Lekisha Sharma

Science
4/3/2023
Unit 4 Notes
Lesson #1

Wave Meaning
What is the definition of a wave? The wave meaning is that a wave is an oscillating (move or
swing back and forth at a regular speed), regular distortion through spacetime. Some waves,
called electromagnetic waves, can travel through a vacuum, or a space void of matter. Some
waves, called mechanical waves, require a medium to propagate. A medium is a collection of
particles that is capable of transferring energy. Examples of mediums are air and water.

Parts of a Wave

While there are many different types of waves within the categories of electromagnetic waves
and mechanical waves, all waves have the same anatomy. Waves have crests , or high points,
and toughs, or low points. The crests are the highest points of the wave while toughs are the
lowest points of the wave, and a wavelength is a measure of the distance between the crests of a
wave.

Figure 1: The parts of a wave.

How to Measure a Wave

Figure 1 illustrates the parts of a wave, and it includes a red line labeled amplitude. The
amplitude of a wave is another attribute of waves. The amplitude of a wave is a measure of the
maximum displacement of the wave, and it is measured in the SI units of meters, m. Waves can
be measured using their amplitude, or they can be measured using their frequency.
The frequency of a wave is a measure of how many cycles of the wave occur in a given time, and
it is measured in the SI units of Hertz, Hz. The frequency of a wave is given by the
equation f=1T�=1� where f� stands for frequency and T stands for the period of the wave.
The period of a wave is the time that it takes two crests of the wave to pass a single point. The
frequency of a wave can also be measured as a relationship between the velocity of the wave, v,
and its wavelength, λ�, using the equation f=vλ�=��.

Types of Waves
What are the two types of waves? Waves can be classified into two kinds of waves:
mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves. There are many types of waves which fall within
the two main categories that are used for the classification of waves. Some examples of
waves are radio waves, microwaves, sound waves, and seismic waves. Radio waves and
microwaves are classified as electromagnetic waves, while sound waves and seismic waves
represent two different types of mechanical waves. The differences between mechanical waves,
and electromagnetic waves are explored in the next sections.

Mechanical Waves

Mechanical waves are called mechanical waves because they cannot propagate without a
medium such as air, water, or earth. Mechanical waves transfer energy back and forth from the
medium they are traveling through, and there are three different types of mechanical waves:

 Transverse waves- A transverse wave moves so that every point on the wave travels
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Visually, this is interpreted as an S-shaped
curve with an up and down oscillating motion. A sine wave, pictured in Figure 2, is an
example of a transverse wave.
 Compression waves- Compression waves, or longitudinal waves, propagate through a
medium by displacing the medium in a direction that is parallel to the direction of
movement. This parallel displacement is contrary to the movement of a transverse wave
which has displacement perpendicular to the direction of motion. Compression waves
have alternating periods of compression, times when the medium the wave is traveling
through is condensed, and rarefaction, times when the medium returns to its original
form.
 Torsional waves- A torsional wave displaces the medium it travels through
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and it displaces the medium it travels
through with rotational motion in the direction of propagation. Visually, this is a
transverse wave that travels in a spiraling motion. For example, take a slinky in both
hands, and pull the slinky while slightly twisting it. The resulting wave will displace the
air vertically as the wave travels horizontally, and the wave will travel in a spiraling
motion around the slinky. This is an example of a torsional wave.
 Figure 2: A sine wave is an example of a transverse
mechanical wave.

Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic, or EM, waves, are waves that arise from vibrations between an electric field
and a magnetic field, and EM waves are classified as belonging to radiation, the visible
spectrum, radio waves, or microwaves. Because EM waves are composed of oscillating magnetic
and electric fields, these waves do not need a medium to propagate through. EM waves can
travel through air, water, and earth, but they can also travel through vacuums. In a vacuum, an
EM travels at the speed of light, 3.0∗1083.0∗108 m/s. In a medium, an EM wave travels with a
net velocity that does not exceed 3.0∗1083.0∗108 m/s, and the exact speed is dependent upon
the density of the medium and its optical properties.
Electromagnetic waves, because they can travel travel through a medium but are not dependent
upon it, are the ideal method for long-distance information transfer. In particular, light waves, the
most common type EM wave, are used for long-distance communications, and fiber optics is an
ever-popular field of applied optics that focuses on refining and redesigning information transfer
using light transmission through specially designed cables. Other examples of electromagnetic
waves include X-rays, infrared light, ultraviolet radiation, and gamma rays. The defining
characteristic that makes an EM wave a radio wave or an X-ray is its wavelength. For example,
measured in angstroms, gamma rays have a wavelength that is <0.1<0.1. The visible spectrum
has a wavelength that ranges from 4000 to 7000 angstroms, and radio waves have a wavelength
that is >109>109 angstroms.

Figure 3: The electromagnetic spectrum.

Lesson Summary
What is the definition of a wave? The wave meaning is that a wave is a regular displacement
that propagates through spacetime. There are two kinds of waves. What are the two types of
waves? The two main categories used for the classification of waves are mechanical
waves and electromagnetic waves. The defining characteristic between mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves is that mechanical waves need a medium to propagate through, while EM
waves can propagate through a vacuum.
Some examples of waves are seismic waves and light waves. Light waves are EM waves, and
seismic waves are compression waves. Compression, or longitudinal waves, are one type of
mechanical wave. Compression waves have periods of compression and periods of rarefaction.
The other two types of mechanical waves are transverse waves and torsional waves. All types
of waves have the same anatomy. Waves have crests and toughs, and these points are used to
measure the wavelength , the period, and the frequency of a wave. The amplitude of a wave is
another important wave attribute.

Lesson #2

Wave Characteristics
Waves can exist in many forms in the universe, all having varying patterns and mechanisms of travel or
propagation. However, generally speaking, a wave is a propagating and oscillating deformation of some
quanta or medium. A wave can be something as simple as a water wave which is a transverse wave
propagating through molecules of water. Additionally, a sound wave is a compression wave propagating
through the fluid molecules of the air. A wave could also be an electromagnetic wave such as light which can
be thought of as perpendicular transverse waves oscillating in electric and magnetic fields; or as the quanta or
single units of light called photons which oscillate or vibrate while following straight paths.
Regardless of the type of wave or the medium through which it travels, all waves can be described and
measured using the following characteristics: amplitude, frequency, wavelength, speed, and period. To start -
what is the frequency of a wave?

Frequency of a Wave
The frequency of a wave basically describes how frequent waves occur. That is, frequency is the number of
completed wave cycles in a given period of time or the number of waves that pass a given point in a given
amount of time such as per second. Waves that have high frequencies are waves that complete more cycles per
second, or higher numbers of waves pass a given point per second. Low-frequency waves take more time to
complete a cycle or pass a given point. Additionally, in the case of high-frequency photons of light, it is
analogous to higher oscillation energies or higher energetic vibrations demonstrated by the traveling particle.
The frequency for visible light waves is experienced as color, whereas the frequency for sound waves is
experienced as pitch.

This illustration demonstrates that waves with shorter wavelengths have

higher frequencies.

Frequency is also directly correlated with another wave characteristic - wavelength. Wavelength is a
measurement for the distance between two common points between two waves, such as the distance between
the peak of one wave and the peak of an adjacent wave. The higher the frequency of a wave, the smaller the
wavelength; lower frequency waves have longer wavelengths. Additionally, a wave's speed is determined by
multiplying the wavelength by the wave frequency (s=f⋅w�=�⋅�) Refer to the table below for frequency,
energy, and wavelength correlations:
Wavelengt
Frequency Energy
h

High Short High

Low Long Low

How to Find the Frequency of the Wave?

As previously mentioned, frequency is the number of waves or completed oscillations in a given amount of
time, such as how many waves pass a given point per second. Therefore, the formula for finding frequency is
the inverse between the number of waves and the unit of time. Frequency can be found with the following
formula:

f=1T�=1�
In the above formula, f represents the frequency, and T represents the unit of time. Frequency is measured or
described in the SI units called hertz. Hertz (Hz) express how many waves or completed cycles or oscillations
occur per second, where 1 Hz is equal to 1 wave per second. For example, a frequency of 15 Hz is equal to 15
wave cycles per second
1 Hz is, therefore, equal to 60 revolutions per minute (or 60 rpm) or 60 waves per minute.
The frequency of a wave is not to be confused with the period of a wave. However, regarding period vs.
frequency, they are mathematically correlated.

Period Vs Frequency
The period of a wave is the amount of time it takes a single wave cycle to come to completion or the amount
of time it takes a single wave to pass a given point completely. In the case of a water wave, this would be the
amount of time it takes both the crest or top and the trough or bottom of one wave to pass a given point. If an
oscillating pendulum was a wave cycle, the period would be the amount of time it takes the pendulum to swing
across and then swing back to its original position. The period of a wave is also represented in the same
frequency formula. The formula is again below, this time including period instead of T:

Frequency = 1period1������
The formula can be used in this example. If a wave cycle has a period that is equal to 2.8 seconds, its
frequency would be calculated as follows:

12.8=0.357Hz12.8=0.357��
Both period and frequency are correlated with cycles and time. But, how else can a wave be described in the
amount of energy it carries?

Amplitude of a Wave
Amplitude can be described in a couple of ways. Regarding transverse waves such as water waves, the
amplitude can be a measurement for the distance between the medium at rest, or the middle horizontal line of a
wave and its crest or trough. For example, the amplitude of a water wave would be the distance between the
crest of the water wave and the level at which the water would be flat and at rest.
 This diagram shows how to find the amplitude and wavelength of a wave.

Amplitude also measures the amount of energy that is transported or carried by a single wave cycle; the higher
the amplitude, the more energy carried by the wave. Amplitude is represented by the amplitude symbol or
capital letter A. The units of measurement that describe the amplitude of a wave depend on the type of wave.
Transverse mechanical waves such as the waves through a rope or water waves have their amplitudes
expressed as a distance such as in units of meters. Longitudinal waves or compression waves such as sound
waves use units of pressure such as pascals (Pa). Additionally, the intensity of the pressure wave compared to
normal pressures can be measured as decibels (dB), which describe the energy carried by a wave in terms of
loudness. When it comes to electromagnetic waves, the amplitude can be described in volts per meter (v/m),
but can also be described as brightness, intensity, or luminosity.

How to Measure Amplitude?

In order to measure the amplitude of a simple sine or transverse wave, simply measure the distance between a
middle line cutting horizontally through the cycles of waves, and the crest or trough of the wave. Refer to the
example diagram below where the amplitude could be something like 10 meters:

This illustration shows how to measure amplitude. This wave could have
an amplitude of 10 meters.

However, in order to measure the amount of energy being carried by waves such as light waves or sound
waves, special equipment must be used to measure the intensity of the pressure waves of sound in pascals or
decibels; or the brightness or luminosity of a source of light.
Amplitude Vs Frequency
Unlike period and wavelength, the amplitude is not correlated with frequency. Two sets of waves can have the
same frequency, but this does not mean they will have the same amplitude. For example, in the case of visible
light, frequency describes the color of the light, while amplitude describes the brightness. Two sources of light
can have the same exact color such as two stars emitting the exact same frequency of blue-colored light, but
have different energy outputs or brightness so that the larger blue star is brighter.
Additionally, in the case of sound waves, a song playing through a speaker would be demonstrating the same
frequency sound waves regardless of the volume. However, raising the volume would increase the loudness
and therefore amplitude, but the pitch or frequency remains the same. Additionally, a high pitch sound or
frequency can have the same output in decibels as a very low pitch sound or frequency.

Lesson Summary
Overall, waves are propagating and oscillating deformations of some quanta or medium. That is, waves are
dynamic disturbance that propagates or travels through a substance or medium. All waves can be described in
terms of wavelength, frequency, amplitude, period, and their crests and troughs. Frequency measures the
number of wave cycles per second, and wavelength measures the distance covered by one wave cycle. The
frequency of a wave and its wavelength are both correlated where wave speed is equal to the product of
wavelength and frequency. Additionally, the longer the wavelength, the lower the frequency.
Additionally, frequency is correlated with wave period, which is the time it takes to complete one wave
cycle. Amplitude however, is not correlated with frequency and typically a measurement for the distance
between the midline of a wave and either its crest or trough.
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 Activities

 FAQs

Wave Parameters

Setup Rope
Take a rope, stretch it out horizontally and tie it to something sturdy. Flick one end of the rope up and down
( or horizontally from left to right ) continuously in order to create a train of pulses.
Observe what happens to the rope.

Amplitude
Tie a brightly colored string or ribbon to the middle of the rope. Observe the motion.
There is a motion of the ribbon from its equilibrium position to a maximum and minimum position and there is
a motion of the wave.
Use a ruler to measure the distance between the equilibrium and the maximum or minimum in the wave. If you
measure the distance between the maximum and minimum, that will be twice the amplitude. Verify that.

Wavelength
Measure the wavelength.
If the total distance between 8 consecutive peaks of a transverse wave is 12m, what is the wavelength?

Period
Measure the time it takes between one peak arriving and the next one. This time is called the period. It is a
parameter of the wave that you can measure with a timer on your computer, cellphone or watch. Measure the
time for ten peaks to pass and divide that number by ten to get the averaged value of the period.

Frequency
The frequency is the number of successive maxima or minima passing a given point in 1 second. Measure the
frequency of the wave.
What is the period of a wave with a frequency equal to 10Hz?

Speed
Calculate the speed of your wave.
When a string is vibrated at a frequency of 10Hz, producing a transverse wave of wavelength 0.25m What is
the speed of the wave traveling along the string?
============================

Answers
If the total distance between 8 consecutive peaks of a transverse wave is 12m, what is the wavelength? 1.5 m.
What is the period of a wave of frequency equal to 10Hz ? 1/10 seconds = .1 s
When a string is vibrated at a frequency of 10Hz, producing a transverse wave of wavelength 0.25m What is
the speed of the wave traveling along the string? 2.5 m/s

Lesson #3
Light waves are present in every aspect of human life. From the use of mobile phones, the internet, radios, and
television to medical diagnosis and security, light waves have been proven to be an essential part of society
today. What are light waves? What kind of waves are light waves? What are their applications?
In this lesson, learn more about light waves, their types, parts, and various applications.

What Are Light Waves?

Light waves, like other types of waves, carry energy from a source. They are composed of discrete particles of
energy called photons. Photons are massless, but they carry momentum and energy.
Just like how there are sounds that cannot be heard because they are beyond the human hearing range, there are
also forms of light waves that cannot be seen by human eyes. However, properties such as wavelength and
frequency are common in all types of waves. Wavelength is the distance between adjacent parts of a wave
(e.g., crest to crest or trough to trough). Frequency, on the other hand, refers to the number of waves that pass
through a fixed point at a given time. The higher the frequency, the more waves pass through each point and
vice versa. Frequency is directly related to energy, where the higher the frequency of the wave, the higher its
energy.
Wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other. Longer wavelengths have lower frequencies
while shorter wavelengths have higher frequencies.

Wavelength and frequency have an inverse relationship.

What Type of Wave is Light?

Light is a transverse wave, where the movement of the particle is perpendicular to the propagation of the
wave. It is formed by alternating electric and magnetic fields produced by accelerating charged particles. These
alternating electric and magnetic fields propagate perpendicular to the direction of propagation of a wave.
Another characteristic of light is that it can propagate even in the absence of a medium. This is why sunlight
can easily reach Earth even if there is only an empty space between the planet and the sun. All forms of light
waves are electromagnetic waves; thus, they all travel at the same speed of 3.00×1083.00×108 m/s.

Electromagnetic waves are an example of a transverse wave, where the

alternating movement of electric and magnetic fields is perpendicular to
 the direction of propagation.

Types of Light Waves

The electromagnetic spectrum includes all the different forms of light waves which vary only in terms of their
frequencies and wavelengths. Note that each type has no distinct division and may overlap from time to time.
The following are the different forms of light waves (kinds of electromagnetic waves) arranged in increasing
frequency and decreasing wavelengths:

 Radio waves have wavelengths greater than 0.1 m. They have the longest wavelength in the
electromagnetic spectrum, which can range from the length of a football to the diameter of a planet.
These waves are commonly used for communications such as television and radio.
 Microwaves have shorter wavelengths than radio waves and have frequencies ranging
from 109109 Hz to 10121012 Hz. These waves are utilized in satellite communications.

 Infrared waves are found between microwaves and visible light, albeit the boundary is not distinctly
defined. The term infrared means 'below red,' which gives a hint that it is found near the lower limit of
visible light. These waves are used in thermal imaging and heating.
 Visible light is the only part of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be seen by human eyes. It is a
very narrow range with wavelengths between 400 nm to 750 nm. It has six components or colors,
namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. Red has the longest wavelength but has the
lowest frequency, while violet has the shortest wavelength and the highest frequency. It is mainly
responsible for human vision and how humans perceive light.
 Ultraviolet rays are found just above the violet part of the visible light, hence its name. Its
wavelength ranges between 400 nm to about 10 nm. It is invisible to the human eye, but some insects,
such as bumblebees can see objects using them. It is used in sterilization.
 X-rays are found between ultraviolet and gamma rays and have wavelengths that extend
from 10−810−8 to 10−1210−12 m. X-rays are more penetrating than ultraviolet rays and affect
living cells. They are widely used in security and medical imaging.

 Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength but have the highest frequency. Consequently, they are
also the most penetrating and have the highest energy among the electromagnetic radiation. They are
commonly produced by neutron stars and supernova explosions. They are also used in nuclear
medicine, security, and cancer treatments due to their high energy.
 The components of the electromagnetic spectrum are arranged based on
their wavelengths and frequencies.

Examples of Light Waves

The different forms of light waves are encountered and used everyday. Some of the examples of light waves
are so common that they are often overlooked from time to time.
Sunlight is a source of visible light. It enables humans to perceive things around them. Light bulbs, fireflies,
and stars all emit visible light. However, harmful ultraviolet radiation also comes from the sun and may result
in skin damage after long exposures. Ultraviolet rays are also used to detect counterfeit money, where special
ink invisible under normal lighting conditions is detected by exposing bills to ultraviolet light. This application
has been easily integrated into identification cards and credit cards for additional security.

Sunlight is a dominant source of visible light and ultraviolet radiation.

Remote controls use infrared waves to control televisions at home. It transmits pulses of infrared light that are
then transmitted as signals or codes and reach the television as commands. Infrared thermometers also use
infrared radiation. It uses a lens to focus infrared radiation being emitted by the object onto a detector. The
radiation is then absorbed and converted into heat, which produces a voltage output. This is used to determine
the temperature and is eventually displayed on the screen.

Remote controls work using infrared radiation.

Applications of Light Waves

Aside from the common examples discussed above, different forms of light waves have a wide range of
applications. A few of these are the following:

 Cell phones have a radio receiver and a weak radio transmitter. These receivers and transmitters allow
cell phones to tune in and transmit signals to specific microwave frequencies.

Cell phones transmit data through microwaves.

 In radio broadcasting, sound waves are first encoded into radio waves and transmitted by antennas
from radio towers. When these waves reach a receiver antenna, a current is produced from the radio
waves. These radio waves are converted into mechanical energy to produce sound, which is heard on
radios.
 Wi-Fi works using microwaves and enables mobile devices to connect wirelessly. Data of binary
zeros and ones are encoded through microwaves, transmitted through the Wi-Fi router, and is received
and processed by mobile devices.
 Microwaves are used in cooking. This type of wave enables the water molecules found in food to
vibrate and generate heat, and cook the food.
 Visible light allows humans to enjoy the color and beauty of nature and the world around. This is
made possible by cone cells found in the retina. These photoreceptors respond to different
wavelengths of light responsible for the colors that humans see. Three types of cones, namely 'short',
'medium', or 'long' wavelength cones are sensitive to blue, green, and red wavelengths, respectively.

Humans can detect the colors of fall because of visible light.

 X-rays are used in medical imaging, such as producing images of the teeth and bones for medical
diagnosis. This is possible because bones are more dense and absorb more X-rays than the skin. Thus,
bones and other denser parts of the body produce a shadow while the skin appears more transparent.
 Medical diagnosis through imaging is possible due to the ability of X-rays
to be absorbed by dense objects such as bones.

 Gamma rays are used in treating cancer as radiation therapy. High-energy particles or waves damage
cancer cells and prevent them from growing and multiplying.

Lesson Summary
Light waves carry energy from a source. It is composed of massless and discrete packets of energy
called photons. Any form of a wave has common properties, namely, frequency and wavelength. Light is
a transverse wave, characterized by alternating electric and magnetic fields propagating perpendicular to the
direction of the wave. All light waves also travel at the same speed of 3.00×1083.00×108 m/s in vacuum.
Unlike other types of waves, light waves do not need any medium to propagate.
The electromagnetic spectrum includes the different forms of light waves arranged in terms of varying
wavelength and frequency. These are radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays,
and gamma rays. Radio waves have the longest wavelength and lowest frequency, while gamma rays have the
shortest wavelength and the highest frequency. Each form has a specific application in the society. In general,
electromagnetic waves are used in cell phones, radio broadcasting, Wi-Fi, cooking, vision, medical imaging,
and cancer treatment.