DESIGN OF MECHANISMS
AND MACHINES
Lecture 2
Loading of mechanical components;
Stresses and strains
R. Glovnea
(2023-2024)
Contents
- Introduction
- Force and moment of a force
- Cases of loading
- Internal forces/Stresses
- Deformations/Strains
- Summary
Forces
This is a brief review of concepts we learned in Engineering
Mechanics and Principles and Applications of Strength of
Materials. We do this because any mechanical design problem
includes an analysis of forces and stresses inside the bodies, such
that the behaviour of those under loading can be evaluated.
In Engineering Mechanics we defined force as a measure of
interaction between bodies.
Forces between different parts of mechanical systems
(mechanisms and machines) are transmitted through direct
contact (most often) or through a field of forces.
Forces determine the position of equilibrium of mechanical
systems (relative position of various components).
Forces determine the acceleration thus the relative motion
between components.
Forces acting on various components are responsible for
generation of internal forces, stresses and strains
Moment of a force about a point
Vector (cross) product between the position vector of the point of
application of the force, relative to the given point and the force
F F
a B a B
A A
A’
a
r
d r
MO r F MO F d
O O
Moment of a force about an axis is equal to the moment of that
force about any point on that axis
Conditions of equilibrium of solid bodies
One body
Sums of all forces acting on the body and moments of these forces
(about a random point) must be zero
F1 F2 ... Fn 0 M O1 M O 2 ... M On 0
A system of bodies
Sum of all external forces and moments of these forces (about a
randomly chosen point) must be zero.
For the equilibrium of the whole assembly internal forces are
not considered
Only consider internal forces (between components of the system)
when analyse the equilibrium of a chosen component
Types of loading
Tension/compression
Bending
Torsion
Shear
Stress and strain
n
DFi
n x
mean stress im
DA
i
dFi
DA
M
xy stress i lim im
DA0 dA
xz
n
normal (direct) stress n
tangential (shear) stress n
x
y O
2i n2 n2
z
Plane stress
Stresses change when the plane on which they are calculated rotates
n
n
n x y x y cos 2 xy sin 2
1 1
2 2
n x y sin 2 xy cos 2
1
2
Stresses take extreme values on different planes; these are called
principal stresses
When stresses on two perpendicular directions are known, principal
stresses can be derived with appropriate formulas
y
x y x y
2
1 1 xy2
2 2
2 p 2 xy
x tan 2 p
x y
1 2 x y
No shear stress on the principal directions !
Maximum shear stress
2 xy
cot 2s s p 45o
x y
planes of maximum and minimum shear occur at 45o to the
principal stress planes
Maximum shear stress
2 xy
n x y sin 2 xy cos 2
1
cot 2s
x y 2
x y
2
1 2
max,min 2
or max,min
xy 2
2
Tension/compression loading
F/A
1 F
d F / A d
E A
d
d
, or E
E
F
Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading
Bending stress
Compression
- ymin
x z
Neutral axis
y
max ymax
+
dA
Tension y
M
Constant bending max ymax
moment Iz
M
x y
Iz M max
Bending moment max ymax
variable Iz
Bending shear stress
b
h V Sz y
y
b y I z
2 O z (y)
e(y)
h y
G( y)
2
S depends of the shape of the cross section
bh 2
6V h 2
rectangle S z y y 2 3 y 2
2 4 bh 4
In order to find bending stress we need to be able to calculate bending moment
along the beam – (shear force and bending moment diagrams )
F2 F3 F4
F1
Mx Mx
x
x Vx Vx
RA RB
y
Torsion of circular cross section bars
Maximum shear stress occurs at the outer fibres (outer radius “r”)
max
r
max r
r
r
max
r
Torsion formula
Mt r
max
Ip
Solid shaft of radius r Hollow circular shaft
r2
r4 r1
Ip
2
Ip
r2 4 r14
2
Angle of twist
Mt
Per unit length
GI p
MtL
Maximum
GI p
Direct shear
Section B-B
B average shear stress
F
F
av
F
F/2 F/2 av
As
B
3 4
Maximum shear stress
rectangular area
max av Maximum shear stress
max av
2 circular area 3
Relationship between
stress and strain
Hooke’s law for plane stress state
in terms of strains
x x y
1
Total strain on Ox
E
y y x
1
Total strain on Oy
E
Total strain on Oz z x y
E
xy
Shear strain xy
G
Hooke’s law for plane stress state
in terms of stresses
x
E
1 2
x y
y
E
1 2
y x
xy G xy
Multiaxial stress
Hooke’s law for multiaxial stress state
in terms of strains
x x y z
1
Total strain on Ox
E
y y z x
1
Total strain on Oy
E
z z x y
1
Total strain on Oz
E
xy yz zx
Shear strains xy yz zx
G G G
Hooke’s law for multiaxial stress state
in terms of stresses
x
E
1 2 2
1 x y z
y
E
1 2 2
1 y z x
z
E
1 2 2
1 z x y
xy G xy ; yz G yz ; zx G zx
Stress concentration
Geometric discontinuities in the part, or defects in the material, act
as stress concentrators or stress raisers.
Around stress raisers the actual stress is many times larger than the
nominal stress.
Examples of stress concentrators
Shaft shoulder Shaft groove Notches and holes
Teeth root
Shaft keyway Screw thread
How to account for stress concentration?
Multiply the nominal stress by a stress concentration factor
For static loading
actual maximum stress act
Kt
nominal stres n
For cyclic loading
effective fatiguestress S N (un notched)
Kf
nominal fatiguestres S N (notched)
Stress concentration factor are determined by experiment,
measuring strain, by photo-elasticity, application of principles of
theory of elasticity, etc.
Stress concentration factors are given in tables or diagrams for
various types of geometry and loading
Aluminium
Composites
Images from Vishay Intertechnology Inc.
Low load
High load
Images from Vishay Intertechnology Inc.
Human bones Aircraft fuel
door panel
Images from Vishay Intertechnology Inc.
3.0
2.8 r
2.6 D d
D/d=6
2.4
D/d=3
2.2 My 32M
Kt n
D/d=1.5 I d3
2.0
1.8 D/d=1.1
D/d=1.03 D/d=1.01
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
r/d
Reading
Main aspects of loads and stresses in machine components can
be found in:
“Machine component design” by R.C. Juvinall and K. M. Marshek,
5th edition, pages 45 to 57
And “Mechanical design of machine elements and machines” by J.
Collins, H. Busby and G. Staab, 2nd edition, pages 123 to 174
“Mechanical Engineering Design” by J.E. Shigley, C. R. Miscke, R.
G. Budinas, international eddition edition, pages 35 to 185
