Comprehensive Class Notes on Basic

Trigonometry

Report Prepared by me :3

Chapter 1: The Foundation of Trigonometry: The

Right Triangle

1.1 Introduction to Trigonometry

Trigonometry, derived from the Greek words trigonon (triangle) and metron (measure), is a
branch of mathematics dedicated to the study of the relationships between the sides and angles
of triangles. While its origins are deeply rooted in geometry and astronomy, its principles have
expanded to become a cornerstone of numerous modern fields, including engineering, physics,
and computer science.1 This report will demonstrate how the fundamental concepts of
trigonometry, which begin with the simple right triangle, provide an elegant and universal
framework for describing everything from the trajectory of a bullet to the periodic nature of
sound waves.3

1.2 The Pythagorean Theorem

Before delving into the specific ratios that define trigonometry, a thorough understanding of the
Pythagorean Theorem is essential. This theorem establishes the foundational relationship
between the three sides of a right triangle. It states that the square of the length of the
hypotenuse (c), which is the side opposite the right angle, is equal to the sum of the squares of
the lengths of the other two sides, or legs (a and b).4 This is expressed algebraically as

a2+b2=c2.4

This theorem is not merely a formula but a profound geometric principle. Its truth can be
demonstrated through various proofs, including a classic geometric rearrangement proof. In this
proof, four identical right triangles with sides a, b, and c are arranged to form a larger square
with side length (a+b). The area of this large square is (a+b)2. Inside this larger square, the four
triangles surround a smaller, central square with side length c. The area of this central square is
c2. The total area of the four triangles plus the central square must be equal to the area of the
large outer square. The area of each triangle is 21​ab, so the total area of the four triangles is
4(21​ab)=2ab. Therefore, the total area can be expressed as 2ab+c2. By setting the two
expressions for the total area equal to each other, (a+b)2=2ab+c2, we can expand the left side to
get a2+2ab+b2=2ab+c2. By subtracting 2ab from both sides, we arrive at the Pythagorean
Theorem: a2+b2=c2.6 This proof illustrates the interconnectedness of fundamental geometric
truths.

1.3 The Six Basic Trigonometric Ratios

Trigonometry builds upon the Pythagorean Theorem by introducing six functions that define the
ratios of a right triangle's sides relative to one of its acute angles. The functions' inputs are
angles, and their outputs are these ratios.1 For a given acute angle

θ, the sides are categorized as follows: the leg opposite the angle (opp), the leg adjacent to the
angle (adj), and the hypotenuse (hyp), which is always the side opposite the 90° angle.1

The six trigonometric functions are defined as follows:

●​ Sine (sin): The ratio of the length of the opposite leg to the hypotenuse.8​
​
sinθ=hypopp​
●​ Cosine (cos): The ratio of the length of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse.8​
​
cosθ=hypadj​
●​ Tangent (tan): The ratio of the length of the opposite leg to the adjacent leg.8​
​
tanθ=adjopp​
●​ Cosecant (csc): The reciprocal of sine; the ratio of the hypotenuse to the opposite leg.1​
 ​
cscθ=opphyp​
●​ Secant (sec): The reciprocal of cosine; the ratio of the hypotenuse to the adjacent leg.1​
​
secθ=adjhyp​
●​ Cotangent (cot): The reciprocal of tangent; the ratio of the adjacent leg to the opposite
leg.1​
​
cotθ=oppadj​

A widely used mnemonic to remember the definitions of sine, cosine, and tangent is SOH CAH
TOA.9 SOH stands for "Sine is Opposite over Hypotenuse," CAH for "Cosine is Adjacent over
Hypotenuse," and TOA for "Tangent is Opposite over Adjacent".9 This simple acronym is
remarkably effective because of its unusual and memorable nature, a quality that many other
mnemonics for this topic also share.10

1.4 Special Right Triangles

For certain frequently encountered angles, the trigonometric ratios can be expressed as exact
values without the need for a calculator. These values are derived from two special right
triangles: the 45°-45°-90° triangle and the 30°-60°-90° triangle.5

The 45°-45°-90° Triangle

This is an isosceles right triangle, meaning its two legs are of equal length.7 If we assign a length
of 1 to each leg, the Pythagorean Theorem (
a2+b2=c2) can be used to find the length of the hypotenuse.
12+12=c2⟹1+1=c2⟹2=c2⟹c=2​.7

Thus, the sides of a 45°-45°-90° triangle are in the ratio 1:1:2​.

The 30°-60°-90° Triangle
This triangle is derived by bisecting an equilateral triangle. An equilateral triangle has three 60°
angles and all sides of equal length. By drawing an altitude from one vertex to the opposite side,
the triangle is divided into two congruent 30°-60°-90° triangles. If we set the original side
length of the equilateral triangle to 2, the hypotenuse of the new right triangle is 2, and the short
leg (opposite the 30° angle) is half of that, or 1.7 Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we can find
the length of the longer leg (
x):
x2+12=22⟹x2+1=4⟹x2=3⟹x=3​.7
The sides of a 30°-60°-90° triangle are therefore in the ratio 1:3​:2.
These derivations reveal a foundational principle: the values of the trigonometric ratios for a
given angle are constant, regardless of the size of the triangle.11 This is because the ratios of
corresponding sides in similar triangles are always equal.6 The special triangles provide a
concrete example of this principle.

Table of Special Angle Values

The following table summarizes the exact values for the six trigonometric functions for the most
common angles, in both degrees and radians, for quick reference.13
Angle (θ) sinθ cosθ tanθ cscθ secθ cotθ

30∘ (6π​) 21​ 23​​ 33​​ 2 323​​ 3​

45∘ (4π​) 22​​ 22​​ 1 2​ 2​ 1

60∘ (3π​) 23​​ 21​ 3​ 323​​ 2 33​​

The Pythagorean Theorem is the bedrock from which all of right-triangle trigonometry emerges.
The functions sine and cosine are simply ratios of the sides (a/c and b/c) of a right triangle.
When we combine these definitions with the theorem itself, a deep algebraic relationship
appears. If we consider the equation for the Pythagorean Theorem, a2+b2=c2, and divide every
term by c2, we get (ca​)2+(cb​)2=(cc​)2. By substituting the definitions of sine and cosine, this
becomes sin2θ+cos2θ=1.12 This is the primary Pythagorean Identity, and its proof reveals that
the geometric reality of a right triangle is inextricably linked to the algebraic relationships
between the trigonometric functions. This connection is not a coincidence; it is a direct
consequence of the definitions and the underlying geometric truth.

Chapter 2: Extending Trigonometry Beyond

Triangles: The Unit Circle

2.1 The Unit Circle: A Universal Framework

The definitions of trigonometric functions based on right triangles are limited to acute angles
(from 0° to 90°), as triangles cannot contain angles greater than or equal to 90°.7 To extend the
definitions to any angle, including obtuse, negative, or angles greater than 360°, mathematicians
use the unit circle.15 The unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1, centered at the origin (0, 0) of
the Cartesian coordinate system.15

On the unit circle, an angle θ is measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis. The point
where the terminal side of the angle intersects the circle is assigned the coordinates (x,y). The
profound idea of the unit circle is that for this point, the x-coordinate is defined as the cosine of
the angle, and the y-coordinate is defined as the sine of the angle.16 That is,

x=cosθ and y=sinθ.15 Since the radius of the circle is 1, the hypotenuse of the right triangle
formed by the coordinates is always 1, simplifying the standard right-triangle ratios to

sinθ=y/1=y and cosθ=x/1=x.16 This re-framing transforms trigonometry from a tool for static
triangles into a universal system for describing infinite angles.

2.2 Evaluating Functions for Any Angle

The unit circle provides a clear, visual method for evaluating trigonometric functions for any
angle.17 The signs of the cosine and sine functions depend on the quadrant in which the angle's
terminal side lies.
●​ Quadrant I (0° to 90°): The coordinates (x,y) are both positive. Therefore, both cosθ and
sinθ are positive.
●​ Quadrant II (90° to 180°): The coordinates (x,y) are negative and positive, respectively.
Thus, cosθ is negative, and sinθ is positive.
●​ Quadrant III (180° to 270°): The coordinates (x,y) are both negative. Both cosθ and
sinθ are negative.
●​ Quadrant IV (270° to 360°): The coordinates (x,y) are positive and negative,
respectively. Here, cosθ is positive, and sinθ is negative.

A helpful mnemonic for remembering these sign patterns is "All Students Take Calculus,"
which signifies that all functions are positive in Quadrant I, sine is positive in Quadrant II,
tangent is positive in Quadrant III, and cosine is positive in Quadrant IV.10

To evaluate a trigonometric function for an angle outside of the first quadrant, we can use a
reference angle. The reference angle is the smallest positive angle formed by the terminal side
of the given angle and the horizontal x-axis.18 The trigonometric values for any angle are the
same as those for its reference angle, with the sign determined by the quadrant.18 For example,
the angle

150∘ is in Quadrant II. Its reference angle is 180∘−150∘=30∘. Since sine is positive in Quadrant
II, sin(150∘)=sin(30∘)=1/2.

2.3 Periodicity and Co-terminal Angles

A complete revolution around the unit circle is 360° or 2π radians.15 If a point on the unit circle
travels more than one full revolution, it will eventually return to the same location, resulting in
the same

(x,y) coordinates and therefore the same trigonometric values.17 This repeating nature is known
as

periodicity.20 Any angle can be represented by infinitely many

co-terminal angles by adding or subtracting full revolutions.19 This is formally expressed as

θ+360∘n (in degrees) or θ+2πn (in radians), where n is any integer.17 This property is crucial for
understanding the graphs of trigonometric functions and solving trigonometric equations.

The unit circle is the conceptual link that elevates trigonometry from a geometric tool for right
triangles to a universal framework for describing periodic phenomena. In the context of right
triangles, the domain of the functions is limited to acute angles.7 However, the circular path of a
point on the unit circle allows the input angle to be any real number, from negative infinity to
positive infinity.19 This is a direct consequence of the cyclical motion. The repeating nature of
the path directly leads to the repeating, or periodic, nature of the sine and cosine functions.20
This fundamental cause-and-effect relationship is the reason trigonometry is so effective in
fields like electrical engineering and physics, where phenomena such as waves and oscillations
are central.23 The periodic motion on the unit circle is what causes the sinusoidal motion seen in
the graphs of sine and cosine.

Chapter 3: Essential Trigonometric Identities

Trigonometric identities are equations involving trigonometric functions that are true for all
values of the variables for which the functions are defined.25 They form a system of logical
relationships used to simplify and manipulate trigonometric expressions.26 These identities are
not arbitrary but are direct consequences of the definitions of the functions.

3.1 Reciprocal and Quotient Identities

These identities are the most fundamental algebraic relationships, stemming directly from the
definitions of the six trigonometric functions as ratios of sides or coordinates.20
●​ Reciprocal Identities: These identities show that pairs of functions are multiplicative
inverses.27
○​ sinθ=cscθ1​and cscθ=sinθ1​.20
○​ cosθ=secθ1​and secθ=cosθ1​.20
○​ tanθ=cotθ1​and cotθ=tanθ1​.20
●​ Quotient Identities: These identities express tangent and cotangent as a ratio of sine and
cosine.26
○​ tanθ=cosθsinθ​.20
○​ cotθ=sinθcosθ​.20

The quotient identity for tangent, for instance, can be proven by taking the right-triangle
definition of tangent (tanθ=adjopp​) and dividing the numerator and denominator by the
hypotenuse: adjopp​=adj/hypopp/hyp​=cosθsinθ​.29

3.2 The Pythagorean Identities

The three Pythagorean identities are central to trigonometry. They are derived directly from the
Pythagorean Theorem and the unit circle. The unit circle is defined by the equation x2+y2=1.15
By substituting the unit circle definitions of sine and cosine (

x=cosθ and y=sinθ) into this equation, the primary Pythagorean Identity is proven.12

Proof of sin2θ+cos2θ=1:
x2+y2=1
(cosθ)2+(sinθ)2=1
cos2θ+sin2θ=1.12
This proof shows a clear link between a geometric property (the radius of a unit circle being 1)
and an algebraic identity. The other two Pythagorean identities can be derived from this main
identity using algebraic manipulation.

Derivation of tan2θ+1=sec2θ:
Start with the primary identity and divide every term by cos2θ.
cos2θsin2θ​+cos2θcos2θ​=cos2θ1​
Applying the quotient and reciprocal identities, this simplifies to:
tan2θ+1=sec2θ.12
Derivation of 1+cot2θ=csc2θ:
Similarly, start with the primary identity and divide every term by sin2θ.
sin2θsin2θ​+sin2θcos2θ​=sin2θ1​
Applying the quotient and reciprocal identities, this simplifies to:
1+cot2θ=csc2θ.12
The three main identities—reciprocal, quotient, and Pythagorean—form a hierarchical and
logical system for simplifying and manipulating trigonometric expressions.20 The reciprocal and
quotient identities are essentially definitions that allow any trigonometric function to be
expressed in terms of sine and cosine.30 The Pythagorean identities, on the other hand, are the
fundamental geometric truth of the right triangle, and the other identities serve as tools to
express this truth in different functional forms. For example, proving that

1+cot2θ=csc2θ can be done by converting the left side to sine and cosine using the quotient
identity (cotθ=cosθ/sinθ) and the right side using the reciprocal identity (cscθ=1/sinθ).29 This
ability to convert between functions using identities is a crucial problem-solving skill.26

Table of Essential Identities

Identity Type Identity

Reciprocal sinθ=1/cscθ

cosθ=1/secθ

tanθ=1/cotθ

cscθ=1/sinθ

secθ=1/cosθ

cotθ=1/tanθ

Quotient tanθ=sinθ/cosθ
 cotθ=cosθ/sinθ

Pythagorean sin2θ+cos2θ=1

tan2θ+1=sec2θ

1+cot2θ=csc2θ

Chapter 4: Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

The properties of the trigonometric function graphs are not arbitrary; they are a direct visual
consequence of the unit circle's geometry. By plotting the values of sine, cosine, and tangent as
an angle rotates around the unit circle, we can understand their unique and repeating patterns.

4.1 The Sine and Cosine Graphs

The periodic nature of the sine and cosine functions can be visualized as smooth, continuous,
repeating waves.22
●​ Domain: The domain for both sine and cosine functions is all real numbers (x∈R)
because an angle can be of any measure on the unit circle, from negative infinity to positive
infinity.21
●​ Range: The range for both functions is the interval [−1,1].21 This is a direct consequence of
the unit circle's radius being 1, as the values of​
cosθ (the x-coordinate) and sinθ (the y-coordinate) can never be greater than 1 or less than
-1.16
●​ Period: The period of both functions is 2π radians (360∘).22 This corresponds to one full
revolution around the unit circle, after which the values begin to repeat.22
●​ Amplitude: The amplitude is the maximum deviation of the function from its central axis,
which for the parent functions is 1.23 This is directly tied to the unit circle's radius of 1.22
●​ Symmetry: The sine function is an "odd" function, meaning it is symmetric with respect to
the origin, while the cosine function is an "even" function, symmetric with respect to the
y-axis.17
The sine graph starts at the origin (0, 0) and rises to a maximum of 1 at 90∘, falls back to 0 at
180∘, drops to a minimum of -1 at 270∘, and returns to 0 at 360∘.22 The cosine graph is simply a
phase shift of the sine graph; it starts at its maximum value of 1 at

0∘, drops to 0 at 90∘, reaches its minimum of -1 at 180∘, and so on.22

4.2 The Tangent Graph

The tangent graph is distinctly different from the sine and cosine graphs. It is not a continuous
wave but a series of disjointed curves that repeat every 180∘.22

●​ Domain: The domain is all real numbers except for odd multiples of π/2 (90∘).34
●​ Range: The range is all real numbers, from −∞ to +∞.32
●​ Period: The period is π radians (180∘).22
●​ Vertical Asymptotes: The graph of the tangent function has vertical asymptotes at the
points where the function is undefined.35 This occurs because the tangent function is
defined as the ratio​
tanθ=sinθ/cosθ.26 The value of this ratio is undefined whenever the denominator,​
cosθ, is zero.34 On the unit circle,​
cosθ is zero at 90∘ and 270∘ and all odd multiples of 90∘ thereafter.34 These values
correspond to the vertical asymptotes on the graph.22 The range is infinite because as the
x-coordinate approaches zero, the value of the tangent ratio becomes extremely large,
approaching positive or negative infinity.34

Table of Domain and Range of Trigonometric Functions

Function Domain Range

sinθ All real numbers [−1,1]

cosθ All real numbers [−1,1]

tanθ All real numbers except odd All real numbers

multiples of 2π​

The properties of these graphs are directly linked to the geometry of the unit circle. The unit
circle's radius of 1 causes the sine and cosine functions to have a range of [−1,1] and an
amplitude of 1.21 The period of

2π is a direct result of the circumference's length and the full-circle repetition of a point's
position.15 The behavior of the tangent graph is also a direct consequence of its definition as the
ratio of sine to cosine.26 The vertical asymptotes occur precisely at the points where the cosine
value becomes zero, leading to an undefined ratio.34 This chain of causality, from the unit circle
to the function's definition and finally to the visual representation of the graph, is a powerful
demonstration of the logical structure of trigonometry.

Chapter 5: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

5.1 Definition and Purpose

The inverse trigonometric functions, also known as arc functions, perform the opposite
operation of their traditional counterparts.36 While a trigonometric function takes an angle as
input and returns a ratio of sides, an inverse trigonometric function takes a ratio as input and
returns the corresponding angle.37 They are essential tools for finding an unknown angle in a
right triangle when the lengths of two sides are known.1

5.2 Notation and Principal Values

The two most common notations for inverse trigonometric functions are the sin−1(x) notation
and the arcsin(x) notation.39 The prefix "arc" is a nod to the unit circle, where the angle in
radians is equivalent to the length of the intercepted arc.39

The primary challenge with inverse trigonometric functions is that the original trigonometric
functions are periodic, meaning they are not one-to-one.39 For example, both

30∘ and 150∘ have a sine value of 0.5.40 To avoid this ambiguity, the domains of the parent
functions must be restricted to a specific interval, known as the

principal branch, to ensure a unique output for the inverse function.39 This is a necessary and
elegant solution to a fundamental mathematical problem. The output of an inverse
trigonometric function is limited to this restricted range, providing a single, unambiguous
"principal value".39 This is why a calculator will always return

30∘ for sin−1(0.5), not 150∘.40

5.3 Domains and Ranges of Arc Functions

The domains and ranges of the inverse trigonometric functions are carefully defined to ensure a
one-to-one relationship.

Table of Domains and Ranges of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function Domain Range (in Radians) Range (in Degrees)

arcsin(x) [−1,1] [−2π​,2π​] [−90∘,90∘]

arccos(x) [−1,1] [0,π] [0∘,180∘]

arctan(x) All real numbers (−2π​,2π​) (−90∘,90∘)

The domains of arcsin(x) and arccos(x) are restricted to [−1,1] because the input values are
ratios of sides, and the hypotenuse is always the longest side in a right triangle, meaning the
ratio can never exceed 1.36 For example, the ratio for sine is

hypopp​, and since the opposite side can never be longer than the hypotenuse, the ratio will
always be between -1 and 1.34 The domains of the inverse functions are the ranges of their parent
functions, and the ranges of the inverse functions are the restricted domains of the parent
functions.36

Chapter 6: Practical Applications and Problem

Solving

Trigonometry is not an abstract mathematical exercise; it is a fundamental tool for solving

problems in the physical world.3 The ability to translate a real-world scenario into a solvable
mathematical model is a key skill.

6.1 The Language of Word Problems

Trigonometry word problems often use specific terminology to describe geometric relationships.
●​ Angle of Elevation: The angle measured upward from a horizontal line to a point
above.41 For example, when an observer looks up at the top of a building, the angle of
elevation is the angle between their line of sight and the horizontal ground.2
●​ Angle of Depression: The angle measured downward from a horizontal line to a point
below.41 For example, an observer at the top of a cliff looking down at a boat measures the
angle of depression.41​
​
A crucial geometric property to remember is that the angle of elevation from one point to
another is equal to the angle of depression from the second point to the first, due to the
properties of alternate interior angles formed by parallel horizontal lines.41

6.2 Solved Examples: Step-by-Step

The following examples illustrate how the principles of trigonometry can be applied to solve
real-world problems. The process is always the same: model the problem with a right triangle,
label the sides, choose the correct function, and solve.42

Example 1: Finding a Missing Side

A surveyor stands 50 meters from the base of a skyscraper and records an angle of elevation of
82∘ to its top.43 The surveyor's instrument is 1 meter above the ground. What is the height of
the skyscraper? 43
1.​ Model the problem: A right triangle is formed by the ground, the height of the
skyscraper, and the line of sight to the top. The knowns are the angle of elevation (82∘) and
the adjacent side (50 meters).43 The unknown is the height of the skyscraper above the
instrument (the opposite side).3
2.​ Choose the function: Since the problem involves the opposite and adjacent sides, the
tangent function is the most appropriate choice.43​
​
tanθ=adjopp​
 3.​ Set up and solve the equation:​
tan(82∘)=50height​​
height=50×tan(82∘)​
height≈355.8 meters
4.​ Add the instrument height: The total height of the skyscraper is the calculated height plus
the height of the instrument.​
Total height = 355.8+1=356.8 meters.43

Example 2: Finding a Missing Angle

A 5-meter ladder leans against a wall, with its top 4 meters above the ground.42 What is the
approximate angle the ladder makes with the ground?
1.​ Model the problem: A right triangle is formed by the ground, the wall, and the ladder.
The knowns are the hypotenuse (5 meters) and the opposite side (4 meters).42 The
unknown is the angle at the base of the ladder.42
2.​ Choose the function: Since the problem involves the opposite side and the hypotenuse,
the sine function is appropriate. To find the angle, its inverse, the arcsin function, is
needed.42​
​
sinθ=hypopp​
3.​ Set up and solve the equation:​
sinθ=54​​
θ=sin−1(54​)​
θ≈53.13∘​
Rounding to the nearest whole degree, the angle is 53∘.42

This process of abstracting a real-world scenario into a right triangle is the fundamental skill
that makes trigonometry so valuable in a wide range of fields.42 From construction, where it is
used to calculate the length of a sloped roof or a ladder 3, to forensics, where it is used to
determine bullet trajectories or the angles of blood spatter 3, trigonometry provides the tools to
solve complex, practical problems. Its applications extend to GPS navigation, architecture,
surveying, and engineering, demonstrating that the foundational concepts are universally
applicable and powerful.3

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