ASSIGNMENT 1
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC
CELLS
(A COMPARISON OF ITS STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
DETAILS)
By- Anashwara Manoj Menon
Roll no: KH.NS.U3MLM25011
INTRODUCTION
CELL – THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
Everything living being in this world is comprised of cells. We are made of cells, from our skin to
our blood vessels and organs, in its most magnified structure- it is made of cells. The origin of
life corresponds to the origin of cells.
THE DISCOVERY OF CELLS
Cells cannot be viewed by the naked eye, they are far too small to be touched, heard or seen
directly, despite such limitations human curiosity has led to a large magnitude of research in
this area.
Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in his publication “Micrographia”(1665). He had
made this discovery when using his handmade simple microscope to examine a piece of cork,
when he noticed a porous structure which he described as a honeycomb
The name ‘Cell’ was given to these fundamental units of life because when Robert Hooke had
first seen the honeycomb structure, it reminded him of the cells inhabited by Christian monks in
a monastery.
Given here, is the image of the dead plant
tissue that led to the revolutionary discovery
of cells.
In the year 1674, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek,
a Dutchman with a fondness for constructing
simple microscopes was the first to observe a
drop of pond water under the microscope
and discover ‘animacules’.
His work however, was not recognised by the
Royal Society until Robert Hooke himself
came and confirmed the findings, after which
Leeuwenhoek was treated like a celebrity,
receiving visits from great leaders in power.
Later in the 1950s cells were classified into
two groups; prokaryotes and eukaryotes
This classification was done according to the
complexities of the cytoskeletal structure of
such cells with prokaryotes having a much
simpler cell structure whereas eukaryotes
have a much more complex and
distinguished cell structure.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
ORIGIN
Although we still do not know exactly when prokaryotic cells first appeared on earth, we do
know that fossilised remains of prokaryotic life forms have been found which dates back up to
2.7 billion years of age. Making it the first and the most ancient type of cell to be found on earth .
Prokaryotes (where, pro= before
and karyon= nucleus,) are
organisms without membrane
bound nucleus nor membrane
bound organelles present in its cell
structure.
GENERAL STRUCTURE
SIZE: Prokaryotic cells typically range from 0.1 to 5.0 µm in diameter
COMPLEXITY: Prokaryotes are simpler and lack the complex internal compartments and
organelles found in eukaryotes
NUCLEUS: Prokaryotes do not have a membrane bound nucleus
ORGANELLES: Prokaryotes do not have membrane bound organelles
DNA: Prokaryotic DNA is usually a single circular chromosome that is absent of histones
and is located in the nucleoid area of the cell.
CELL DIVISION: Binary fission(simple division)
RIBOSOMES: Prokaryotic ribosomes are composed of two subunits: 50S (large) and 30S
(small), forming a complete 70S ribosome.
EXAMPLES: Bacteria(E. coli, staphylococcus aureus), Archaea(methanogens, pyrolobus
fumarii)
STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS
CELL WALL: provides shape and protection to the cell
PLASMA MEMBRANE: Composed of lipids and proteins and regulates movement of the
substances
Cytoplasm: Composed of cytol with several enzymes and ribosomes
Nucleoids: Non membrane bound nucleus containing the genetic material of the cell
Plasmids: These are self replicating, small circular DNA fragments
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis
Flagella and pili: simple locomotive mechanism and attachment
TYPES OF PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Prokaryotes are further divided into two main taxonomic groups or domains; Archaea(archaea
bacteria) domain and Bacteria(eubacteria) domain
Domain Archaea
The best known Archaea are species that live in extremely inhospitable environments,
they are often refered to as extremophiles
Following are the types of Archaea:-
Methanogens are a type of Archaea that have the ability to convert CO2 and H2
into methane gas( CH4)
Halophiles are prokaryotes thet live in extremely salty conditions such as the
dead sea or certain deep sea brine pools thet posses the salinity equivalent to
5M MgCl2
Acidophiles are acid loving prokaryotes that thrive in extremely low pH, as low
as 0, such organisms are found in drainage fluids of abandoned mine shafts
Thermophiles are prokaryotes that can live in extremely high temperatures
Hydrothermophiles these are a sub-type of thermophiles which live in the
hydrothermal vents of the ocean floor
However Archaea bacteria are also able to survive and are found in normal habitable
conditions of temperature, salinity and pH.
Domain Bacteria
Bacterias have been found in every conceivable habitat on earth, from the glaciers of the
Antarctic to the driest African desserts, to the internal confines of plants and animals.
Bacteria have even been found living in rock layers situated several kilometers beneath the
Earth’s surface.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
ORIGIN
It is generally agreed that prokaryotes have existed long before the existence of eukaryotes.
Until 1970 it was widely believed and accepted theory that eukaryotes originated from
prokaryotes by a gradual progression of evolution.
All of this changed by the emergence of the endosymbiont theory, which stated that eukaryotes
originated from prokaryotic organisms (an anaerobic organism and a photosynthetic organism
which later formed mitochondria and chloroplast) merging together to form the eukaryotic cells
known today.
Eukaryotes (where, Eu=
after and karyon= nucleus,)
are organisms with
membrane bound nucleus
and membrane bound
organelles present in its
cell structure.
GENERAL STRUCTURE
SIZE: cells typically range from 10 µm to100 µm in diameter
COMPLEXITY: Eukaryotes have a complex cell structure with highly detailed organelles
and mechanisms.
NUCLEUS: Eukaryotes have a membrane bound nucleus
ORGANELLES: Eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles
DNA: Eukaryotic DNA is linear comprising of much organised chromosomal structures and
is associated with histones.
CELL DIVISION: mitosis and meosis
RIBOSOMES: Eukaryotes have a 80S ribosome
EXAMPLES: Plant cell, Animal cell, Fungi, Protists
STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS
Nucleus: Membrane bound nucleus
Mitochondria: It is the site for ATP(energy) production
Endoplasmic Reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a vital organelle in
eukaryotic cells, consisting of a continuous membrane system that forms flattened sacs and
tubules. It plays key roles in protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, and cellular signalling. It
consists of a rough endoplasmic reticulum system along with a smooth endoplasmic
reticulum system
Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi complex, Golgi body, or
simply the Golgi, is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Part of the endomembrane
system in the cytoplasm, it is responsible for the packaging of proteins into membrane-
bound vesicles inside the cell before the vesicles are sent to their destination.
Lysosomes: Lysosomes are specialized vesicles within cells that digest large molecules
through the use of hydrolytic enzymes.
Ribosomes(80S): Sites of protein synthesis
Chloroplasts: This is a specialised organelle that helps in photosynthesis in plants and
algae
Vacuoles: Vacuoles are sac like structure which helps in storage and osmotic regulation
Cytoskeleton: It provides structural support and intra cellular support
A COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF EUKARYOTIC AND
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
Difference Between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells -:
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
Phagocytosis no phagocytosis does phagocytosis
Genetic Material Present in nucleoid Present in nucleus
Organelles Non enveloped enveloped
Division Asexual sexual
Cell structure Simple complex
Size 0.1–5 µm 10-100 µm
DNA Circular Linear(chromosomes)
Ribosome 70S 80S
Cell wall Peptoglycan(bacteria) Cellulose(plant), chitin(fungi),
Absent in animals
Examples E.coli, cyanobacteria Human, plant, protozoa, etc.
Similarities Between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells -:
Both cell types possess a plasma membrane with a comparable structural organization.
Genetic information in both is encoded in DNA and expressed using the universal
genetic code
The processes of transcription and translation are conserved, utilizing ribosomes of
similar fundamental design.
They share common metabolic pathways, including glycolysis and the tricarboxylic acid
(TCA) cycle.
Both rely on a similar apparatus for the production of ATP—located in the plasma
membrane of prokaryotes and in the mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotes.
Photosynthesis operates through analogous mechanisms in cyanobacteria and in green
plants.
The process of synthesizing and inserting membrane proteins is broadly similar in both.
Proteasomes, responsible for protein degradation, are comparable in structure in
archaea and eukaryotes.
SIGNIFICANCE
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes share several similarities and even more differences. However,
even though they might be vastly different in terms of structure and complexities, they both
serve as the basic units of all life as we know it and are essential for sustaining life on earth.
The significance of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is not confined to their structural and
functional differences alone, but extends into broader dimensions such as evolution, ecology,
medicine and biotechnology. They form the very foundation upon which life exists, shaping
ecosystems, supporting survival, and driving human progress in fields as diverse as healthcare
and technology
Prokaryotes are fundamental to Earth’s ecosystems, performing numerous roles that sustain
life. They are very important in nutrient cycling by acting as decomposers that break down
organic matter and return nutrients to the environment. Photosynthetic bacterias contribute to
the primary production. It does so by converting carbon dioxide into organic compounds,
similar to plants. Other prokaryotes fix atmospheric nitrogen, converting it into forms that
plants can absorb, a process very important for all life.
On the other hand, eukaryotic cells are the basis for every multicellular organism, including
animals, plants, and humans, it also makes up some unicellular organisms like protozoa. They
are more complex than prokaryotic cells, with specialized organelles that handle important
processes such as energy balance, metabolism, and gene expression. Because of this complexity,
they form a major group of life forms, ranging from animals and plants to fungi and many
unicellular species, which shows their diversity and ecological importance. Overall, eukaryotic
cells are essential for the complexity of life on Earth and play vital roles in maintaining
ecosystems.
CONCLUSION
This assignment highlights the comparison between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells including
the diversity and the complexity of life forms at the microscopic level. Prokaryotes, being the
most simple and oldest type of organisms represent the earliest forms of life and its
formulation, but despite their simple structure they contribute immensely to our environment
and ecosystem. On the other hand, even though eukaryotes have much complex cell structure
with specialised organelles and complicated mechanisms, these cells provide the blueprint for
all the multicellular organisms.
Together these cells are the demonstration of the evolution of life, it also shows the adaptable
and evolving nature of such life forms. Hence, understanding the differences and comparing
them is essential to understanding biology and appreciating the world as a whole.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. https://biologydictionary.net
2. https://cork-products.co.uk/
3. https://biologyreader.com/
4. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
5. http://byjus.com
6. https://www.nature.com/
7. Lehninger- Principles of Biotechemistry(6th edition)
8. Karps Cell and Molecular (Biology 9th edition)
