“One picture is worth more than

ten thousand words”-Anonymous

Digital Image
Processing -
Basics
FCV (CSE: 3172)
Images
• Images are two-dimensional functions
f ( x, y)
• x, y are the spatial coordinates
• f is the intensity/amplitude at (x, y)

(0,0) y

x f(x, y)
Digital video

• Sequence of 2D images
• f(x, y, t)
• x , y are the spatial coordinates and t is the time.

time
What is the purpose of image processing?
• Enhance the picture for be for better clarity
• Images in –Images out

• Extract information from images

• Images in –Image attributes out

• Picture storage and transmission

• Encoder: Images in –Image attributes out
• Decoder: Image attributes in –Images out

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Image processing examples
• Restoration of images from Hubble Space Telescope

• http://hubblesite.org/sci.d.tech/nuts_.and._bolts/optics/costar/index.s
html

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Image processing examples
• Image enhancement

Before After
PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal
Image processing examples
• Quality control in industrial environment

PCB Bottles

Cornflakes

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Image processing examples
• Image compression for storage and transmission
• Store 8X-10X more pictures in memory in digital cameras
• Take less time to transmit pictures from Mars to Earth

Original -532 kB JPEG -66 kB(1:8 compression)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal
Types of Images

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Radiation from EM spectrum

• EM waves = a stream of massless (photon) particles, each

traveling in a wavelike pattern and moving at the speed of light.

• Spectral bands are grouped by energy per photon

• Gamma rays, X-rays, Ultraviolet, Visible, Infrared, Microwaves, Radio
waves
Gamma-ray imaging
• Positron emission tomography

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

X-ray imaging
• X-rays discovered in 1895
• Nobel Prize for Physics awarded to W. C. Rontgen(1901)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

X-ray imaging –CT scans
• Computed tomography (CT)
• First system built in 1971
• Nobel Prize for Medicine awarded to
G. Hounsfieldand A. Cormack(1979)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

3D Reconstruction

• http://www.ai.mit.edu/people/leventon/Research/9810-MICCAI-Ped/node1.html
PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal
Imaging in visible and infrared bands
• Color images
• “multispectral” image
R

B
PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal
Imaging in visible and infrared bands
• Another way to visualize
R

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Imaging in visible and infrared bands
• Multispectral imaging

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Imaging in Microwave band
• Radar imaging
• all-weather, day-or-night capability

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Imaging in Radio band
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Magnetic resonance imaging discovered in 1973.
• Nobel Prize for Medicine awarded to P. C. Lauterburand P.
Manseld, 2003

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Other imaging modalities
• Ultrasound imaging

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Generated images by computer

• Fractals : an iterative
reproduction of a basic
pattern according to
some mathematical
rules

• 3-D computer modeling

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

The human eye

Digital Colour Retinal Image

(576×768 pixels, 24 bit RGB
with JPEG compression)
• http://webvision.med.utah.edu/sretina.html
Image Acquisition Process
Intensity function
• Image refers to a 2D light-intensity function, f(x,y)

• Amplitude of f at spatial coordinates (x,y) gives the intensity

(brightness) of the image at that point.

• Light is a form of energy thus f(x,y) must be nonzero and finite.

0 < f (x, y) < ∞

f (x, y) = i(x, y)r(x, y)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Image Sampling and Quantization

Digitizing
the
coordinate
values Digitizing
the
amplitude
values
Digital images – Sampling and quantization
Digital images
Basic Relationships Between Pixels
• Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

➢ 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

➢ 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

➢ 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)
How many levels of gray required?

Majority of image typically quantized to 256 levels

Storage requirements for images
• Image size: N × M
• Number of levels: 2k
• Number of colors (components): C

Size = N × M × k × c
• Examples:

• B&W (gray-level, monochorme) images:

• N=M=512, k = 8, c = 1 –Size = 2,097,152 bits = 256 kByte

• Color images:
• N=M=1024, k = 8, c = 3 –Size = 31,457,280 bits = 3.75 MByte
Image size and spatial resolution
Image size and spatial resolution (cont’d)
Varying the number of gray levels
Varying the number of gray levels (cont’d)
Isopreference curves

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

 • Interpolation — Process of using known data to
estimate unknown values
e.g., zooming, shrinking, rotating, and geometric
correction
Image
• Interpolation (sometimes called resampling)
Interpolation • an imaging method to increase (or decrease)
the number of pixels in a digital image.

• Some digital cameras use interpolation to

produce a larger image than the sensor captured
or to create digital zoom

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Image Interpolation
• Nearest neighborhood interpolation
• Bilinear interpolation

v(x,y)=ax+by+cxy+d

• Bicubic interpolation
3 3
f3 ( x, y) =  aij xi y j
i =0 j =0

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Nearest Neighbour
Interpolation

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

 Neighborhood
Basic Connectivity
Relationships
Between Adjacency
Pixels
Paths
Distance measures
PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal
Basic Relationships Between Pixels

• Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

➢ 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

➢ 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

➢ 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

• Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

➢4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are 4-adjacent if q is in

the set N4(p).

➢8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are 8-adjacent if q is in

the set N8(p).

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Basic Relationships Between Pixels
• Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

➢m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are m-

adjacent if

(i) q is in the set N4(p), or

(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(q) has no pixels whose
values are from V.

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Basic Relationships Between Pixels
• Path
➢ A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel q with coordinates
(xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with coordinates

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

➢ Here n is the length of the path.

➢ If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

➢ We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of adjacency used.

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

• Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels p with
coordinates (x0, y0) and q with coordinates (xn, yn) are said to be
connected in S if there exists a path

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where i, 0  i  n, ( xi , yi )  S

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Basic Relationships Between Pixels

• We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

• Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their

union forms a connected set.

• Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be

disjoint.

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

 Distance Measures
• Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t), (u, v) respectively,
the distance function D has following properties:

a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

b. D(p, q) = D(q, p)

c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Distance Measures

The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance :
De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance:

D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|

c. Chess Board Distance:

D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Arithmetic Operations

• Arithmetic operations between images are array operations.

The four arithmetic operations are denoted as

s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

d(x,y) = f(x,y) – g(x,y)
p(x,y) = f(x,y) × g(x,y)
v(x,y) = f(x,y) ÷ g(x,y)

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Noise: n(x,y)

Corrupted image: g(x,y)

g(x,y) = f(x,y) + n(x,y)

Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images, {gi(x,y)}

K
1
g ( x, y ) =
K
 g ( x, y )
i =1
i

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

An Example of Image Subtraction: Mask Mode Radiography

Mask h(x,y): an X-ray image of a region of a patient’s body

Live images f(x,y): X-ray images captured at TV rates after injection of the contrast medium

Enhanced detail g(x,y)

g(x,y) = f(x,y) - h(x,y)

The procedure gives a movie showing how the contrast medium propagates through the various
arteries in the area being observed.

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal
An Example of Image Multiplication and Division

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Image Transform

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal

Example: Image Denoising

PCS Swamy, Dept. of CSE, MIT, Manipal