COURSE NAME: FABRIC SELECTION, CONSTRUCTION AND CARE

COURSE CODE: VBFC 1102

LECTURE THREE
3.1 FABRIC CONSTRUCTION AND POINT PAPER DIAGRAMS
Introduction
Fabric construction refers to the methods used to interlace or interloop fibres and yarns into
fabric structures. The construction method largely determines the texture, strength, elasticity,
appearance, and end-use of the fabric.
There are three major fabric construction processes, namely.
a) Weaving process
b) Knitting process (warp knitting & weft knitting)
c) Bonding process (nonwoven) fabrics
A. Common terms in fabric construction
 In woven fabrics
 Warp: Lengthwise yarns in woven fabrics. Stronger and more tightly twisted.
 Weft (Filling): Crosswise yarns inserted across warp. Usually less strong than warp.
 Weave repeat: The smallest unit of a weave pattern that repeats across the fabric.
 Sett (Thread Count): Number of warp and weft threads per inch or cm. Determines fabric
density.
 In knitted fabrics
 Wale: Vertical column of stitches in knitted fabric
 Course: Horizontal row of stitches in knitted fabric

 Stitch length: Length of yarn in one knitted loop. It affects elasticity and weight of fabric.
  Stitch density: Number of loops (wales × courses) per unit area. Indicates tightness of
fabric.

B. Point paper diagrams (Fabric design notations)

Point paper is a graph-paper-like grid used to represent fabric structures, especially for woven
and knitted designs. Each square corresponds to an interlacing or loop.
Use
 Provides a visual plan for weave or knit construction.
 Helps designers communicate patterns to loom or knitting machine operators.
 Ensures accuracy and repeatability in fabric production.
C. Woven fabric notation
 A filled square denotes warp goes over the weft (up).
 A blank square means warp goes under the weft (down).
 Example: A 2/2 twill weave point paper will show diagonal progression of filled squares.
 Plain weave point paper will have alternating filled and empty squares
D. Knitted fabric notation (stitch notations)
Notation: Special symbols are used to represent a particular stitch. A cross is used to
represent a plain stitch and a circle represents a reverse plain stitch (back side of a plain
stitch). A blank space is used to represent a miss stitch and a dot represents a tuck stitch.
 Each square = one loop.

Example
 Rib knit notation will have alternating knit and purl stitches across wales.
3.1.1 WEAVING PROCESS
This involves construction of fabrics by interlacing two sets of yarns at right angles. warp yarns
run lengthwise (vertical direction). While weft (or filling) yarns run crosswise (horizontal
direction).

Figure 1: Weaving loom

Weaving loom main materials and tools
 Warp yarns
 Weft yarns
 Heald frames, wire (harness): hold warp yarns in the loom. Have heald eyes in which
warp yarns are passed through across the weaving machine/loom.
 Filling carrier e.g. shuttle. Used for weft insertion across the width of the fabric
 Reed. Comb-like structure that aids in tucking in (beating) the inserted weft to form a
fabric (cloth fell)
3.1.1.1 Woven fabric features
Warp and weft yarns, Yarns per unit length, selvedges, face and back, and top and bottom are
features commonly found in all woven fabrics.
 Warp and weft yarns: warp yarns run lengthwise (vertical direction). While weft (or
filling) yarns run crosswise (horizontal direction).
  Yarns per unit length: This is the number of warp or weft yarns in a specified length and
is denoted by two numbers with an “X” between them. For example, 108 X 58 means 108
yarns per inch in the warp and 58 yarns per inch in the weft. The first number is for warp
yarns per inch and the second is for weft yarn per inch.
 Selvedges: prevent the fabric from ravelling and the edges from tearing when the fabric is
under the stresses and strains of processing.

Figure 2: Types of selvedges

 Face and back: fabrics have a technical face side and a technical back side. The face side
has a better appearance and usually forms the outside of the garment. Fabrics are packed
so that the face is protected during handling and storage, therefore the back usually forms
the outer surface of the fabric roll.
 Top and bottom: some fabrics have a top and a bottom on the face side owing to the
weave or the finish. Fleece and corduroy are having an obvious top and a bottom to the
face.
Characteristics of woven fabrics
 Have firm and stable structure.
 Low elasticity compared to knits.
 Grainlines (warp, weft, bias) influence drape and stretch.
 May fray when cut.
3.1.1.2 Weave structure
The way groups of warp yarns are raised by the harnesses to permit the insertion of the weft yarn
determines the pattern of the weave. Weave patterns affect the durability and appearance of the
fabric.
Major types of weave structures
i. Plain weave
This is the simplest and the most used weave. warp and weft interlace alternately. Plain weave
fabrics require only two harnesses because the weave repeats every two ends. Fabric with a plain
weave is reversible, unless one side is chosen as the face by finishing or printing. Examples: This
structure is found in fabrics like gauze, gingham, voile flannel, taffeta, poplin and canvas.
Characteristics of plain weave
 Plain weave fabric normally has firm constructions
 It wears well and ravels less than comparable fabrics of other weaves
 It provides a good background for printed and embossed designs because of the plain
surface
 Plain weave tends to wrinkle more than fabrics of other weaves
 Plain weave fabric has lower tear strength than comparable fabrics of other weaves

Figure 3: Plain weave

 ii. Twill weave
A distinct design in the form of diagonals is characteristic of the twill weave. In a right-hand
twill, the diagonals run upward to the right. In a left-hand twill, the lines run upward to the left.
Although there is no advantage of one over the other, the direction of the diagonal can aid in the
recognition of the face of the fabric. Denim, gabardine and chino are some well-known twill
weave fabrics.
Twill weaves are named according to the number of harnesses required to make the design. The
simplest twill weave is either a 1/2 or a 2/1 twill which repeats on three ends and three picks.
This category is frequently referred to as three-leaf twills. A 3/1 twill and a 1/3 twill are always
called four-leaf twills.
Twill weaves are also classified as balanced or unbalanced according to the number of warp and
weft yarns that are visible on the face of the fabric. The balanced twill, for example, shows an
equal number of warp and weft yarns in the recurring design, such as two over and two under.
Most twills are either warp-face or unbalanced, which produces a more obvious twill line and
also a more abrasion-resistant surface.

Figure 4: Twill direction

Figure 5: Balanced 2/2 Twill Weave

Figure 6: Warp Face 2/1 Twill Weave Figure 7: Weft Face 1/2 Twill Weave
Characteristics of twill weave
 The diagonally arranged interlacings of the warp and weft provide greater pliability and
resilience than the plain weave
 Twill fabrics are frequently more tightly woven and will not get dirty as quickly as the
plain weave, though twills are more difficult to clean when they do get soiled
 The yarns are usually closely beaten, making especially durable fabric
 Twill weaves are therefore commonly used in men’s suits and coats

iii. Satin weave

Satin weave is like the twill weave, but the diagonal line of the satin weave is not visible. It is
purposely interrupted to contribute to the flat, smooth, lustrous surface with long floats. In a true
satin weave each warp yarn and each weft yarn only interlace once in each repeat of the weave.
Also, no two interlacing points ever touch or are adjacent.
In a warp-face-satin, the face is predominantly warp yarn, while for a weft-face satin, the weft
yarns are predominant on the face.
Most satins are made on five harnesses, but seven and eight harness satins are also commonly
produced.
The number of interlacings is the same as the number of harnesses used. A five-harness satin has
only five interlacings in one repeat of the weave.

Example: satin, sateen fabrics.

 Satin weave fabric
Satin fabric is made from filament yarns, with the warp yarns predominant on the face. Satin
fabrics are smooth and lustrous because lustrous filament yarns are used; there are few
interlacing points, that gives long floats; and the face yarns are very fine and closely packed.
Since the greatest lustre is in lengthwise fabric direction (the direction of the floats), garments
using this fabric are made in this direction is vertical in the garment, thereby maximizing the
lustre.
  Sateen weave fabric
Sateen fabric is a durable cotton fabric, usually with a weft-face satin weave. It is not as lustrous
as satin fabric as spun yarns are used. Since it is also heavier, with thicker yarns, it is not as
drapable as satin fabric.
Characteristics of satin weave
 Satin-weave fabric drapes well because the weave is heavier than the twill weave
 The compactness of the weave gives the fabric more body as well as less porosity, which
makes the fabric warmer
 The quality of drapability also makes satin fabrics preferable for evening wear and the
warmth contribute to its value as lining material
Comparison of the weave structures

3.1.1.3 Common terms used in fabrics

Woven fabrics are made by interlacing warp and weft yarns at right angles.
 Their performance in garment construction depends not only on the weave type but also
on structural elements such as grain, selvedge, bias orientation, and fabric symmetry.
 Proper analysis helps designers, tailors, and technologists ensure accuracy in cutting,
fitting, drape, durability, and aesthetics.
(a) Grain in fabrics
This is the direction of yarns in woven fabric.
Types of grain:
 Lengthwise grain (Warp grain):
 Parallel to selvedge.
 Strongest, least stretch.
  Used in garment length (e.g., body panels, trouser legs).
 Crosswise grain (Weft grain):
 Perpendicular to selvedge.
 More give than warp, moderate strength.
 Used in waistbands, cuffs.

 Bias grain:
 Diagonal (45°) to warp and weft.
 Maximum stretch and drape.
 Used in garments requiring cling and flow (lingerie, evening gowns,
scarves).
Importance: Grain alignment determines garment fit, durability, and comfort.
(b) Selvedge
Basically, it entails self-finished edge of woven fabric formed by weft yarns looping around
the warp at edges.
Characteristics
 Stronger and denser than the body of the fabric.
 Prevents unraveling.
 May have manufacturer’s marks or colour codes.
 Use in garment making:
 It aids in identifying warp direction.
 Serves as a guideline for laying out patterns on straight grain.
 Not included in garment panels (often trimmed off).
(c) Bias cuts
Involves cutting fabric diagonally at 45° to warp and weft.
Effects of bias cutting:
 Produces elasticity, softness, and fluid drape.
 Allow garments to fit curves of the body smoothly.
 Enhances design aesthetics (clinging dresses, flowing skirts).
 Challenges:
  Fabric may stretch out of shape.
 Requires careful handling and stabilizing during sewing.
(d) Piece goods
Literally means fabric lengths sold in bolts, rolls, or pieces.
Considerations
 Widths vary (commonly 90 cm, 112 cm, 150 cm).
 Length depends on production and purchase.
 Knowledge of piece goods helps in fabric consumption planning, cutting layouts, and
cost estimation.
(e) Symmetrical vs. asymmetrical fabrics
 Symmetrical fabric:
 Design/pattern repeats uniformly on both sides of the centre.
 Example: checks, balanced stripes.
 Easier to cut and match.
 Asymmetrical fabric:
 Pattern does not mirror evenly.
 Example: one-way prints, floral motifs facing one direction.
 Requires careful layout to ensure visual harmony in garments.
(f) Right vs. Wrong side of fabric
 Right side (face): Intended outer surface, often brighter, smoother, patterned, or finished.
 Wrong side (back): Inner surface, usually duller or less finished.
Importance in garment making:
 Consistency in cutting – all pattern pieces must face the same way.
 Mistakes may cause colour shading issues or mismatched appearances.
(g) Warp vs. Weft
 Warp (lengthwise yarns):
 Run parallel to selvedge.
 Stronger, more tightly twisted.
 More yarns per inch.
 Weft (crosswise yarns):
 Run across fabric, inserted during weaving.
  Usually less strong, looser twist.
 Fewer yarns per inch.
Note: Selvedge is parallel to warp.
Warp is smoother, stronger; weft may be thicker, less uniform.
(h) Pile
 Raised surface created by additional yarns standing up from the base fabric.
 Types: cut pile (velvet, velour) and uncut pile (terry cloth, corduroy).
 Applications: upholstery, outerwear, carpets.
(i)Nap
 Directional texture created by brushing, cutting, or shearing fibres.
 Fabric looks different depending on light and viewing direction.
 Examples: suede, velvet.
 Importance: All garment pieces must be cut in the same nap direction to avoid shade
variations.
(j) Loops
 Characteristic raised loops on fabric surface.
 Found in terry toweling (high absorbency) and some knitted pile fabrics.
 Functional uses: towels, bathrobes, sportswear.
Fabric characteristics
Understanding fabric characteristics helps in selecting the right material for intended use.
 Handling
 Refers to how fabric feels and behaves during use.
 Influenced by fibre content, yarn twist, fabric weight, and finishing.
 Drape
 Ability of fabric to hang in graceful folds.
 High drape: Chiffon, silk.
 Low drape: Denim, canvas.
 Important for design aesthetics (flowy vs structured garments).
 Strength
 Fabric’s ability to withstand stress without tearing.
  It depends on fibre type (cotton strong when wet, wool weaker), yarn structure, and
weave type.
 Crucial for durability (workwear vs fashion fabric).
 Elasticity
 Ability to stretch and recover.
 Low elasticity: Woven fabrics (except when cut on bias).
 High elasticity: Knits, elastane blends.
 Affect comfort, fit, and shape retention.
 Sewing Ability
 How easily fabric can be cut, stitched, and pressed.
 Easy-to-sew fabrics: Cotton, polyester blends.
 Challenging fabrics: Silk (slippery), velvet (nap), denim (thick).
 Designers must choose correct needles, threads, and techniques.
 Cost
 Influenced by fibre source (natural vs synthetic), construction method, finishing, and
availability.
 Example: Silk is expensive due to limited production; polyester is cheaper due to mass
production.
 Aftercare (Maintenance)
 Washing, drying, ironing, dry-cleaning requirements.
 Cotton: machine washable, but wrinkles.
 Wool: may shrink, often dry-cleaned.
 Polyester: easy-care, wrinkle resistant.
 Proper aftercare extends fabric lifespan.
Common faults in fabric
Fabric faults arise during manufacturing, handling, or finishing, reducing quality and market
value. Identification is key for quality control.
 Weaving faults
 Broken ends/picks: Missing warp/weft threads.
 Floats: Loose yarns skipping over too many threads.
 Slubs: Thick, uneven places in yarn.
  Mis-picks: Incorrect insertion of weft.
 Reed marks: Lines caused by defective reeds on the loom.
 Dyeing faults
 Uneven dyeing
 streaks,
 colour bleeding
 patchy shades.
 Finishing faults
 Uneven surface finish
 Crease marks
 Shrinkage
 Pilling.
Identification methods of faults
 Visual inspection under good lighting.
 Touch and feel test for texture irregularities.
 Microscopic analysis for fibre/yarn structure.
 Physical testing (strength, shrinkage, colourfastness).
3.1.2 KNITTING PROCESS
This is a fabric manufacturing process in which yarn loops are intermeshed to form a fabric. The
conversion of yarn into loops can be done either in a horizontal direction or in a vertical
direction. Knitting provides fabrics with elasticity, comfort, and flexibility.
Types of Knitting
1. Weft Knitting: where fabric is built up in horizontal direction.
 Single yarn forms loops across the fabric width.
 Examples: jersey, rib, interlock.
 Characteristics: Stretchy, prone to laddering, comfortable.
2. Warp Knitting: where fabric is built up in vertical direction.
 Multiple yarns form loops in the fabric lengthwise (warp direction).
 Examples: tricot, raschel.
 Characteristics: Runs less easily, stable, used in lingerie, nets, upholstery.

Figure 8: Classification of knitting process

Materials used for knitting fabrics
 Yarns
 Knitting needles (beard, latch, compound needles)
Types of knitting stitches
There are three fundamental stitches utilized in knit fabrics. They are plain stitch, miss-stitch and
tuck stitch. These three stitches form the basis of all knitted fabrics.

o Plain stitch
The plain stitch is the basic knitting stitch. It has two different faces according to the relative
positioning of the producing needle and the fabric. When the fabric is viewed from the side
where the loop exhibits the arms of the curved formation, this is called a plain stitch. If the loop,
viewed on the same side of the fabric, exhibits the arc of the top and the root of the structure, this
loop is called a purl stitch.
o Miss stitch (Welt or float)
A miss stitch is created when one or more knitting needles are deactivated and do not move into
position to accept a yarn. The yarn merely passes by, and no stitch is formed. The idled needle
has retained its loop longer than the rest of the needle. The miss stitch is used to create colour
and figure designs in knitted fabric.
o A tuck stitch
This is formed when a knitting needle holds its old loop and then receives a new yarn, two loops
will then be collected in the needle hook. The action may be repeated several more times, but the
yarns eventually are cast off the needle and knitted. The different appearances of the tuck stitch
can be used for patterning, increasing fabric weight, thickness and fabric width, etc.
3.1.2.1 Weft knitting
This is a flat or circular knitting process that places one yarn at a time to form loops running
across the fabric. In a weft-knitted structure, the intermeshed loops touch each other only in a
few places, and the fabric can be stretched along the width or the length under a low stress.

Figure 9: Plain knit structure

Example of knit weft structures
Can be classified as single knit and double knit structures
(A)Single knit structures
 Plain Knit: also known as single knit or “Jersey” in the trade. This is the simplest and
most basic structure.
Characteristics
 Fabrics of this type have all loops drawn to one side of the fabric (all plain stitches) and
are easily recognized by the fact that the smooth side is the face, while the back has a
textured and mottled appearance.
 Plain knitted fabric is stretchable, and usually it can be stretched more along the curling
width than along the length.
 The fabric is unbalanced and tends to curl at the edges because the loops are being pulled
in one direction. This condition can be corrected in fabric finishing.

Figure 10: Plain knit structure

  Lacoste: This is a four courses repeat single knit structure; while knitting the four
courses, tuck stitches are included in every alternate course and on alternate needles.
Characteristics
 It has a honeycomb appearance, will not ladder easily. This structure is generally knitted
on a fine gauge machine for summer T-shirts.

Figure 11: Lacoste

(B)Double knit structures
 Rib:This structure is produced by the needles of both beds with alternate wales of plain
stitches and purl stitches on both sides of the fabric. When all the needles in the machine
participate in the knitting procedure, a 1x1 rib is formed.
Characteristics
 Rib fabric does not curl at the edges.
 Rib knits have greater elasticity in their width than their length.
 Rib structures are bulkier and heavier than plain structure provided the yarn used and
machine gauge are similar

Figure 12: Rib structures

 Half Milano: This is a rib based, two courses repeat structure. The first course is 1x1 rib,
the second course knit on the front needle and welt (miss) on the back needle. The fabric
 is harsher and tighter than ordinary rib, and this method is mainly used for sweater
production.

Figure 13: Half milano structure

 Full Milano: This is a rib based, three courses repeat structure. The first course is simply
1x1 rib. The second course is knitted on the back needle but missed on the front needle.
The third course is knitted on the front needle but missed on the back needle.
Characteristics
 Full milano has the same appearance on both faces of the fabric.
 Since the structure contains miss stitches, the widthwise stretchability of the fabric is
tighter than 1x1 rib fabric.

Figure 14: Full milano

 Purl Structure: Purl knits require the participation of both needle beds to produce the
loops. In purl-knit fabrics, each wale contains both plain stitches and purl stitches.
Characteristics
 Simple purl fabric looks the same on both sides of the fabric, and they both appear
somewhat like the back of jersey.
Figure 15: purl knitted structure
3.1.2.2 Warp Knitting
This is defined as a loop-forming process in which the yarn is fed into the knitting zone, parallel
to the fabric selvedge. The source of yarn on a warp knitting machine is a warp beam like a warp
beam on a loom. The yarns form a vertical loop in one course and then move diagonally
(shogging) to another wale to make a loop in the following course. The yarns zigzag from side to
side along the length and connect the loops into a fabric.
There are two types of warp knitting machines: Tricot and Raschel.

Figure 16: Two-guide Bar Loop Structure

Examples of warp knit structures
(A) Tricot Fabrics: These fabrics are used for a wide variety of fabric weights and designs.
Typical uses for tricot fabrics are lingerie, sleepwear, blouses, shirts, dresses, slacks,
uniform for nurses, bonded fabric material, outerwear, and automobile upholstery.
Tricot structures
 Plain tricot or tricot jersey: this is the basic fabric using two-bar constructions.
The most widely produced warp knitted fabric is probably locknit.
Characteristics
 Locknit gives a pleasant touch, and a considerable elasticity making the fabric most
suitable for ladies’ lingerie.
 Locknit construction tends to contract on leaving the knitting zone.

Figure 17: Locknit Loop Structure

 Satin tricot: is a variation of the locknit structure with an increased lapping movement
up to 6 wales on the front bar.
Characteristics
 While the technical face is similar in appearance to locknit, the technical back is
smoother and shiner.
 It should be noticed that the longer the underlap floating on the surface of the
technical back, the heavier the fabric and the greater the risk of snagging.

Figure 18: Three-needle Satin Loop Structure

  Sharkskin: This fabric is constructed as a reverse version of satin.
Characteristics
 The structure shows the longer underlaps of the back guide bar locked under the short
underlaps of the front guide bar.
 These trapped underlaps restrict the shrinking potential of the fabric which is therefore
more rigid and more stable than locknit and satin tricot.

Figure 19: Sharkskin Loop Structure

(B) Raschel Fabrics
The large number of guide bars in a raschel knitting machine provides the potential for wide
diversification and great variation in raschel fabric from fine laces to heavy blankets and even
carpets. E.g. power net fabrics used in foundation garments and swimwear are also raschel
fabrics.
Raschel structures
 Net Fabrics: Can be considered as one of the major products manufactured by the
raschel machine. Net structures can be classified into the following two types, namely.
 Structures with vertical pillars: The net in which the distance between the vertical
pillars (wales) is determined by the distance between the knitting needles. The
Marquisette net structure is formed in this way. Marquisette structures are very
popular in the production of net curtains.
Figure 20: Marquisette Loop Structure
 Structure with interlacing pillars: The side connections are formed by the
inclination and distortion of the wale; no special yarns are necessary to connect
the pillars. Typical product of this type of structure is fishing net.

Figure 21: The loop structure of a net with diamond shaped openings
  Dress laces: Lace fabrics are produced by multi-guide bar raschel machine with 32, 42,
56 or 78 guide bars and usually with an electronically controlled patterning mechanism.

Figure 22: Lace fabric with tulle ground structure

Knitted fabric analysis
The Geometry of Plain Weft-knitted fabric
The dimension and construction properties of fabrics are important for the control of quality as
well as for end-use determination. The theory of fabric geometry for a plain weft knitted fabric
can be defined as follows:
 S = the number of stitches per square unit
 c = the number of courses per unit length
 w = the number of wales per unit width;
 and l = the stitch or loop length.
 Wales/cm = w
 Courses/cm = c
 Stitch length = AB = l mm
 Stitches/cm2 = S
Figure 23: Plain weft knitted structure
Stitch density (Fabric count): The stitch density of a weft-knitted fabric can be
expressed as the number of wales per unit length times the number of courses per unit
length.
Cover Factor
A fabric with better cover will be warmer, look and feel more substantial, and be more
durable.
Cover Factor can be defined as a number that indicates the extent to which the area of a
knitted fabric is covered by the yarn. It is also an indication of the relative looseness or
tightness of the knitting.
Fabric faults/imperfections on circular knitting machine
(i)Fabric skew
Skew can be defined as a fabric condition resulting when the knitted wales and courses are
angularly displaced from the ideal perpendicular angle.
Figure 24: Examples of skew
(ii) Barre: The noun “BARRE” is defined by ASTM as an unintentional, repetitive visual pattern
of continuous bars and stripes usually parallel to the courses of circular knit fabric. In a warp
knit, barre normally runs in the length direction, following the direction of yarn flow.
Importance of identifying faults
 Ensures quality control in production.
 Prevents customer dissatisfaction and returns.
 Saves costs by identifying faults early.
 Helps in grading fabrics for appropriate end uses (first-quality vs second-quality goods).
3.1.2 BONDED (NONWOVEN) FABRICS
Broadly defined as sheet or web structures bonded together by entangling fiber or filaments (and
by perforating films) mechanically, thermally, or chemically. Made directly from fibres without
spinning into yarns. Fibres are held together by:
 Mechanical bonding (needle punching, felting).
 Chemical bonding (adhesives, resins).
 Thermal bonding (heat and pressure).
Characteristics of nonwovens
 They are flat, porous sheets that are made directly from individual fibers (without
converting the fibers to yarn) or from molten plastic or plastic film.
 Cheap to produce, disposable.
 Poor strength and durability compared to wovens and knits.
 Applications: medical textiles, disposable wipes, geotextiles, interfacing.
For example: Disposable nappies, Sanitary napkins and tampons, Sterile wraps, caps, gowns,
masks, and curtains used in the medical field.
Household and personal wipes, Envelops, Tags, Labels, Insulation, Laundry aids (fabric dryer
sheets), Apparel interlinings, Carpeting and upholstery fabrics, padding and backing,Wall
coverings, Agricultural coverings and seed strips, Automotive headliners and upholstery, Filters,
House wraps, Roofing products