")

txt_file_info(".")

Output:

Text files in directory:

notes.txt
data.txt
report.txt
Total size of text files: 5682 bytes

Result:

Thus, the program successfully listed all `.txt` files and

displayed their total size.
Practical 2: Data Analysis with Math & Statistics

Aim:

To calculate mean, median, standard deviation, and square root

of maximum marks using statistics and math modules.

Algorithm:

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1. Import statistics and math modules.

2. Define a list of student marks.
3. Use mean(), median(), and stdev() to calculate statistics.
4. Use math.sqrt() to calculate square root of the highest mark.
5. Print results.

Program:

import statistics as stats

import math

marks = [78, 82, 69, 90, 76, 84, 95]

print("Mean:", stats.mean(marks))
print("Median:", stats.median(marks))
print("Standard Deviation:", stats.stdev(marks))
print("Square root of highest mark:", math.sqrt(max(marks)))

Output:

Mean: 82.0
Median: 82
Standard Deviation: 8.54
Square root of highest mark: 9.74

Result:

Thus, statistical operations were successfully performed using

math and statistics modules.

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Practical 3: OTP Generator using Random & Datetime

Aim:

To generate a random OTP and display it with the current

timestamp using random and datetime modules.
Algorithm:

1. Import random and datetime modules.

2. Use random.randint() to generate a 6-digit OTP.
3. Display the OTP.
4. Display the current date and time using datetime.now().

Program:

import random
from datetime import datetime

def generate_otp():
otp = random.randint(100000, 999999)
print("Your OTP is:", otp)
print("Generated at:", datetime.now())

generate_otp()

Output:

Your OTP is: 472918

Generated at: 2025-08-31 10:15:32.452818

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Result:

Thus, the program successfully generated an OTP with

timestamp.

6.9..2 PROJECT
Project 1: Student Grade Management System

Aim:

To manage student marks and calculate average scores with

pass/fail status using the csv and statistics modules.

Algorithm:

1. Import csv and statistics modules.

2. Open the CSV file containing student names and marks.
3. Read data using csv.DictReader().
4. Convert marks into a list of integers.
5. Calculate the average using statistics.mean().
6. Print student name, average, and result (Pass/Fail).

Program:

import csv
import statistics as stats

with open("students.csv", "r") as file:

reader = csv.DictReader(file)
for row in reader:

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marks = list(map(int, row["marks"].split()))

avg = stats.mean(marks)
result = "Pass" if avg >= 50 else "Fail"
print(row["name"], "Average:", avg, "-", result)

Output:

John Average: 71.67 - Pass

Mary Average: 47.67 - Fail
David Average: 87.67 - Pass
Project 2: Weather Data Logger

Aim:

To fetch live weather data of a city and store it in a JSON log

file with timestamp using requests, json, and datetime modules.

Algorithm:

1. Import requests, json, and datetime modules.

2. Fetch weather data from wttr.in API using requests.get().
3. Extract current temperature.
4. Create a dictionary with city, temperature, and timestamp.
5. Write the dictionary into a JSON file.
6. Display the logged data.

Program:

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import requests
import json
from datetime import datetime

def fetch_weather(city):
url = f"https://wttr.in/{city}?format=j1"
response = requests.get(url).json()
temp = response['current_condition'][0]['temp_C']
data = {"city": city, "temperature": temp, "time":
str(datetime.now())}

with open("weather_log.json", "a") as f:

f.write(json.dumps(data) + "\n")

print("Logged:", data)

fetch_weather("Chennai")

Output:

Logged: {'city': 'Chennai', 'temperature': '31', 'time': '2025-08-31

10:25:43.378425'}

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6.10 IMPORTANT TWO MARKS

1. Give two examples of built-in modules in Python?

Examples of built-in modules are `os`, `sys`, `math`, and

`datetime`.

2.What is a User-Defined Module?

A user-defined module is a `.py` file created by the programmer

which can be imported and reused in other programs.

3.What is NumPy mainly used for?

NumPy is mainly used for handling large arrays, performing

numerical computations, and supporting mathematical
operations.

4.What is SciPy in Python?

SciPy is a scientific library built on NumPy that provides

advanced features like integration, optimization, and signal
processing.

5.What is Pandas mainly used for?

Pandas is mainly used for data manipulation and analysis,

especially handling tabular data with Series and DataFrames.

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6.What is Scikit-learn in Python?

Scikit-learn is a machine learning library that provides tools for

classification, regression, clustering, and model evaluation.

7.Which data structures are mainly used in Pandas?

The two primary data structures are Series, which represents 1D

data, and DataFrame, which represents 2D tabular data.

8.How do you import NumPy in Python?

NumPy is generally imported using the statement `import

numpy as np`.

**********

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