Intro to Psychology Midterm 1

Psychology – the study of behavior and mental

processes, conducting research by identifying, Scientific Method – Observation, define a

describing, explaining, predicting, or controlling problem/formulate question, create hypothesis
(scientific method). (educated guess, testable assumptions), test
hypothesis: collect and analyze data,
Psyche-mind & logos- knowledge or study
conclusions/report results (publish), revise/replicate.
Introspection – Personal observations of your own
Five principles of Critical Thinking – Open mind, theory
thoughts, feelings and behaviors (unreliable).
should try to be falsifiable (what would take to show a
Overt Behavior – Observable actions or responses “truth” is false, judging quality of evidence, authority or
claimed expertise does not make an idea true or false,
Covert Behavior – Internal mental events and truths need logical analysis and empirical testing.
processing. Analyzed through research methods and
scientific observations. Superstitions can lead into pseudoscience

Biological (neuroscience, sensation, conscious), Memory – Encoding (storing), and retrieval

Cognitive (perception, thinking, intelligence, memory), (remembering), forgetting can occur in either.
Developmental (learning, lifespan development),
Learning – Conditional is learned Behaviour
Social (social, personality, emotion, motivation),
(unintentional), rehearsal is motivated (intentional).
Mental (abnormal, therapies, stress, lifestyle, health)
Group think is an example of social behaviour.
There are structures in the brain relating to memory
“Big Five” of personality traits – Openness (imagination,
(neuroscience), there are multiple processes in
feelings), conscientiousness (competence, self-
remembering (cognitive), age may influence my
discipline), extroversion (sociability, assertiveness),
memory performance (developmental), the setting of
agreeableness (cooperative), neuroticism (tendency
the memory task can alter performance (social), and
toward unstable emotions).
stress for an upcoming test may be distracting (health).
Naturalistic Observation – observing subject in their Correlation – Uncovering relationships/patterns
natural environment, test things that would be unethical between 2(+) variables. Measures the strength of the
to manipulate. External validity – apply to real world ratio ship between to phenomena or events. Range -1 to
setting. But, there is lack of control, observer bias, and +1. Limitation is that even though is related it doesn’t
Observer effect – tend to do better when observed. mean they cause one another (spurious correlations).
a) Positive Correlation – Increases in one variable
Laboratory Observations – Same as naturalistic but in is matched by the increase in another. [/]
laboratory, a lot of control over subject. But, there is a
b) Negative Correlation – Increases in one
lack of external validity, and risk of observer effects and
variable are matched by the decrease in
bias.
another. [\]
Case Study – Recorded research in detailed c) Zero Correlation – All over the place.
considerations over a period of time. There a lot of in
depth study and can observe abnormal braining Experiments “Gold Standard” – Can say one variable
functioning. But, the generalize too much. caused the change in another.
a) Independent Variables – What is being
Survey – Sampling a population to know something manipulated
about them. Representative Sample – a small group of b) Dependent Variables – What is being
people that accurately reflects a larger population. But, measured
some limitations are biased sample/convenience c) Extraneous Variables – can cause an
sample – easy to get but may not represent. Social unwanted change in the outcome of the
Desirability Bias – tendency to underreport undesirable experiment
attitudes.

Citation – Abstract (150 to 250 word summary), Direct words – (Jones & Smith, 2002, p.44)
Introduction (Summarizes the purpose of the
Paraphrase – According to… (2002), …
experiment and past literature), Method (Provides
experimental details, patients and procedures), Results Primary source in secondary – According to … (as cited
(Statistical tests used to answer the question), in …, 2003), …
Discussion/Conclusion (Interpretation of findings,
relation to past, implications, and limitations), Example: Jones, L. K. (2003). The social life of
References (Details to locate articles discussed in chimpanzees. Journal of Animal Behavior, 7(2), 1-18.
paper).
Wilhelm Wundt “Founder” – Created first formal John B. Watson – Founded Behaviorism -scientific
psychological lab, first journal devoted to psychology psych should study only observable behavior, urging to
emphasizing the existence of consciousness. abandon the study of consciousness.

G. Stanley Hall – Established the first US psychology B.F. Skinner -Influential advocate for behaviorism,
research facility, John Hopkins Uni. Launched first thought there was no need to study mental events.
America’s first psych. Journal. Driving force to establish Emphasized how environmental factors influence and
the APA ( American Psychological Association), first control behavior. Though that organisms tend to repeat
president. responses that lead to positive outcomes, and not that
lead to neutral and negative outcomes.
Edward Titchener – Structuralism – psych task is to
analyze consciousness into its basic elements and how Jean Piaget – Study of children cognitive development.
they are related. Focused on Sensation and Perception, Cognition – mental processes involving in acquiring
used introspection as a tool. knowledge, must include the study of internal mental
events.
William James – Functionalism – psych should
investigate function or purpose of consciousness, how Humanism – emphasizes unique qualities of humans,
it drives behavior in an applied sense. Principles of like freedom and their personal growth. Thought
Psychology (1890). Focused in Learning and Personality, psychoanalyzing and behaviorism were dehumanizing,
scientific method. humans are different. Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow. Self -actualization, esteem, love/belonging,
Sigmund Freud – Attempting to treat hysteria. The
safety, and physiological.
unconscious contains thoughts, memories and desires,
well bellow the surface of conscious awareness. Behavior research (1970)
Developed the Psychoanalytical approach in therapy,
Cognitive (Now)
dealt with personality, motivation, and abnormal
behavior.
Nervous System – Neurons (~100B) and Glial Cells (~100T) between two neurons, send info to
next dendrite
Neurons – Individual cells in NS that receive, integrate,
and transmit information

a) Soma -Cell body, contains nucleus and

organelles of the cell
b) Dendrites – Receive information from other
neurons
c) Axon – Long and thin fiber that transmits signal
from soma to other neurons. Most are covered
by a fatty insulating material called Myelin
Sheath, speeds up transmission.
d) Terminal Buttons – Knobs that secrete Glial Cells – Provide support for neurons, 10 to 1.
neurotransmitters, which enters the synapse Supply nourishment, and remove waste and insulation
around axons

electrical charge travel down the axon. No in between or

+ or -.
Communication – neurons produce electrical energy to
signal terminal buttons to release neurotransmitters Chemical Signals – The action potential causes
into the synapse. Outside has Na+ and inside K+ with vesicles to travel down the axon, fusing at the
large negative proteins. Resting Potential – negative membrane of the neuron to release neurotransmitters
charge in a cell is inactive. Action Potential – Channels into the synapse via terminal buttons. Dendrites will
open neuron becomes briefly positive, neuron’s either then excite or inhibit next neuron. The transmitter
then is or brought back (reuptake), or removed by
enzymes.

• Agonists – chemicals that mimic actions of

neurotransmitters. Ex: Nicotine to
Acetylcholine, and Xanax to GABA.
• Antagonists – chemicals that oppose the
action of neurotransmitters. Ex: Narcan to
Opioid.

Dopamine (DA) – Regulates aspects of everyday

behavior, voluntary muscle movements. Degeneration
Neurotransmitters
of dopamine, Parkinson’s Disease. High levels are
Acetylcholine (ACh) – Connection between motor associated with Addictive Disorders and Schizophrenia.
neurons and muscles, comes from veggies. Attention,
Amino Acids
arousal, and memory. Lack, Alzheimer’s Disease.
GABA – Produces inhibitory effects on neurons, slows
Serotonin (5-HT) – Contributes to sleep, wakefulness,
them down. Involved with Anxiety related disorders.
eating, depression, and in animal studies aggression.
Abnormalities result, eating, obsessive, and depressive Glutamate – Produces excitatory effects on neurons,
disorders. speeds them up. Involved with learning and memory.
N.S. – Central (brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral • Autonomic – Connect to the heart, blood
vessels, smooth muscles, and glands.
Nerves – Bundle of axons (never fibers) routed together
Involuntary muscles
• Somatic – Connect to voluntary muscles and A. Sympathetic – Mobilizes the
to sensory receptors. Skeletal muscles body’s resources for
A. Afferent – Carry info towards emergencies
C.N.S. B. Parasympathetic – conserves
B. Efferent – Carry info outward bodily resources
from the C.N.S.

Brain – Hindbrain, Midbrain, Forebrain A. Occipital – visual signals are

sent , and processing begins
Hindbrain
B. Parietal – sensation of touch is
• Cerebellum -coordination of movement and processed, and some visual too
equilibrium C. Temporal – hearing, speech
comprehension and language
• Medulla – Unconscious functions, breathing,
D. Frontal – movement of
blood circulation
muscles, pre-frontal that is
• Pons – Sleep and arousal
involved in decision making,
Midbrain – Between other parts. Important for sensory planning, and working
processes, such as hearing and vision. memories

Forebrain – Largest region Brain Imaging

• Thalamus – All sensory information, not Lesioning – destroying a piece of the brain, electrode is
smell, pass through here inserted to burn the tissue and disable structure. Ex:
• Limbic – Network of structures, between H.M. Had his hippocampus removed, and Phineas
cerebral cortex and subcortical areas Gage’s left frontal lobe.
A. Hypothalamus – Fighting,
Electrical Recordings – Electroencephalograph (EEG) –
fleeing, feeding reproductive
Monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by
drives
means of recording electrodes.
B. Hippocampus – Consolidation
of memory Electrical Stimulation – Sending weak electric current
C. Amygdala – Emotions, fear, and into brain structure.
aggression
D. Olfactory Bulb – Processing Brain-Imaging
sense of smell
• CT – like an x-ray of structures of brain
E. Cingulate Gyrus – Emotions
• PET – looks at blood flow through radioactive
and behaviors
chemicals to look at functions of brain
• MRI and FMRI – use magnetic fields and radio
• Cerebrum – Cerebral Cortex, folded outer
waves to map out brain structures. MRI looks
layers of the cerebrum. Divided into two
at structure, while FMRI looks at structure and
hemispheres by a fissure Corpus Callosum.
activity
Each side responsible for the other side.
Sensation is the biological aspects tied to perception Perceptual Set – Readiness to perceive a stimulus in a
that is cognitive. Sensation is the receiving of message particular way.
and perception the interpretation of the message.
Feature Analysis – Detecting specific elements in
Sensation – Stimulus of sense organs/neurons. visual input and assembling them into more complex
Perception – selection, organization, and interpretation form
of sensory input, subjective.
• Bottom-Up Processing – Progression from
Signal-Detection Theory – Detection of stimuli involves individual elements to the whole
decision=ion processes as well as sensory processes. • Top-Down Processing – Progression from the
Noise is the essence of distraction whole to the element.

GESTALT – Phi phenomenon, Figure and Ground,

Proximity, Closure, Similarity, and Continuity

Pain perception is inherently subjectively, it can vary a

lot.

Subliminal Perception – Registration of sensory input Gate-Control Theory – Tries to explain variability by
without conscious awareness. Weak effect and lack of saying a pattern of neural activities prevents the signal
practical importance from going through a “gate” in the spinal cord.

Sensory Adaptation – Gradual decline in sensitivity to

prolonged stimulation
Visual System – Stimulus for vision is light waves. • Malleus (Hammer)
Amplitude (height) – brightness, Wavelength (the • Incus (Anvil)
distance between peaks) – color, long-red short-purple. • Stapes (Stirrup)
Purity – varied mix of lights affects saturation.
Cochlea – coiled tunnel that contains sensory neurons
Lens – focuses the light rays falling on the retina. (hair cells) for hearing. The receptors vibrate, triggering
Accommodation – Curvature of lens adjust to alter action potentials then relayed to thalamus. Hair cells
visual focus. cannot regenerate.

• Nearsightedness – Distant objects are blurry Vibrations, reach pinna, goes to ossicles that refine and
• Farsightedness – Near Objects are blurry transmit them to cochlea, the fluid in it vibrates causing
specific hair cells to sway back and forward, auditory
Pupil – Opening in the center of the iris that permits
nerve, brain
light to pass into the rear chamber of the eye.

• Dilated – Allow more light when is dark

• Constricted – Allow less light when is too Gustatory System – taste buds are the sensory
bright receptors in the tongue. They absorb chemicals
dissolved in saliva that then trigger neural impulses that
Retina – Neural back surface of the eye. Absorbs light, are routed through thalamus. Constantly being
processes images and sends visual info to brain replaced
(occipital lobe). Optics Disk – Blind spot
Tastes – Sweet, Sour, Bitter, Salty, Umami, combination
• Rods – Visual neurons, night vision and of them result in the sensation of flavor
peripheral vision. Better with dim light.
• Cones – Daylight, color vision. Better with
bright light.
Olfactory system – Stimuli for smell is chemicals in the
Fovea – Spot in the center of the retina that only air, the mucus dissolves them, which them are read by
contains cones, best for visual acuity. the olfactory cilia (sensory neuron), that connects to
olfactory bulb. 350 different olfactory receptors.
Light, refracted off lens, land on retina. The cones and
rods have action potential, relaying the info to the optic
nerve
Touch – Stimuli for touch are mechanical, thermal, and
Info is sent to ventral steam, the what pathway, and chemical energies that impinge on the skin. Pressure,
dorsal stream, where pathway temperature, and pain. Has six different sensory
receptors
Optic Chaism – Point at which the optic nerve ]s from
inside half of each eye cross over and then project the Pain
opposite half of the brain
• Fast Pathway – Localized pain, relays in the
Trichromatic Theory – Eye has three types of neurons cortex in a fraction of second
that react to color with differing sensitivities to different • Slow Pathway – Lags a second or two.
light wavelengths. Red, green, and blue. Dichromats – Associated with temperature, aching, and
only two color receptors burns

Auditory System – stimulus from sound waves, usually

generated by vibrating objects or sudden bursts of air.

Pinna – Sound-collecting cone

Middle ear – Have the purpose to amplify tiny changes

in air pressure